Vasu

Responsible QCI
Duties and Responsibilities
10 June, 2017
Main Responsibilities 1.1
• Review of requirements
• Technical review
• Sub contractor
• Welding Personnel
• Welding Consumables
• Materials
• Inspection and testing before welding
• Inspection and testing during welding
• Inspection and testing after welding
• Post weld heat treatment
• Non conformance and corrective actions
• Calibration and Validation of measuring and inspection equipment
• Identification and traceability
10 June, 2017
• Quality records
Standard for Visual Inspection 1.1
Basic Requirements
BS EN 970 - Non-destructive examination of fusion
welds - Visual examination
Welding Inspection Personnel should:
• be familiar with relevant standards, rules and specifications
applicable to the fabrication work to be undertaken
• be informed about the welding procedures to be used
• have good vision (which should be checked every 12
months)
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspection 1.2
Conditions for Visual Inspection (to ISO 17637)

Illumination:
• 350 lux minimum required
• (recommends 500 lux - normal shop or office lighting)
Vision Access:
• eye should be within 600mm of the surface
• viewing angle (line from eye to surface) to be not less than
30°
600mm
30°
10 June, 2017
Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS ISO 17637)
When access is restricted may use:

a mirrored boroscope
a fibre optic viewing system } usually by
agreement
Other aids:
welding gauges (for checking bevel angles, weld
profile, fillet sizing, undercut depth)
dedicated weld-gap gauges and linear misalignment
(high-low) gauges
straight edges and measuring tapes
magnifying lens (if magnification lens used it
should have magnification between X2 to X5)
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3
Measuring devices:
• flexible tape, steel rule
• Temperature indicating crayons
• Welding gauges
• Voltmeter
• Ammeter
• Magnifying glass
• Torch / flash light
• Gas flow-meter
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspectors Gauges 1.3
10mm 10mm 1
G.A.L. G.A.L. 3
S.T.D. L S.T.D.
16mm 5
16mm
6
Fillet Weld Gauges
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge

IN
0 1/4 1/2 3/4
TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges

Hi-Lo Gauge
10 June, 2017
Welding Inspectors Equipment 1.3
Voltmeter Ammeter
Tong Tester
10 June, 2017
Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS ISO 17637)

Extent of examination and when required should be defined in
the application standard or by agreement between the
contracting parties
For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout

the fabrication process:
Before welding
(Before assemble & After assembly)
During welding
After welding
10 June, 2017
Typical Duties of a Welding Inspector 1.5
Before Welding
Preparation:
Familiarisation with relevant ‘documents’…
• Application Standard/Code - for visual acceptance
requirements
• Drawings - item details and positions/tolerances etc
• Quality Control Procedures - for activities such as material
handling, documentation control, storage & issue of
welding consumables
• Quality Plan/Inspection & Test Plan/Inspection Checklist -
details of inspection requirements, inspection procedures
& records required
10 June, 2017
Before Welding
Welding Procedures:
• are applicable to joints to be welded & approved
• are available to welders & inspectors
Welder Qualifications:
• list of available qualified welders related to WPS’s
• certificates are valid and ‘in-date’
10 June, 2017
Before Welding
Equipment:
all inspection equipment is in good condition &
calibrated as necessary
all safety requirements are understood & necessary
equipment available
Materials:
can be identified & related to test certificates,
traceability !
are of correct dimensions
are in suitable condition (no damage/contamination)
10 June, 2017
Before Welding
Consumables:
in accordance with WPS’s
are being controlled in accordance with Procedure

Weld Preparations:
comply with WPS/drawing
free from defects & contamination
Welding Equipment:
in good order & calibrated as required by Procedure
10 June, 2017
Before Welding
Fit-up
complies with WPS
Number / size of tack welds to Code / good
workmanship
Pre-heat
if specified
minimum temperature complies with WPS
10 June, 2017
During Welding
Weather conditions
• suitable if site / field welding
Welding Process(es)
• in accordance with WPS
Welder
• is approved to weld the joint
Pre-heat (if required)
• minimum temperature as specified by WPS
• maximum interpass temperature as WPS
10 June, 2017
During Welding
Welding consumables
in accordance with WPS
in suitable condition
controlled issue and handling
Welding Parameters
current, voltage & travel speed – as WPS
Root runs
if possible, visually inspect root before single-sided
welds are filled up
10 June, 2017
During Welding
Inter-run cleaning
in accordance with an approved method (& back
gouging) to good workmanship standard
Distortion control
welding is balanced & over-welding is avoided
10 June, 2017
After Welding
Weld Identification
• identified/numbered as required
• is marked with welder’s identity
Visual Inspection
• ensure weld is suitable for all NDT
• visually inspect & ‘sentence’ to Code requirements
Dimensional Survey
• ensure dimensions comply with Code/drawing
Other NDT
• ensure all NDT is completed & reports available
10 June, 2017
After Welding
Repairs
monitor repairs to ensure compliance with Procedure,
ensure NDT after repairs is completed
PWHT
monitor for compliance with Procedure
check chart records confirm Procedure compliance
Pressure / Load Test
ensure test equipment is suitably calibrated
monitor to ensure compliance with Procedure
ensure all records are available
10 June, 2017
After Welding
Documentation
ensure any modifications are on ‘as-built’ drawings
ensure all required documents are available
Collate / file documents for manufacturing records
Sign all documentation and forward it to QC
department.
10 June, 2017
Summary of Duties
It is the duty of a Welding Inspector to ensure all the welding and
associated actions are carried out in accordance with the
specification and any applicable procedures.
A Welding Inspector must:
Observe
To observe all relevant actions related to weld quality
throughout production.
Record
To record, or log all production inspection points relevant to
quality, including a final report showing all identified
imperfections
Compare
To compare all recorded information with the acceptance
criteria and any other relevant clauses in the applied
application standard
10 June, 2017
Terms & Definitions
10 June, 2017
Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1
What is a Weld?
• A localised coalescence of metals or non-metals produced
either by heating the materials to the welding temperature,
with or without the application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone (AWS)
• A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and

or pressure (BS499)
• An Autogenous weld:
A weld made with out the use of a filler material and can
only be made by TIG or Oxy-Gas Welding
10 June, 2017
Welding Terminology & Definitions 2.1
What is a Joint?
The junction of members or the edges of members

that are to be joined or have been joined (AWS)
A configuration of members (BS499)
10 June, 2017
Joint Terminology 2.2
Edge Open & Closed Corner Lap
Tee Butt
Cruciform
10 June, 2017
Welded Butt Joints 2.2
Butt
A_________Welded butt joint
Fillet
A_________Welded butt joint
Compound
A____________Welded butt joint
10 June, 2017
Welded Tee Joints 2.2
Fillet
A_________Welded T joint
Butt
A_________Welded T joint
Compound
A____________Welded T joint
10 June, 2017
Weld Terminology 2.3
Butt weld Spot weld

Fillet weld
Edge weld Plug weld

Compound weld
10 June, 2017
Butt Preparations – Sizes 2.4
Partial Penetration Butt Weld
Actual Throat
Design Throat
Thickness
Thickness
Full Penetration Butt Weld
Design Throat Actual Throat
Thickness Thickness
10 June, 2017
Weld Zone Terminology 2.5
Face
A B
Weld
metal
Heat Weld
Affected Boundary
Zone
C D
Root
A, B, C & D = Weld Toes
10 June, 2017
Weld Zone Terminology 2.5
Weld cap width
Excess
Cap height Actual Throat Design
or Weld Thickness Throat
Reinforcement Thickness
Excess Root
Penetration
10 June, 2017
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) 2.5
Maximum solid solid-liquid Boundary

Temperature weld
grain growth zone
metal
recrystallised zone
partially transformed zone
tempered zone
unaffected base
material
10 June, 2017
Joint Preparation Terminology 2.7
Included angle Included angle
Angle of
bevel
Root
Radius
Root Face Root Face

Root Gap Root Gap
Single-V Butt Single-U Butt
10 June, 2017
Joint Preparation Terminology 2.8 & 2.9
Angle of bevel Angle of bevel
Root
Radius
Root Face Root Gap Root Face

Root Gap Land
Single Bevel Butt Single-J Butt
10 June, 2017
Single Sided Butt Preparations 2.10
Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or

when access form both sides is restricted
Single Bevel Single Vee
Single-J Single-U
10 June, 2017
Double Sided Butt Preparations 2.11
Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or

when access form both sides is unrestricted
Double -Bevel Double -Vee
Double - J Double - U
10 June, 2017
Weld Preparation
Terminology & Typical Dimensions: V-Joints
bevel angle
included angle
root face
root gap
Typical Dimensions
bevel angle 30 to 35°
root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm
root gap ~2 to ~4mm
10 June, 2017
Butt Weld - Toe Blend
6 mm •Most codes quote the weld
toes shall blend smoothly
80° •This statement is not
quantitative and therefore
open to individual
Poor Weld Toe Blend Angle interpretation
3 mm •The higher the toe blend
angle the greater the
20° amount of stress
concentration
•The toe blend angle ideally
Improved Weld Toe Blend
Angle should be between 20o-30o
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Features 2.13
Excess
Weld
Metal
Vertical
Leg
Length Design
Throat
Horizontal leg
Length
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Throat Thickness 2.13
a
b
a = Design Throat Thickness
b = Actual Throat Thickness
10 June, 2017
Deep Penetration Fillet Weld Features 2.13
a
a = Design Throat Thickness b
b = Actual Throat Thickness
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Sizes 2.14
Calculating Throat Thickness from a known Leg

Length:
Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7
Question: The Leg length is 14mm.

