1.

Enzyme Class

Hexokinase Transferase

Phosphoglucoisomerase Isomerase

Phosphofructokinase Transferase

Aldolase Lyase

Triose Phosphate Isomerase

Isomerase
Glyceraldehyde-3- Oxidoreductase
phosphate
dehydrogenase
Phosphoglycerokinase Transferase
Phosphoglyceromutase Isomerase
Enolase Lyase
Pyruvate Kinase Transferase

Glycolysis is an almost universal pathway

for extraction of the energy available from
carbohydrates, shared among prokaryotes and
eukaryotes, aerobes and anaerobes alike. In
anaerobes, glycolysis is the only significant source
of energy from carbohydrates. In aerobic
organisms, considerably more energy can be
harvested downstream from glycolysis in the citric
acid cycle. Glycolysis produces energy in the form
of ATP and NADH. The intermediate products of
glycolysis can be used for other pathways.
Glycolysis consists of 2 phases: first 5 steps
is energy investment phase, the last 5 steps
are energy payoff phase.

3.

The citric acid cycle is a central metabolic pathway that completes the oxidative degradation of fatty acids,
amino acids, and monosaccharides.

During aerobic catabolism, these biomolecules are broken down to smaller molecules that ultimately
contribute to a cell’s energetic or molecular needs.
 In early metabolic steps,
 From monosaccharides (a six-carbon sugar) in glycolytic pathway with the activity of the pyruvate
dehydrogenase yield a two-carbon fragment -an acetyl groupAcetyl group is linked to a large cofactor
known as coenzyme A (or CoA).
Next, during the citric acid cycle that acetyl-CoA is oxidized to carbon dioxide with the reduction of the
cofactors NAD+ and ubiquinone.
 Fatty acids are source of Acetyl CoA
 When a cell’s metabolic needs increase, free fatty acids enter the mitochondrion where the degradative
reactions called Beta oxidation takes place.
 In each round of Beta oxidation, a fatty acid is shortened by two carbon atoms and a release of a free
acetyl-CoA molecule
 Acetyl-CoA initiates the citric acid cycle
 Amino Acids
Typically, the amino group of an amino acid is removed in a deamination reaction. The remaining carbon
skeleton is broken down to various a product depending on which of the twenty amino acids is undergoing
catabolism. In some cases, the remaining carbon skeleton is broken down to acetyl-CoA or to pyruvate,
which is then converted to acetyl-CoA. Alternatively, a citric acid cycle intermediate such as a-
ketoglutarate may result. In all cases, the citric acid cycle plays a large role in breaking down the amino acid
skeleton to carbon dioxide.
For example, catabolism of lysine yields carbon dioxide and acetyl-CoA, while glutamate breaks down to a-
ketoglutarate, carbon dioxide, and acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA initiates the citric acid cycle.

4. Nitrogen pool  Nucleic Acid Synthesis  Glucose-6-phosphate

 5.

Oxidative phosphorylation happens in mitochondrion, is the process by which electrons from the reduced cofactors
NADH and ubiquinol are funneled in a stepwise manner to oxygen. Electrons flow much like electricity through the
concomitant formation of a proton gradient. In the end the investment of reduced cofactors results in the production
of ATP.
Reduced electron carries NADH and ubiquinol are produced during glycolysis and citric acid cycle, as well as fatty
oxidation pathway. During the cellular process of respiration oxidative phosphorylation utilizes the chemical energy
of these reduced molecules to produce ATP.

6.

 The pentose phosphate pathway is an alternative metabolic pathway for glucose oxidation in which no ATP is
generated.
 It occurs in cytosol
 Two phases: oxidative phase and non-oxidative phase

7.

- In humans the main gluconeogenic precursors lactate, glycerol, alanine and glutamine.
- Lactate produced by active skeletal muscle and erythrocytes (or red blood cells). Erythrocytes lack
mitochondria and can never oxidize glucose completely. In contracting skeletal muscle, the rate at which glycolysis
produces pyruvate exceeds the rate at which the citric acid cycle oxidizes it.
- Lactate is a dead end in metabolism. It must be converted back into pyruvate before it can be metabolized.
- The lactate that enters the liver is oxidized to pyruvate. Pyruvate in the liver is converted into glucose by the
gluconeogenic pathway. Glucose then enters the blood and is taken up by skeletal muscle.
- Gluconeogensis is the pathway to form new glucose from simpler molecules, called noncarbohydrate
precursors, happening mainly in liver (~90%) and kidneys from pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, amino acids, and TCA
cycle intermediates.
Gluconeogenesis pathway consists of 11 steps which are reverse of glycolysis and there are 3 bypass steps- which use
different enzymes and mechanisms compare with glycolysis.

8.