What is the Design Throat?
Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm Throat Thickness

10 June, 2017
Calculating Leg Length from a known Design

Throat Thickness:
Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4
Question: The Design Throat is 10mm.

What is the Leg length?
Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm Leg Length

10 June, 2017
Features to Consider 2 2.14
Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size
(a) (b)
8mm
4mm
4mm 2mm
Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet

Welds, but the effective throat thickness has been
altered, reducing considerably the strength of weld B
10 June, 2017
Importance of Fillet weld leg length Size

(a) (b) Excess
Excess
4mm 6mm
(a) (b)
4mm 6mm
Area = 4 x 4 = Area = 6 x 6 =
8mm2 18mm2
2 2
The c.s.a. of (b) is over double the area of (a) without the extra
excess weld metal being added
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Profiles 2.15
Fillet welds - Shape
Mitre Fillet Convex Fillet
A concave profile
is preferred for
joints subjected to
Concave Fillet fatigue loading
10 June, 2017
Fillet Features to Consider 2.15
EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

“a” = Nominal throat thickness “s” = Effective throat thickness
a s
Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat

input welding process MAG, FCAW & SAW etc
10 June, 2017
Welding Positions 2.17
PA 1G / 1F Flat / Downhand
PB 2F Horizontal-Vertical
PC 2G Horizontal
PD 4F Horizontal-Vertical (Overhead)
PE 4G Overhead
PF 3G / 5G Vertical-Up
PG 3G / 5G Vertical-Down
H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)
J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)
10 June, 2017
Welding Positions 2.17
ISO
10 June, 2017
Welding position designation 2.17
Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Overhead - PE
Vertical
up - PF
Vertical Horizontal - PC
down - PG
10 June, 2017
Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Flat - PA axis: horizontal axis: horizontal
axis: horizontal pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
pipe: rotated
H-L045 J-L045 Horizontal - PC

axis: inclined at 45° axis: inclined at 45° axis: vertical
pipe: fixed pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
10 June, 2017
Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD
Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

10 June, 2017
Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)
Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

axis: inclined at 45° axis: vertical axis: vertical
pipe: rotated pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
Horizontal - PB Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

axis: horizontal axis: horizontal axis: horizontal
pipe: rotated pipe: fixed pipe: fixed
10 June, 2017
Plate/Fillet Weld Positions 2.17
PA / 1G
PA / 1F
PF / 3G
PB / 2F
PC / 2G
PE / 4G PG / 3G
PD / 4F
10 June, 2017
Pipe Welding Positions 2.17
PA / 1G PF / 5G PG / 5G
Weld: Flat Weld: Vertical upwards Weld: Vertical Downwards

Pipe: rotated Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Horizontal Axis: Horizontal Axis: Horizontal
45o 45o
PC / 2G
H-LO 45 / 6G J-LO 45 / 6G
Weld: Horizontal Weld: Upwards Weld: Downwards
Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed Pipe: Fixed
Axis: Vertical Axis: Inclined Axis: Inclined
10 June, 2017
Travel Speed Measurement 2.18
Definition: the rate of weld progression

measured in case of mechanised and automatic
welding processes
in case of MMA can be determined using ROL and arc
time
10 June, 2017
Welding Imperfections
10 June, 2017
Welding Imperfections 3.1
All welds have imperfections

• Imperfections are classed as defects when they are of a
type, or size, not allowed by the Acceptance Standard
A defect is an unacceptable imperfection

• A weld imperfection may be allowed by one Acceptance
Standard but be classed as a defect by another Standard
and require removal/rectification
10 June, 2017
Standards for Welding Imperfections
BS EN ISO 6520-1(1998) Welding and allied processes –

Classification of geometric
imperfections in metallic materials -
Part 1: Fusion welding
Imperfections are classified into 6 groups, namely:
1 Cracks
2 Cavities
3 Solid inclusions
4 Lack of fusion and penetration
5 Imperfect shape and dimensions
6 Miscellaneous imperfections
10 June, 2017
Standards for Welding Imperfections
EN ISO 5817 (2003) Welding - Fusion-welded joints in steel,

nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam
welding excluded) - Quality levels for
imperfections
This main imperfections given in EN ISO 6520-1 are listed in
EN ISO 5817 with acceptance criteria at 3 levels, namely
Level B (highest)
Level C (intermediate)
Level D (general)
This Standard is ‘directly applicable to visual testing of welds’
...(weld surfaces & macro examination)
10 June, 2017
Welding imperfections 3.1
classification
Cracks
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.1
Cracks that may occur in welded materials

are caused generally by many factors and
may be classified by shape and position.
Classified by Shape Classified by Position
•Longitudinal •HAZ
•Transverse •Centerline
•Chevron •Crater
•Lamellar Tear •Fusion zone
•Parent metal
Note: Cracks are classed as Planar

Defects.
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.1
Longitudinal parent metal Transverse weld metal
Longitudinal weld metal

Lamellar tearing
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.1
Transverse crack Longitudinal crack
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.2
Main Crack Types

Solidification Cracks
Hydrogen Induced Cracks
Lamellar Tearing
Reheat cracks
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.2
Solidification Cracking
Occurs during weld solidification process
Steels with high sulphur impurities content (low
ductility at elevated temperature)
Requires high tensile stress
Occur longitudinally down centre of weld
10 June, 2017
Cracks 3.3
Hydrogen Induced Cold Cracking

Requires susceptible hard grain structure, stress, low
temperature and hydrogen
Hydrogen enters weld via welding arc mainly as
result of contaminated electrode or preparation
Hydrogen diffuses out into parent metal on cooling
Cracking developing most likely in HAZ
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing 3.5
Location: Parent metal

Steel Type: Any steel type possible
Susceptible Microstructure: Poor through thickness
ductility
• Lamellar tearing has a step like appearance due to the
solid inclusions in the parent material (e.g. sulphides
and silicates) linking up under the influence of welding
stresses
• Low ductile materials in the short transverse direction
containing high levels of impurities are very susceptible
to lamellar tearing
• It forms when the welding stresses act in the short
transverse direction of the material (through thickness
direction)
10 June, 2017
Gas Cavities 3.6
Gas pore Cluster porosity

Causes:
•Loss of gas shield
•Damp electrodes
•Contamination
Blow hole •Arc length too large
Herringbone porosity
•Damaged electrode flux
•Moisture on parent material
•Welding current too low
Gas pore <1.5mm

Root piping Blow hole.>1.6mm
10 June, 2017
Gas Cavities 3.7
Porosity
Root piping
10 June, 2017
Gas Cavities 3.8
Cluster porosity Herringbone porosity
10 June, 2017
Crater Pipe 3.9
Weld crater
Crater pipe
10 June, 2017
Crater Pipe 3.9
Crater pipe is a shrinkage defect and not a gas defect, it has

the appearance of a gas pore in the weld crater
Crater cracks Causes:

(Star cracks)
• Too fast a cooling
rate
• Deoxidization
reactions and
liquid to solid
Crater pipe volume change
• Contamination
10 June, 2017
Solid Inclusions 3.10
Slag inclusions are defined as a non-metallic inclusion

caused by some welding process
Causes:
•Slag originates from
welding flux
Slag inclusions Lack of sidewall •MAG and TIG welding

fusion with process produce silica
associated slag inclusions
•Slag is caused by
inadequate cleaning
•Other inclusions include
Parallel slag lines Lack of interun tungsten and copper
fusion + slag inclusions from the TIG
and MAG welding process
10 June, 2017
Solid Inclusions 3.11
Interpass slag inclusions Elongated slag lines
10 June, 2017
Typical Causes of Lack of Fusion:

• welding current too low
• bevel angle too steep
• root face too large (single-sided weld)
• root gap too small (single-sided weld)
• incorrect electrode angle
• linear misalignment
• welding speed too high
• welding process related – particularly dip-transfer GMAW
• flooding the joint with too much weld metal (blocking Out)
10 June, 2017
Lack of Fusion 3.13
Causes:
•Poor welder skill
• Incorrect electrode
Incomplete filled groove +
manipulation
Lack of sidewall fusion
• Arc blow
• Incorrect welding
1 current/voltage
2 • Incorrect travel speed
1. Lack of sidewall fusion • Incorrect inter-run cleaning

2. Lack of inter-run fusion
10 June, 2017
Lack of Fusion 3.13
Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
10 June, 2017
Weld Root Imperfections 3.15
Lack of Root Fusion Lack of Root Penetration
10 June, 2017
Cap Undercut 3.18
Intermittent Cap Undercut
10 June, 2017
Undercut 3.18
Root undercut Cap undercut
10 June, 2017
Surface and Profile 3.19
Incomplete filled groove Poor cap profile
Poor cap profiles and

excessive cap reinforcements
may lead to stress
concentration points at the
weld toes and will also
contribute to overall poor toe
blend Excessive cap height
10 June, 2017
Surface and Profile 3.19
Excess cap reinforcement Incomplete filled groove
10 June, 2017
Excessive root
penetration
10 June, 2017
Overlap 3.21
An imperfection at the toe or root of a weld caused by metal

flowing on to the surface of the parent metal without fusing to it
Causes:
•Contamination
•Slow travel speed
•Incorrect welding
technique
•Current too low
10 June, 2017
Overlap 3.21
Toe Overlap
Toe Overlap
10 June, 2017
Set-Up Irregularities 3.22
Linear misalignment is
measured from the lowest
plate to the highest point.
Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment

(Hi-Lo)
Angular misalignment is
measured in degrees
Angular Misalignment
10 June, 2017
Linear Misalignment
10 June, 2017
Linear Misalignment
10 June, 2017
Incomplete Groove 3.23
Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove
10 June, 2017
A shallow groove, which may occur in the root of a butt weld
Causes:
• Excessive back purge
pressure during TIG welding
Excessive root bead grinding
before the application of the
second pass
Concave Root
welding current too high for
2nd pass overhead welding
root gap too large - excessive
‘weaving’
10 June, 2017
Concave Root
10 June, 2017
Concave root Excess root penetration
10 June, 2017
A localized collapse of the weld pool due to excessive

penetration resulting in a hole in the root run
Causes:
• High Amps/volts
• Small Root face
• Large Root Gap
• Slow Travel
Burn through Speed
10 June, 2017
Burn Through
10 June, 2017
Oxidized Root (Root Coking)
Causes:
• Loss or insufficient
back purging gas (TIG)
• Most commonly occurs

when welding stainless
steels
• Purging gases include

argon, helium and
occasionally nitrogen
10 June, 2017
Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.26
Causes:
• Accidental striking of the
arc onto the parent
material
• Faulty electrode holder
• Poor cable insulation
• Poor return lead
clamping
Arc strike
10 June, 2017
Miscellaneous Imperfections 3.27
Causes:
• Excessive current
• Damp electrodes
• Contamination
• Incorrect wire feed
speed when welding
with the MAG welding
process
Spatter • Arc blow
10 June, 2017
Mechanical Damage 3.28
Mechanical damage can be defined as any surface

material
damage cause during the manufacturing process.
• Grinding
• Hammering
• Chiselling
• Chipping
• Breaking off welded attachments
(torn surfaces)
• Using needle guns to compress
weld capping runs
10 June, 2017
Mechanical Damage 3.28
Chipping Marks
Mechanical Damage/Grinding Mark
10 June, 2017
Hardness Testing 4.10
Definition
Measurement of resistance of a material against
penetration of an indenter under a constant load
There is a direct correlation between UTS and
hardness
Hardness tests:
Brinell
Vickers
Rockwell
10 June, 2017
Hardness Testing 4.10
Objectives:
• measuring hardness in different areas of a welded joint
• assessing resistance toward brittle fracture, cold cracking
and corrosion sensitivity within a H2S (Hydrogen Sulphide)
environment.
Information to be supplied on the test report:

• material type
• location of indentation
• type of hardness test and load applied on the indenter
• hardness value
10 June, 2017
Vickers Hardness Test 4.11
Vickers hardness tests:

indentation body is a square based diamond pyramid
(136º included angle)
the average diagonal (d) of the impression is
converted to a hardness number from a table
it is measured in HV5, HV10 or HV025
Adjustable
Diamond Indentation shutters
indentor
10 June, 2017
Welding Coordinator
WPS – Welder Qualifications
Section 5
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedure Qualification 5.3
(according to EN ISO 15614)
The welding engineer writes qualified Welding Procedure

Specifications (WPS) for production welding
Production welding conditions must remain within the range of

qualification allowed by the WPQR
10 June, 2017
(according to EN Standards)
welding conditions are called welding variables
welding variables are classified by the EN ISO Standard as:
•Essential variables
•Non-essential variables
•Additional variables
Note: additional variables = ASME supplementary essential
The range of qualification for production welding is based on
the limits that the EN ISO Standard specifies for essential
variables*
(* and when applicable - the additional variables)
10 June, 2017
WELDING ESSENTIAL VARIABLES

Question:
Why are some welding variables classified as essential ?
Answer:
A variable, that if changed beyond certain limits (specified by
the Welding Standard) may have a significant effect on the
properties* of the joint
* particularly joint strength and ductility
10 June, 2017
SOME TYPICAL ESSENTIAL VARIABLES
• Welding Process
• Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT)
• Material Type
• Electrode Type, Filler Wire Type (Classification)
• Material Thickness
• Polarity (AC, DC+ve / DC-ve)
• Pre-Heat Temperature
• Heat Input
• Welding Position
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedures 5.3
Components of a welding procedure

Parent material
Type (Grouping)
Thickness
Diameter (Pipes)
Surface condition)
Welding process
Type of process (MMA, MAG, TIG, SAW etc)
Equipment parameters
Amps, Volts, Travel speed
Welding Consumables
Type of consumable/diameter of consumable
Brand/classification
Heat treatments/ storage
10 June, 2017
Components of a welding procedure

Joint design
Edge preparation
Root gap, root face
Jigging and tacking
Type of baking
Welding Position
Location, shop or site
Welding position e.g. 1G, 2G, 3G etc
Any weather precaution
Thermal heat treatments
Preheat, temps
Post weld heat treatments e.g. stress relieving
10 June, 2017
Object of a welding procedure test

To give maximum confidence that the welds mechanical
and metallurgical properties meet the requirements of the
applicable code/specification.
Each welding procedure will show a range to which the
procedure is approved (extent of approval)
If a customer queries the approval evidence can be
supplied to prove its validity
10 June, 2017
Welding Procedures
Summary of designations:
pWPS: Preliminary Welding Procedure Specification
(Before procedure approval)
WPAR (WPQR): Welding Procedure Approval Record

(Welding procedure Qualification record)
WPS: Welding Procedure Specification

(After procedure approval)
10 June, 2017
Welder Qualification 5.4
Numerous codes and standards deal with welder qualification,

e.g. BS EN ISO 9606 PT-1 2013
• Once the content of the procedure is approved the next
stage is to approve the welders to the approved procedure.
• A welders test know as a Welders Qualification Test (WQT).
Object of a welding qualification test:
• To give maximum confidence that the welder meets the
quality requirements of the approved procedure (WPS).
• The test weld should be carried out on the same material and
same conditions as for the production welds.
10 June, 2017
Welder Qualification 5.4 & 5.5
Question:
What is the main reason for qualifying a welder ?
Answer:
To show that he has the skill to be able to make production
welds that are free from defects
Note: when welding in accordance with a Qualified WPS
10 June, 2017
Welder Qualification
(according to EN 9606 )
5.5
The welder is allowed to make production welds within the

range of qualification shown on the Certificate
The range of qualification allowed for production welding is
based on the limits that the EN Standard specifies for the
welder qualification essential variables
A Certificate may be withdrawn by the Employer if there is

reason to doubt the ability of the welder, for example
• a high repair rate
• not working in accordance with a qualified WPS
The qualification shall remain valid for 2 years provided there is certified
confirmation of welding to the WPS in that time.
A Welder’s Qualification Certificate automatically expires if the welder has not
used the welding process for 6 months or longer.
10 June, 2017
Welding Engineer writes a preliminary Welding Procedure
Specification (pWPS) for each test weld to be made
• A welder makes a test weld in accordance with the pWPS
• A welding inspector records all the welding conditions used

for the test weld (referred to as the ‘as-run’ conditions)
An Independent Examiner/ Examining Body/ Third Party

inspector may be requested to monitor the qualification
process
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT in accordance with

the methods specified by the EN ISO Standard - Visual, MT or
PT & RT or UT
10 June, 2017
Test weld is subjected to destructive testing (tensile, bend,

macro)
The Application Standard, or Client, may require additional
tests such as impact tests, hardness tests (and for some
materials - corrosion tests)
A Welding Procedure Qualification Record (WPQR) is prepared

giving details of: -
• The welding conditions used for the test weld
• Results of the NDT
• Results of the destructive tests
• The welding conditions that the test weld allows for
production welding
The Third Party may be requested to sign the WPQR as a true
record
10 June, 2017
An approved WPS should be available covering the range of

qualification required for the welder approval.
• The welder qualifies in accordance with an approved WPS
• A welding inspector monitors the welding to make sure that the

welder uses the conditions specified by the WPS
EN Welding Standard states that an Independent Examiner,

Examining Body or Third Party Inspector may be required to
monitor the qualification process
10 June, 2017
The finished test weld is subjected to NDT by the methods

specified by the EN Standard - Visual, MT or PT & RT or UT
The test weld may need to be destructively tested - for certain
materials and/or welding processes specified by the EN
Standard or the Client Specification
• A Welder’s Qualification Certificate is prepared showing the

conditions used for the test weld and the range of qualification
allowed by the EN Standard for production welding
• The Qualification Certificate is usually endorsed by a Third
Party Inspector as a true record of the test
10 June, 2017
Material Inspection
One of the most important items to consider is Traceability.
The materials are of little use if we can not, by use of an
effective QA system trace them from specification and
purchase order to final documentation package handed over to
the Client.
All materials arriving on site should be inspected for:
Size / dimensions
Condition
Type / specification
In addition other elements may need to be considered
depending on the materials form or shape
10 June, 2017
Pipe Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Damage, Wall thickness Ovality, Laminations & Seam)
Specification LP5
Size
Welded
seam
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion tolerance,

number of plates and storage.
10 June, 2017
Plate Inspection
We inspect the condition
(Corrosion, Mechanical damage, Laps, Bands &
Laminations)
Specification
5L
Size
Other checks may need to be made such as: distortion

tolerance, number of plates and storage.
10 June, 2017
Parent Material Imperfections
Mechanical damage Lap
Lamination
Segregation line
Laminations are caused in the parent plate by the steel making
process, originating from ingot casting defects.
Segregation bands occur in the centre of the plate and are low
melting point impurities such as sulphur and phosphorous.
Laps are caused during rolling when overlapping metal does not
fuse to the base material.
10 June, 2017
Lapping
10 June, 2017
Lamination
10 June, 2017
Laminations
Plate Lamination
10 June, 2017
Weld symbols on drawings
Joints in drawings may be indicated:
•by detailed sketches, showing every dimension
•by symbolic representation
10 June, 2017
Elementary Welding Symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the elementary symbols:

Various categories of joints are characterised by an elementary
symbol.
The vertical line in the symbols for a fillet weld, single/double bevel
butts and a J-butt welds must always be on the left side.
Weld type Sketch Symbol

Square edge
butt weld
Single-v
butt weld
10 June, 2017
Single-V butt
weld with broad
root face
Single
bevel butt
weld
Single bevel
butt weld with
broad root
face
Backing run
10 June, 2017

Single-U
butt weld
Single-J
butt weld
Surfacing
Fillet weld
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Plug weld Square Butt weld
Resistance spot weld Steep flanked

Single-V Butt
Resistance seam weld Surfacing

10 June, 2017
Arrow Line
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4):
Convention of the arrow line:
• Shall touch the joint intersection
• Shall not be parallel to the drawing
• Shall point towards a single plate preparation (when only
one plate has preparation)
10 June, 2017
Reference Line
(AWS A2.4)
Convention of the reference line:
Shall touch the arrow line
Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
10 June, 2017
Reference Line
(BS EN ISO 22553)
Convention of the reference line:
• Shall touch the arrow line
• Shall be parallel to the bottom of the drawing
• There shall be a further broken identification line above or
beneath the reference line (Not necessary where the weld
is symmetrical!)
or
10 June, 2017
Double side weld symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of the double side weld symbols:
Representation of welds done from both sides of the joint
intersection, touched by the arrow head
Fillet weld Double bevel Double J
Double V Double U
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Reference lines
Arrow line
Other side Arrow side
Arrow side Other side
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
MR
M
Single-V Butt with Single-U Butt with

permanent backing strip removable backing strip
Single-V Butt flush cap Single-U Butt with sealing run

10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Single-bevel butt Double-bevel butt
Single-bevel butt Single-J butt

10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
s10
10
15
Partial penetration single-V butt

‘S’ indicates the depth of penetration
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)
a4
a
z s 4mm Design throat
z6
s6
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Arrow side
Arrow side
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
s6
6mm fillet weld
Other side
s6
Other side
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
n = number of weld elements
l = length of each weld element
(e) = distance between each weld element
n x l (e)
Welds to be
staggered
2 x 40 (50)
111
3 x 40 (50)
Process
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
z5 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
5
80 80 80
5
6 90 90 90
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
All dimensions in mm
z8 3 x 80 (90)
z6 3 x 80 (90)
6
80 80 80
6
8 90 90
90
10 June, 2017
Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld
profile, NDT and any special instructions
Toes to be ground smoothly
(BS EN only)
Site Weld
Concave or Convex
Weld all round
10 June, 2017
Supplementary symbols
(BS EN ISO 22553 & AWS A2.4)
Convention of supplementary symbols
Supplementary information such as welding process, weld profile,
NDT and any special instructions
Ground flush
111
MR M
Removable Permanent Welding process

backing strip backing strip numerical BS EN
Further supplementary information, such as WPS number, or

NDT may be placed in the fish tail
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
a b
c d
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Mitre Convex
Toes
Concave
shall be
blended
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
a = Design throat thickness
s = Depth of Penetration, Throat
thickness
z = Leg length(min material thickness)
a = (0.7 x z)
a4
a
z s 4mm Design throat
z6
s6
6mm leg 6mm Actual throat
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Complimentary Symbols
Field weld (site weld) Welding to be carried out

all round component
(peripheral weld)
NDT WPS
The component requires Additional information,

NDT inspection the reference document
is included in the box
10 June, 2017
ISO 2553 / BS EN 22553
Numerical Values for Welding Processes:
111: MMA welding with covered electrode
121: Sub-arc welding with wire electrode
131: MIG welding with inert gas shield
135: MAG welding with non-inert gas shield
136: Flux core arc welding
141: TIG welding
311: Oxy-acetylene welding
72: Electro-slag welding
15: Plasma arc welding
10 June, 2017
AWS A2.4 Welding Symbols
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
Depth of Root Opening

Bevel
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
Effective Groove Angle

Throat
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
Welding Process
GSFCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
GMAW
GTAW
SAW
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
Welds to be
staggered
3 – 10
SMAW
3 – 10
Process
3 3
10
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
3rd Operation
Sequence of
Operations 2nd Operation
1st Operation
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
RT
Sequence of
Operations MT
MT
FCAW
1(1-1/8)
1/8
60o
10 June, 2017
AWS Welding Symbols
Dimensions- Leg Length
6 leg on member A
6/8
Member A 6
Member B
10 June, 2017
AWS A 2.4 rules
Welds “on arrow side” of joint go underneath the
reference line while welds “the other side” of the joint, go
on top of the reference line
Symbols with a vertical line component must be drawn
with the vertical line to the left side of the symbol
All CSA dimensions are shown to the left of the symbol
All linear dimensions are shown on the right of the
symbol i.e. number of welds, length of welds, length of
any spaces
Included angle and root opening are shown on top of the
symbol
10 June, 2017
AWS A 2.4 rules-example
10 3 x 50 (70)
70
50
10
10 June, 2017
Fillet welds
Fillet weld dimensions according AWS A 2.4
8
8
5 leg on
5x8
vertical
member
5
8
10 June, 2017
Intermittent fillet welds
Chain intermittent fillet weld
pitch (e) length (l)
z
z l-e
z l-e
Symbol to AWS A2.4
10 June, 2017
Intermittent fillet welds
Staggered intermittent fillet weld
e/2
pitch (e) length (l)
z l-e
z l-e
Symbol to AWS A2.4
10 June, 2017
Welding Process Comparison
Process Electrical characteristic Electrode current type
MMA Drooping / constant current DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
TIG Drooping / constant current DC-ve, AC
MIG/MAG Flat / constant voltage DC+ve,
MAG FCAW Flat / constant voltage DC+ve, DC-ve,
Drooping / constant current >1000amp

Sub-arc DC+ve, DC-ve, AC
Flat / constant voltage <1000amp
Electro-slag Flat / constant voltage DC+ve,
10 June, 2017
Monitoring Heat Input
Heat Input:
The amount of heat generated in the
welding arc per unit length of weld.
Expressed in kilo Joules per millimetre
length of weld (kJ/mm).
Heat Input (kJ/mm)= Volts x Amps

Travel speed(mm/s) x 1000
10 June, 2017
Weld and weld pool temperatures
10 June, 2017
10 June, 2017
Monitoring Heat Input As Required by
BS EN ISO 15614-1:2004+A2:2012
In accordance with EN 1011-1:1998
When impact requirements and/or hardness requirements are
specified, impact test shall be taken from the weld in the highest
heat input position and hardness tests shall be taken from the
weld in the lowest heat input position in order to qualify for all
positions
10 June, 2017
MMA welding parameters
Travel speed
Travel
Too low speed Too high
•wide weld bead contour •lack of root fusion

•lack of penetration •incomplete root
•burn-through penetration
•undercut
•poor bead profile,
difficult slag removal
10 June, 2017
Welding current
– approx. 35 A/mm of diameter
– governed by thickness, type of joint and welding
position
Welding
Too low current Too high
•poor starting •spatter

•slag inclusions •excess
•weld bead contour too penetration
high •undercut
•lack of •burn-through
fusion/penetration
10 June, 2017
Arc length = arc voltage
Arc
Too low voltage Too high
•arc can be extinguished •spatter

•“stubbing” •porosity
•excess
penetration
•undercut
•burn-through
Polarity: DCEP generally gives deeper penetration
10 June, 2017
MMA - Troubleshooting
MMA quality (left to right)

current, arc length and travel speed normal;
current too low;
current too high;
arc length too short;
arc length too long;
travel speed too slow;
10 June, 2017 travel speed too high
MMA welding typical defects
Most welding defects in MMA are caused by a lack of welder
skill (not an easily controlled process), the incorrect settings
of the equipment, or the incorrect use, and treatment of
electrodes
Typical Welding Defects:
•Slag inclusions
•Arc strikes
•Porosity
•Undercut
•Shape defects (overlap, excessive root penetration, etc.)
10 June, 2017
Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
• Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
• 2% thoriated for lower current values
• Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types: (Not Radioactive)

• Cerium: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium
10 June, 2017
TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension
Stickout 2-3 times

electrode
Electrode diameter
extension
Low electron Overheating

Too Electrode Too
emission Tungsten
small extension large
Unstable arc inclusions
10 June, 2017
Tungsten Electrodes
Old types: (Slightly Radioactive)
• Thoriated: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• 1% thoriated + tungsten for higher current values
• 2% thoriated for lower current values
• Zirconiated: AC - aluminum alloys and magnesium
New types: (Not Radioactive)