Glycogen:

• A carbohydrate
• Large number of glucose by α-1,4 and α-1,6-glycosidic bonds
Storage of glycogen:

• In muscle  forms as cytosolic granules with a diameter of 10 to 40 nm - the same as the size of ribosome.
• Concentration (liver cells) > concentration (muscle cells)
• Total amount of glycogen in muscle cells > in the liver.
• In the uterus, glycogen is stored during pregnancy to nourish the embryo.
• In vagina, glycogen is secreted and then converted into lactic acid to maintain the acidic environment in order
to protect vagina from outside bacterial infections.
• In kidneys, brain and white blood cells.
Glycogenesis

• Excess of glucose
• Glycogen is synthesized from glucose-6-phosphate.
• Glycogen can either enter into pentose-phosphate pathway or contribute to the process of glycolysis.
Involves 3 steps:

1. Synthesis of glucose-1-phosphate
2. Synthesis of UDP-glucose
3. Synthesis glycogen from UDP-glucose
 Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogen is synthesized
depending on the demand for glucose and ATP (energy). If both are present in relatively
high amounts, then the excess of insulin promotes the glucose conversion into glycogen
for storage in liver and muscle cells. (It means that insulin inhibits glycogenolysis by
inhibiting Glycogen phosphorylase enzyme activity.)

 In muscle cells, glycogen degradation serves to provide an immediate source of glucose-6-

phosphate for glycolysis, to provide energy for muscle contraction.
 In liver cells, the main purpose of the breakdown of glycogen is for the release of
glucose into the bloodstream for uptake by other cells. The phosphate group of glucose-6-
phosphate is removed by the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase, which is not present in
myocytes, and the free glucose exits the cell via GLUT2 facilitated diffusion channels in the
hepatocyte cell membrane.

9.

The activated fatty acid is called a fatty acyl-coenzyme A, or fatty acyl-CoA.

-In the first step of β oxidation, an acyl-CoA dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of the acyl group, resulting the
formation of a double bond between carbons two and three. The two electrons removed from the acyl group are
transferred to an FAD prosthetic group. These electrons are transferred to ubiquinone through a series of electron
transfer reactions.
-In the second step of β oxidation, a hydratase adds a molecule of water across the double bond produced in the
first step.
-In the third step of β oxidation, another dehydrogenase catalyzes the oxidation of the hydroxyacyl group. In this
case, NAD+ is the cofactor.
The fourth and final step of β oxidation is called thiolysis. In this step, a thiolase catalyzes the release of acetyl-
CoA from the ketoacyl-CoA.
Energy yield:
One round of β oxidation yields three products—one ubiquinol cofactor, one NADH cofactor, and one molecule
of acetyl-CoA.

-During oxidative phosphorylation, 1 ubiqunol -> 2 ATP; 1 NADH -> 3ATP, 1 actyl-CoA -> 12ATP => total 17
ATP, and the net ATP is 15 (2 was used for fatty acid activation)

11.
 essential amino acids

arginine*♪ histidine ♪ isoleucine ♪ leucine ♪ lysine ♪ methionine* ♪ phenylalanine* ♪

threonine ♪ tryptophan ♪valine ♪

non-essential amino acids

alanine ♪ asparagine ♪ aspartate ♪ cysteine ♪ glutamate ♪ glutamine ♪ glycine ♪proline ♪

serine ♪

tyrosine♪

The amino acids arginine, methionine and phenylalanine are considered essential for reasons not directly related
to lack of synthesis. Arginine is synthesized by mammalian cells but at a rate that is insufficient to meet the growth
needs of the body and the majority that is synthesized is cleaved to form urea. Methionine is required in large
amounts to produce cysteine if the latter amino acid is not adequately supplied in the diet. Similarly, phenylalanine
is needed in large amounts to form tyrosine if the latter is not adequately supplied in the diet.

13.

VITAMIN

Vitamins are the important food factors required in diet and are crucial to the normal growth and development of a
multicellular organism. Different vitamins are involved in different biochemical functions. They are required in
very low concentration, the daily requirement of any vitamin for any individual is extremely smell. The daily dose
of any vitamin is not a fixed quantity but varies according to size, age and rate of metabolism of the individual.
For example, vitamin C has the function of neutralizing free radicals, synthesizing immunoglobulins, and
hydroxylating proline and lysine.

METAL IONS

Metals such as iron, zinc, and copper all perform important roles in many of the enzymatic reactions that fuel the
body’s metabolism. These ions can modify electron flow in a substrate or enzyme, thus effectively controlling an
enzyme-catalyzed reaction. They can serve to bind and orient substrate with respect to functional groups in the
active site, and they can provide a site for redox activity if the metal has several valence states. Without the
appropriate metal ion, a biochemical reaction catalyzed by a particular metalloenzyme would proceed very slowly,
if at all. For instance, ions such as Fe2+ can bind to the hemoglobin and myoglobin protein to help transport oxygen
to organs in the body.

14.

The most important function of enzyme is their role as a catalyst. Without enzymes, biochemical reactions in living
processes would not occur fast enough to sustain life.

Lactase: additive for dairy products for individuals lacking lactase, breaking down lactose in whey products for
manufacturing polylactide.

Pectinase: treatment of fruit pulp to facilitate juice extraction and for purification and filtration of fruit juice

Papain: Used as meat tenderizer. Used in brewing to prevent chill-haze formation by digesting proteins that
otherwise react with tannins to form insoluble colloids.

Lipase: Enhancing flavor development and shortening the time for cheese ripening. Production of specialty
fats with improved qualities. Production of enzyme-modified cheese/butter from cheese curd or butterfat.