• Cerium: DC electrode -ve - steels and most metals
• Lanthanum: AC - Aluminum alloys and magnesium
10 June, 2017
Tungsten electrode types
Pure tungsten electrodes:
colour code - green
no alloy additions
low current carrying capacity
maintains a clean balled end
can be used for AC welding of Al and Mg alloys
poor arc initiation and arc stability with AC compared
with other electrode types
used on less critical applications
low cost
10 June, 2017
Thoriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - yellow/red/violet
20% higher current carrying capacity compared to
pure tungsten electrodes
longer life - greater resistance to contamination
thermionic - easy arc initiation, more stable arc
maintain a sharpened tip
recommended for DCEN, seldom used on AC
(difficult to maintain a balled tip)
This slightly radioactive
10 June, 2017
Ceriated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - grey (orange acc. AWS A-5.12)
operate successfully with AC or DC
Ce not radioactive - replacement for thoriated types
Lanthaniated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - black/gold/blue
operating characteristics similar with ceriated
electrode
10 June, 2017
Zirconiated tungsten electrodes:
colour code - brown/white
operating characteristics fall between those of pure
and thoriated electrodes
retains a balled end during welding - good for AC
welding
high resistance to contamination
preferred for radiographic quality welds
10 June, 2017
Electrode tip for DCEN
Penetration
increase
electrode diameter
Increase
2-2,5 times
Vertex
angle
Decrease
Bead width
increase
Electrode tip prepared for low Electrode tip prepared for high
current welding current welding
10 June, 2017
Electrode tip for AC
DC -ve AC
Electrode tip ground and

Electrode tip ground
then conditioned
10 June, 2017
TIG Welding Variables
Tungsten electrodes
The electrode diameter, type and vertex angle are all critical
factors considered as essential variables. The vertex angle is
as shown
DC -ve AC
Vetex angle
Note: when welding
Note: too fine an angle will aluminium with AC
promote melting of the current, the tungsten end
electrodes tip is chamfered and forms a
ball end when welding
10 June, 2017
Choosing the proper electrode
Factors to be considered:
Electrode tip Excessive

Too Welding Too
not properly melting or
low current high
heated volatilisation
Unstable Tungsten
arc Penetration inclusions
10 June, 2017
Special shielding methods
Pipe root run shielding – Back Purging to prevent
excessive oxidation during welding, normally argon.
10 June, 2017
TIG torch set-up
Electrode extension
Stickout 2-3 times

electrode
Electrode diameter
extension
Low electron Overheating

Too Electrode Too
emission Tungsten
small extension large
Unstable arc inclusions
10 June, 2017
Tungsten Inclusion
May be caused by Thermal Shock of

heating to fast and small fragments
break off and enter the weld pool, so a
“slope up” device is normally fitted to
prevent this could be caused by touch
down also.
Most TIG sets these days have slope-
up devices that brings the current to
the set level over a short period of
time so the tungsten is heated more
slowly and gently
A Tungsten Inclusion always shows up as

bright white on a radiograph
10 June, 2017
TIG typical defects
Most welding defects with TIG are caused by a lack of welder
skill, or incorrect setting of the equipment. i.e. current, torch
manipulation, welding speed, gas flow rate, etc.
• Tungsten inclusions (low skill or wrong vertex angle)
• Surface porosity (loss of gas shield mainly on site)
• Crater pipes (bad weld finish technique i.e. slope out)
• Oxidation of S/S weld bead, or root by poor gas cover
• Root concavity (excess purge pressure in pipe)
• Lack of penetration/fusion (widely on root runs)
10 June, 2017
MAG Welding Variable Parameters
Shielding Gases:
The gasses used in MIG/MAG welding can be either 100% CO2
or Argon + CO2 mixes.
• 100% CO2: Can not sustain true spray transfer, but gives
very good penetration. The arc is unstable which produces
a lot of spatter and a coarse weld profile.
• Argon + CO2 mixes: Argon can sustain spray transfer above
24 volts, and gives a very stable arc with a reduction in
spatter. Argon being a cooler gas produces less penetration
than CO2. Argon in normally mixed with CO2 at a mixture of
between 5-25%
10 June, 2017
MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes
Contact tip Electrode

Contact tip recessed extension
extension Electrode
(3-5 mm) 19-25 mm
(0-3,2 mm) extension
6-13 mm
Set-up for dip transfer Set-up for spray transfer
10 June, 2017
Gas Metal Arc Welding
MODES OF METAL TRANSFER
The current and voltage settings determine the way molten
droplets of weld metal transfer from the tip of the wire to the
weld pool
There are 3 principle modes of droplet transfer, namely
•dip transfer (short-circuiting)
•spray transfer
•pulsed transfer
10 June, 2017
MIG/MAG - metal transfer modes
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm
Voltage
WFS = 8,3 m/min
Current = 295 A
Voltage = 28V
Globular Spray
transfer transfer
Electrode diameter = 1,2 mm

WFS = 3,2 m/min
Current = 145 A
Dip transfer Voltage = 18-20V
Current
10 June, 2017
Current/voltage conditions
Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW)
Flux core Insulated extension nozzle
Current carrying guild tube

Wire joint
Flux cored hollow wire
Flux powder
Arc shield composed of
vaporized and slag forming
compounds
Flux core
wires
Molten
weld Metal droplets covered
Solidified weld pool
with thin slag coating
metal and slag
10 June, 2017
Submerged Arc Welding
Filler wire spool
Flux hopper
Power
supply
- +
Slide rail
Wire electrode
Flux
10 June, 2017
BS EN 499 MMA Covered Electrodes
E 50 3 2Ni B 7 2 H10
Covered Electrode
Yield Strength N/mm2
Toughness
Chemical composition
Flux Covering
Weld Metal Recovery
and Current Type
Welding Position
Hydrogen Content
10 June, 2017
Welding Consumable Standards
MIG/MAG (GMAW) TIG
MMA (SMAW) (GTAW)
• BS EN 499: Steel electrodes BS 2901: Filler wires
• AWS A5.1 Non-alloyed steel BS EN 440: Wire electrodes
electrodes AWS A5.9: Filler wires
• AWS A5.4 Chromium BS EN 439: Shielding gases
electrodes
SAW
• AWS A5.5 Alloyed steel
BS 4165: Wire and fluxes
electrodes
BS EN 756: Wire electrodes
BS EN 760: Fluxes
AWS A5.17: Wires and fluxes
10 June, 2017
Welding Consumable Gases
welding gases
• GMAW, FCAW, TIG, Oxy- Fuel
• Supplied in cylinders or storage
tanks for large quantities
• Colour coded cylinders to minimise
wrong use
• Subject to regulations concerned
handling, quantities and positioning
of storage areas
• Moisture content is limited to avoid
cold cracking
• Dew point (the temperature at which
the vapour begins to condense)
must be checked
10 June, 2017
Welding Consumables
Each consumable is critical in respect to:
• Size, (diameter and length)
• Classification / Supplier
• Condition
• Treatments e.g. baking / drying
• Handling and storage is critical for consumable

control
• Handling and storage of gases is critical for safety
10 June, 2017
Quality Assurance
Welding Consumables:
• filler material must be stored in an area with controlled
temperature and humidity
• poor handling and incorrect stacking may damage coatings,
rendering the electrodes unusable
• there should be an issue and return policy for welding
consumables (system procedure)
• control systems for electrode treatment must be checked and
calibrated; those operations must be recorded
• filler material suppliers must be approved before purchasing
any material
10 June, 2017
MMA Welding Consumables
Function of the Electrode Covering:
• To facilitate arc ignition and give arc stability
• To generate gas for shielding the arc & molten metal from air
contamination
• To de-oxidise the weld metal and flux impurities into the slag
• To form a protective slag blanket over the solidifying and
cooling weld metal
• To provide alloying elements to give the required weld metal
properties
• To aid positional welding (slag design to have suitable
freezing temperature to support the molten weld metal)
• To control hydrogen contents in the weld (basic type)
10 June, 2017
Covered electrode inspection
1: Electrode size (diameter and length)
2: Covering condition: adherence, cracks, chips and concentricity
3: Electrode designation
EN 499-E 51 3 B
Arc ignition enhancing materials (optional!)
See BS EN ISO 544 for further information

10 June, 2017
AWS A5.1 Alloyed Electrodes
E 60 1 3
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
10 June, 2017
AWS A5.5 Alloyed Electrodes
E 70 1 8 M G
Covered Electrode
Tensile Strength (p.s.i)
Welding Position
Flux Covering
Moisture Control
Alloy Content
10 June, 2017
MMA Welding Consumables
TYPES OF ELECTRODES
(for C, C-Mn Steels)
BS EN 499 AWS A5.1
• Cellulosic E XX X C EXX10
EXX11
• Rutile E XX X R EXX12
EXX13
• Rutile Heavy Coated E XX X RR EXX24
• Basic E XX X B EXX15
EXX16
EXX18
10 June, 2017
Flux Core Wire Consumables
Functions of metallic sheath: Function of the filling powder:

provide form stability stabilise the arc
to the wire add alloy elements
serves as current produce gaseous
transfer during shield
welding produce slag
add iron powder
10 June, 2017
Types of cored wire
Seamless Butt joint Overlapping

cored wire cored wire cored wire
not sensitive to moisture good resistance to sensitive to

pick-up moisture pick-up moisture pick-
can be copper coated, can be copper up
better current transfer coated cannot be
thick sheath, good form thick sheath copper coated
stability, 2 roll drive
feeding possible difficult to seal the thin sheath
sheath easy to
difficult to manufacture
manufacture
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Fused Flux
• Flaky appearance
• Lower weld quality
• Low moisture intake
• Low dust tendency
• Good re-cycling
• Very smooth weld
profile
Fused Flux:
Baked at high temperature, glossy, hard and black in colour,
cannot add ferro-manganese, non moisture absorbent and
tends to be of the acidic type
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
FUSED (ACID TYPE)
• name indicates method of manufacture
• minerals are fused (melted) and granules produced by
allowing to cool to a solid mass and then crushing or by
spraying the molten flux into water
• flux tends to be ‘glass-like’ (high in Silica)
• granules are hard and may appear shiny
• granules do not absorb moisture
• granules do not tend break down into powder when being
re-circulated
• are effectively a low hydrogen flux
• welds do not tend to give good toughness at low
temperatures
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Fused fluxes advantages:
•good chemical homogeneity
•easy removal of fines without affecting flux
composition
•normally not hygroscopic easy storage and
handling
•readily recycled without significant change in
particle size or composition
Fused fluxes disadvantages:
•difficult to add deoxidizers and ferro-alloys (due to
segregation or extremely high loss)
•high temperatures needed to melt ingredients limit
the range of flux compositions
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated Flux
• Granulated appearance
• High weld quality
• Addition of alloys
• Lower consumption
• Easy slag removal
• Smooth weld profile
Agglomerated Flux:
Baked at a lower temperature, dull, irregularly shaped, friable,
(easily crushed) can easily add alloying elements, moisture
absorbent and tend to be of the basic type
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Agglomerated fluxes advantages:
• easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements
• usable with thicker layer of flux when welding
• colour identification
Agglomerated fluxes disadvantages:

• tendency to absorb moisture
• possible gas evolution from the molten slag leading to
porosity
• possible change in flux composition due to segregation or
removal of fine mesh particles
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
TYPES OF FLUX
AGGLOMERATED (BASIC TYPE)
• name indicates method of manufacture
• basic minerals are used in powder form and are mixed with a
binder to form individual granules
• granules are soft and easily crushed to powder
• granules will absorb moisture and it is necessary to protect
the flux from moisture pick-up - usually by holding in a
heated silo
• granules tend to break down into powder when being re-
circulated
• are a low hydrogen flux - if correctly controlled
• welds give good toughness at low temperatures
10 June, 2017
SAW Consumables
Mixed fluxes - two or more fused or bonded fluxes are
mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired
results
Mixed fluxes advantages:
•several commercial fluxes may be mixed for highly
critical or proprietary welding operations
Mixed fluxes disadvantages:
•segregation of the combined fluxes during
shipment, storage and handling
•segregation occurring in the feeding and recovery
systems during welding
•inconsistency in the combined flux from mix to mix
10 June, 2017
Non-Destructive Testing
A welding inspector should have a working knowledge of
NDT methods and their applications, advantages and
disadvantages.
Four basic NDT methods

• Radiographic inspection (RT)
• Ultrasonic inspection (UT)
• Magnetic particle inspection (MT)
• Dye penetrant inspection (PT)
10 June, 2017
Non-Destructive Testing
Surface Crack Detection
• Liquid Penetrant (PT or Dye-Penetrant)
• Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT or MPI)
Volumetric & Planar Inspection

• Ultrasonics (UT)
• Radiography (RT)
Each technique has advantages & disadvantages with respect
to:
• Technical Capability and Cost
Note: The choice of NDT techniques is based on consideration
of these advantages and disadvantages
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Testing (RT)
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Testing
The principles of radiography
• X or Gamma radiation is imposed upon a test object
• Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees
dependant upon the density of the material through
which it is travelling
• Thinner areas and materials of a less density show as
darker areas on the radiograph
• Thicker areas and materials of a greater density show
as lighter areas on a radiograph
• Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
10 June, 2017
X – Rays Gamma Rays

Electrically generated Generated by the decay
of unstable atoms
10 June, 2017
Source
Radiation beam Image quality indicator
Test specimen
Radiographic film with latent image after exposure

10 June, 2017
Density - relates to the degree of darkness
Densitometer
Contrast - relates to the degree of difference

Definition - relates to the degree of sharpness
Sensitivity - relates to the overall quality of the radiograph
10 June, 2017
Radiographic Sensitivity
7FE12
Step / Hole type IQI Wire type IQI

10 June, 2017
Radiographic Sensitivity
Step/Hole Type IQI
Wire Type IQI

10 June, 2017
Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
• film inside, source outside
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI) panoramic

• film outside, source inside (internal exposure)
Double Wall Single Image (DWSI)

• film outside, source outside (external exposure)
Double Wall Double Image (DWDI)

• film outside, source outside (elliptical exposure)
10 June, 2017
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
Film
Film
IQI’s should be placed source side
10 June, 2017
Single Wall Single Image Panoramic
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side

• Source inside film outside (single exposure)
10 June, 2017
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters
over 100mm
10 June, 2017
• Identification
• Unique identification
EN W10
• IQI placing
• Pitch marks indicating A B

readable film length
ID MR11
Radiograph
10 June, 2017
Radiograph
10 June, 2017
Film
• IQI’s are placed on the source or film side
• Source outside film outside (multiple exposure)
• A minimum of two exposures
• This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
10 June, 2017
• Identification 4 3
• Unique identification EN W10
• IQI placing
• Pitch marks indicating 1 2

readable film length
ID MR12
Shot A Radiograph
10 June, 2017
4 3
1 2
Elliptical Radiograph
10 June, 2017
Radiography
PENETRATING POWER
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of an X-ray ?
•the kilo-voltage applied (between anode & cathode)
Question:
What determines the penetrating power of a gamma ray ?
•the type of isotope (the wavelength of the gamma rays)
10 June, 2017
Radiography
GAMMA SOURCES
Isotope Typical Thickness Range
• Iridium 192 10 to 50 mm (mostly used)
• Cobalt 60 > 50 mm
• Ytterbium < 10 mm
• Thulium < 10 mm
• Cesium < 10 mm
10 June, 2017
Disadvantages
Advantages
• Expensive consumables
• Permanent record
• Bulky equipment
• Little surface preparation
• Harmful radiation
• Defect identification
• Defect require significant
• No material type limitation
depth in relation to the
• Not so reliant upon operator radiation beam (not good
skill for planar defects)
• Thin materials • Slow results

• Very little indication of
depths
• Access to both sides
required
10 June, 2017
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
ADVANTAGES
good for non-planar defects
good for thin sections
gives permanent record
easier for 2nd party interpretation
can use on all material types
high productivity
direct image of imperfections
10 June, 2017
Comparison with Ultrasonic Examination
DISADVANTAGES
health & safety hazard
not good for thick sections
high capital and relatively high running costs
not good for planar defects
X-ray sets not very portable
requires access to both sides of weld
frequent replacement of gamma source needed (half life)
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Main Features:
• Surface and sub-surface detection
• This detection method uses high frequency sound waves,
typically above 2MHz to pass through a material
• A probe is used which contains a piezo electric crystal to
transmit and receive ultrasonic pulses and display the
signals on a cathode ray tube or digital display
• The actual display relates to the time taken for the
ultrasonic pulses to travel the distance to the interface and
back
• An interface could be the back of a plate material or a defect
• For ultrasound to enter a material a couplant must be
introduced between the probe and specimen
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Pulse echo Digital
signals UT Set,
A scan
Display
Compression probe checking the material Thickness
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
defect Back wall

initial pulse echo echo
Material Thk
defect
0 10 20 30 40 50
Compression Probe CRT Display
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
UT Set
A Scan
Display
Angle Probe
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
initial pulse
defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
½ Skip CRT Display
initial pulse
defect echo
defect 0 10 20 30 40 50
Full Skip CRT Display

10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Disadvantages
Advantages
Trained and skilled operator
Rapid results
required
Both surface and
Requires high operator skill
sub-surface detection
Good surface finish required
Safe
Defect identification
Capable of measuring the
Couplant may contaminate
depth of defects
No permanent record
May be battery powered
Calibration Required
Portable
Ferritic Material (Mostly)
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
ADVANTAGES
•good for planar defects
•good for thick sections
•instant results
•can use on complex joints
•can automate
•very portable
•no safety problems (‘parallel’ working is possible)
•low capital & running costs
10 June, 2017
Ultrasonic Testing
Comparison with Radiography
DISADVANTAGES
no permanent record (with standard equipment)
not suitable for very thin joints <8mm
reliant on operator interpretation
not good for sizing Porosity
good/smooth surface profile needed
not suitable for coarse grain materials (e.g., castings)
Ferritic Materials (with standard equipment)
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle testing (MT)
10 June, 2017
Magnetic Particle Testing
Main features:
Surface and slight sub-surface detection
Relies on magnetization of component being tested
Only Ferro-magnetic materials can be tested
A magnetic field is introduced into a specimen being
tested
Methods of applying a magnetic field, yoke, permanent
magnet, prods and flexible cables.
Fine particles of iron powder are applied to the test area
Any defect which interrupts the magnetic field, will create
a leakage field, which attracts the particles
Any defect will show up as either a dark indication or in
the case of fluorescent particles under UV-A light a
green/yellow indication
10 June, 2017
This image cannot currently be display ed.
Collection of ink
particles due to
leakage field
Electro-magnet (yoke) DC or AC
Prods DC or AC
10 June, 2017
A crack like
indication
10 June, 2017
Alternatively to contrast inks, fluorescent inks may be used

for greater sensitivity. These inks require a UV-A light source
and a darkened viewing area to inspect the component
10 June, 2017
Typical sequence of operations to inspect a weld
• Clean area to be tested
• Apply contrast paint
• Apply magnetisism to the component
• Apply ferro-magnetic ink to the component during
magnatising
• Iterpret the test area
• Post clean and de-magnatise if required
10 June, 2017
Advantages Disadvantages
• Simple to use • Surface or slight sub-surface

detection only
• Inexpensive
• Magnetic materials only
• Rapid results
• No indication of defects
• Little surface preparation depths
required
• Only suitable for linear
• Possible to inspect through defects
thin coatings
• Detection is required in two
directions
10 June, 2017
Comparison with Penetrant Testing
ADVANTAGES
• much quicker than PT
• instant results
• can detect near-surface imperfections (by current flow
technique)
• less surface preparation needed
DISADVANTAGES
• only suitable for ferromagnetic materials
• electrical power for most techniques
• may need to de-magnetise (machine components)
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing (PT)
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Main features:
Detection of surface breaking defects only.
This test method uses the forces of capillary action
Applicable on any material type, as long they are non
porous.
Penetrants are available in many different types:
• Water washable contrast
• Solvent removable contrast
• Water washable fluorescent
• Solvent removable fluorescent
• Post-emulsifiable fluorescent
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 1. Pre-Cleaning
Ensure surface is very Clean normally with the use of a solvent
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 2. Apply penetrant
After the application, the penetrant is normally left on the
components surface for approximately 15-20 minutes (dwell
time).
The penetrant enters any defects that may be present by
capillary action.
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Clean off penetrant
the penetrant is removed after sufficient penetration time (dwell
time).
Care must be taken not to wash any penetrant out off any
defects present
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 3. Apply developer
After the penetrant has be cleaned sufficiently, a thin layer of
developer is applied.
The developer acts as a contrast against the penetrant and
allows for reverse capillary action to take place.
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Step 4. Inspection / development time
Inspection should take place immediately after the developer
has been applied.
any defects present will show as a bleed out during
development time.
After full inspection has been carried out post cleaning is
generally required.
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Bleed out viewed
under a UV-A light
source
Bleed out viewed

under white light
Colour contrast Penetrant
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to use Surface breaking defect
only
Inexpensive
little indication of depths
Quick results
Penetrant may
Can be used on any non- contaminate component
porous material Surface preparation critical
Portability Post cleaning required
Low operator skill required Potentially hazardous
chemicals
Can not test unlimited
times
Temperature dependant
10 June, 2017
Penetrant Testing
Comparison with Magnetic Particle Inspection
ADVANTAGES
•easy to interpret results
•no power requirements
•relatively little training required
•can use on all materials
DISADVANTAGES
•good surface finish needed
•relatively slow
•chemicals - health & safety issue
10 June, 2017
Weld Repairs
The specification or procedure will govern how the
defective areas are to be removed. The method of
removal may be:
• Grinding
• Chipping
• Machining
• Filing
• Oxy-Gas gouging
• Arc air gouging
10 June, 2017
Defect Excavation
Arc-air gouging
10 June, 2017
Arc-air gouging features
• Operate ONLY on DCEP
• Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
• Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
• Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
• Provides fast rate of metal removal
• Can remove complex shape defects
• After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
• Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!
10 June, 2017
Production Weld Repairs
Production Repairs
are usually identified during production
inspection
evaluation of the reports is usually carried out
by the Welding Inspector, or NDT operator
10 June, 2017
Plan View of defect
10 June, 2017
Side View of defect excavation
Side View of repair welding
10 June, 2017
Heat Treatment
Why?
Improve mechanical properties
Change microstructure
Reduce residual stress level
Change chemical composition
How?
Flame oven
Electric oven/electric heating blankets
induction/HF heating elements
Global Where? Local
10 June, 2017
Heat Treatments
Many metals must be given heat treatment before and
after welding.
The inspector’s function is to ensure that the treatment
is given correctly in accordance with the specification or
as per the details supplied.
Types of heat treatment available:
Preheat
Annealing
Normalising
Quench Hardening
Temper
Stress Relief
10 June, 2017
Heat Treatments
Pre-heat treatments
are used to increase weldability, by reducing sudden
reduction of temperature, and control expansion and
contraction forces during welding
Post weld heat treatments

are used to change the properties of the weld metal,
controlling the formation of crystalline structures
10 June, 2017
Post Weld -Heat Treatments
Post Hydrogen Release (according to BS EN1011-2)
Temperature: Approximately 250°C hold up to 3 hours
Cooling: Slow cool in air
Result: Relieves residual hydrogen
Procedure: Maintaining pre-heat / interpass temperature
after completion of welding for 2 to 3 hours.
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatments
The inspector, in general, should ensure that:
Equipment is as specified
Temperature control equipment is in good condition
Procedures as specified, is being used e.g.
o Method of application
o Rate of heating and cooling
o Maximum temperature
o Soak time
o Temperature measurement (and calibration)
DOCUMENTATION AND RECORDS

10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment
PWHT Procedures - Basic Requirements
Maximum Heating Rate
Usually from 300 or 400°C - need to avoid large temperature
gradients that may cause distortion/cracking
Maximum rate depends on thickness but typically up to ~ 200°C/h
‘Soak’ Temperature depends on steel type - usually specified by Code
(~550 to ~750 °C )
Minimum ‘Soak’ Time
need to make sure and whole item/full thickness reaches specified
temp.
Codes typically specify 1h per 25mm related to max. joint thickness
Maximum Cooling Rate
usually down to 400 or 300°C - for same reasons as controlled heating
rate
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment Cycle
Variables for heat treatment process must be carefully controlled
Temperature
SoakingTemperature
and time at the
attained temperature
heating rate Cooling rate
Time
Heating Soaking Cooling
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment
Removal of Residual Stress
Cr-Mo steel - typical • At PWHT temp. the yield

Yield 500 strength of steel reduced
Strength
so that it it is not strong
(N/mm2 )
400 enough to give restraint.
C-Mn steel - typical
300
• Residual stress reduced
to very low level by
200 straining (typically < ~
0.5% strain)
100
100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Temperature (°C)
10 June, 2017
Heat Treatment
Recommendations
Provide adequate support (low YS at high temperature!)
Control heating rate to avoid uneven thermal expansions
Control soak time to equalise temperatures
Control temperature gradients - NO direct flame
impingement!
Control furnace atmosphere to reduce scaling
Control cooling rate to avoid brittle structure formation
10 June, 2017
Post Weld Heat Treatment Methods
Advantages:
Easy to set up
Good portability
repeatability and
temperature uniformity
Disadvantages:
Gas furnace heat treatment Limited to size of parts
10 June, 2017
Advantages:
High heating rates
Ability to heat a
narrow band
Disadvantages:
High equipment
cost
Large equipment,
HF (Induction) local heat treatment less portable
10 June, 2017
Advantages:
Ability to vary
heat
Ability to
continuously
maintain heat
Disadvantages:
Elements may
burn out or arcing
Local heat treatment using during heating
electric heating blankets
10 June, 2017
Use of gas flame
Welding Brazing Cutting Gouging
Heating Straightening Blasting Spraying

10 June, 2017
Regulators
Oxygen regulator Fuel gas regulator

Single stage used when slight rise in delivery
pressure from full to empty cylinder
Regulator condition can be tolerated
type
Two stage used when a constant delivery

pressure from full to empty
10 June, 2017
cylinder condition is required
Flashback arrestors
Flashback - recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
SAFETY SAFETY SAFETY
Normal Reverse Flashback

flow flow
Built- Built-in
in check Flashback
check valve flame
Flame
valve stops quenched
barrie reverse at the
r flow flashback
barrier
10 June, 2017
Oxyfuel gas cutting quality
Good cut - sharp top edge, fine and even drag lines,
little oxide and a sharp bottom edge
Cut too slow - top edge is Cut too fast -

melted, deep groves in the pronounced break in
lower portion, heavy scaling, the drag line,
rough bottom edge irregular cut edge
10 June, 2017
Preheat flame too low - Preheat flame too high -

deep groves in the lower top edge is melted,
part of the cut face irregular cut, excess of
10 June, 2017
adherent dross
Nozzle is too high above

the works - excessive Irregular travel speed - uneven
melting of the top edge, space between drag lines,
much oxide irregular bottom with adherent
10 June, 2017
oxide
Cutting Processes
Air-arc for cutting or gouging
10 June, 2017
Air-arc gouging features
• Operate ONLY on DCEP
• Special gouging copper
coated carbon electrode
• Can be used on carbon
and low alloy steels,
austenitic stainless steels
and non-ferrous materials
• Requires CLEAN/DRY
compressed air supply
• Provides fast rate of metal removal
• Can remove complex shape defects
• After gouging, grinding of carbured layer is mandatory
• Gouging doesn’t require a qualified welder!
10 June, 2017
Classification of Steels
Mild steel (CE < 0.4)
Readily weldable, preheat generally not required if low hydrogen
processes or electrodes are used
Preheat may be required when welding thick section material,
high restraint and with higher levels of hydrogen being
generated
C-Mn, medium carbon, low alloy steels (CE 0.4 to 0.5)

Thin sections can be welded without preheat but thicker sections
will require low preheat levels and low hydrogen processes or
electrodes should be used
Higher carbon and alloyed steels (CE > 0.5)

Preheat, low hydrogen processes or electrodes, post weld
heating and slow cooling may be required
10 June, 2017
Cracking
When considering any type of cracking mechanism, three
elements must always be present:
• Stress
Residual stress is always present in a weldment,
through unbalanced local expansion and
contraction
• Restraint
Restraint may be a local restriction, or through
plates being welded to each other
• Susceptible microstructure
The microstructure may be made susceptible to
cracking by the process of welding
10 June, 2017
May occur: Also know as:
up to 48 hrs after completion Cold Cracking, happens when
the welds cool down.
In weld metal, HAZ, parent
metal. HAZ cracking, normally occurs
in the HAZ.
At weld toes
Delayed cracking, as it takes
Under weld beads time for the hydrogen to
migrate. 48 Hours normally but
At stress raisers.
up to 72,
Under-bead cracking, normally
happens in the HAZ under a
weld bead
10 June, 2017
There is a risk of hydrogen cracking when all of the 4

factors occur together:
Hydrogen More than 15ml/100g of weld metal
Stress More than ½ the yield stress
Temperature Below 300oC
Hardness Greater than 400HV Vickers
Susceptible Microstructure (Martensite)
10 June, 2017
10 June, 2017
Precautions for controlling hydrogen cracking
Pre heat, removes moisture from the joint preparations,
and slows down the cooling rate
Ensure joint preparations are clean and free from
contamination
The use of a low hydrogen welding process and correct
arc length
Ensure all welding is carried out is carried out under
controlled environmental conditions
Ensure good fit-up as to reduced stress
The use of a PWHT
Avoid poor weld profiles
10 June, 2017
• Hydrogen is the smallest atom known
• Hydrogen enters the weld via the arc

• Source of hydrogen mainly from moisture pick-up on
the electrodes coating, welding fluxes or from the
consumable gas
Water vapour Moisture on

in the air or H2 the electrode
in the H2 or grease on
shielding gas the wire
H2
Oxide or grease on H2 H2
the plate
10 June, 2017
Cellulosic electrodes Hydrogen absorbed
produce hydrogen as a in a long, or
shielding gas unstable arc
Hydrogen introduced in Hydrogen

weld from consumable,
crack
oils, or paint on plate
H2 H2
Martensite forms from γ H2 diffuses to γ in HAZ

10 June, 2017
Susceptible Microstructure:
Hard brittle structure – MARTENSITE Promoted by:
A) High Carbon Content, Carbon Equivalent (CE)
CEV = %C + Mn + Cr+Mo+V + Ni+Cu
6 5 15
B) high alloy content
C) fast cooling rate: Inadequate Pre-Heating
Cold Material
Thick Material
Low Heat Input.
Heat input (Kj/mm) = Amps x Volts x arc time

Run out length x 103 (1000)
10 June, 2017
Typical locations for Cold Cracking

10 June, 2017
HICC in HSLA steels
•HSLA or Micro-Alloyed Steels are high strength steels
(800MPa/N/mm2) that derive their high strength from small
percentage alloying (over-alloyed Weld metal to match the
strength of parent metal)
•Typically the level of alloying is in the elements such as
vanadium molybdenum and titanium, nickel and chromium
Strength. are used. It would be impossible to match this micro
alloying in the electrode due to the effect of losses across an
electric arc (Ti burn in the arc)
•It is however important to match the strength of the weld to
the strength of the plate, Mn 1.6 Cr Ni Mo
10 June, 2017
Transverse Weld
H2 HAZ Cracks Cracks in HSLA
in Alloy steels* Steels*
Low ductility weld metal
Longitudinal contractional
strain
10 June, 2017
Hydrogen Scales
List of hydrogen scales from BS EN 1011:part 2.

Hydrogen content related to 100 grams of weld
metal deposited.
Scale A High: >15 ml
Scale B Medium: 10 ml - 15 ml
Scale C Low: 5 ml - 10 ml
Scale D Very low: 3 ml - 5 ml
Scale E Ultra-low: < 3 ml
10 June, 2017
Potential Hydrogen Level Processes
list of welding processes in order of potential lowest
hydrogen content with regards to 100g of deposited weld
metal.
TIG < 3 ml
MIG < 5 ml
ESW < 5 ml
MMA (Basic Electrodes) < 5 ml
SAW < 10ml
FCAW < 15 ml
10 June, 2017
Usually Occurs in Weld Centerline
10 June, 2017
Also referred as
Hot Cracking: Occurring at high temperatures while the weld is hot
Centerline cracking: cracks appear down the centre line of the bead.
Crater cracking: Small cracks in weld centers are solidification cracks
Crack type: Solidification cracking

Location: Weld centreline (longitudinal)
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphor concentration in steels.
Susceptible Microstructure: Columnar grains In direction
of solidification
10 June, 2017
Factors for solidification cracking
• Columnar grain growth with impurities in weld metal (sulphur,
phosphor and carbon)
• The amount of stress/restraint
• Joint design high depth to width ratios
Liquid iron sulphides are formed around solidifying grains.
High contractional strains are present
High dilution processes are being used.
There is a high carbon content in the weld metal
• Most commonly occurring in sub-arc welded joints
10 June, 2017
• Sulphur in the parent material may dilute in the weld
metal to form iron sulphides (low strength, low
melting point compounds)
• During weld metal solidification, columnar crystals
push still liquid iron sulphides in front to the last place
of solidification, weld centerline.
• The bonding between the grains which are
themselves under great stress and may now be very
poor to maintain cohesion and a crack will result,
weld centerline.
10 June, 2017
Avoidance
Intergranular liquid film
Columnar
grains Columnar
HAZ grains HAZ
Shallow, wider weld bead Deep, narrower weld bead

On solidification the On solidification the
bonding between the bonding between the grains
grains may be adequate to may now be very poor to
maintain cohesion and a maintain cohesion and a
crack is unlikely to occur crack may result
10 June, 2017
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
•The first steps in eliminating this problem would be to choose a low
dilution process, and change the joint design
Grind and seal in any lamination and avoid further dilution????
Add Manganese to the electrode to form spherical Mn/S which form
between the grain and maintain grain cohesion
As carbon increases the Mn/S ratio required increases
exponentially and is a major factor. Carbon content % should be a
minimised by careful control in electrode and dilution
Limit the heat input, hence low contraction, & minimise restraint
10 June, 2017
Precautions for controlling solidification cracking
• The use of high manganese and low carbon content
fillers
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities (Phosphor & sulphur)
• Clean joint preparations contaminants (oil, grease, paints
and any other sulphur containing product)
• Joint design selection depth to width ratios
10 June, 2017
Solidification cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel
particularly prone to solidification cracking
large grain size gives rise to a reduction in grain boundary area

with high concentration of impurities
Austenitic structure very intolerant to contaminants (sulphur,

phosphorous and other impurities).
High coefficient of thermal expansion /Low coefficient of thermal

conductivity, with high resultant residual stress
same precautions against cracking as for plain carbon steels

with extra emphasis on thorough cleaning and high dilution
controls.
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Factors for lamellar tearing to occur
Cracks only occur in the rolled plate !
Close to or just outside the HAZ !
Cracks lay parallel to the plate surface and the fusion
boundary of the weld and has a stepped aspect.
• Low quality parent materials, high levels of impurities
• Joint design, direction of stress
• The amount of stress acting across the joint during
welding
• Note: very susceptible joints may form lamellar tearing
under very low levels of stress
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Susceptible joint types combined with susceptible rolled plate
used to make a joint.
High stresses act in the through thickness direction of the plate

(know as the short transverse direction).
T, K & Y joints normally end up with a tensile residual stress

component in the through thickness direction.
Tee fillet weld Tee butt weld Corner butt weld

(double-bevel) (single-bevel)
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Critical area Critical area
Critical
area
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Modifying a corner joint to avoid lamellar tearing
Susceptible Non-Susceptible
Prior welding both An open corner joint

plates may be grooved may be selected to
to avoid lamellar tearing avoid lamellar tearing
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Precautions for controlling lamellar tearing
• The use of high quality parent materials, low levels of
impurities
• The use of buttering runs
• A gap can be left between the horizontal and vertical
members enabling the contraction movement to take
place
• Joint design selection
• Minimise the amount of stress / restraint acting on the
joint during welding
• Hydrogen precautions
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Crack type: Lamellar tearing
Location: Below weld HAZ
Steel types: High sulphur & phosphorous steels
Microstructure: Lamination & Segregation
Occurs when:
High contractional strains are through the short
transverse direction. There is a high sulfur content in
the base metal.
There is low through thickness ductility in the base
metal.
There is high restraint on the work
10 June, 2017
Short Tensile (Through Thickness) Test
The short tensile test or through thickness test is a
test to determine a materials susceptibility to
lamellar tearing
Friction Welded Caps

Short Tensile Specimen
Sample of Parent Material
Through
Thickness
Ductility
The results are given as a STRA value

Short Transverse Reduction in Area
10 June, 2017
Lamellar Tearing
Restraint
Lamellar tear
High contractional
strains
10 June, 2017
Fillet Weld Gauges
10mm
G.A.L.
L S.T.D.
16mm
Leg Length Gauge
10mm
G.A.L.
S.T.D.
16mm
Throat Thickness Gauge

10 June, 2017
HI-LO Welding Gauge
6
Root gap
dimension
HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge
Internal
alignment
10 June, 2017
Plate / Pipe Inspection
10 June, 2017
Welding Temperatures
Definitions
Preheat temperature
is the temperature of the workpiece in the weld zone immediately
before any welding operation (including tack welding!)
normally expressed as a minimum Interpass temperature
– is the temperature in a multi-run weld and adjacent parent metal
immediately prior to the application of the next run
– normally expressed as a maximum
Minimum interpass temperature = Preheat temperature

Pre heat maintenance temperature = the minimum temperature in the
weld zone which shall be maintained if welding is interrupted and shall be
monitored during the interruption.
10 June, 2017
Pre-heat Application
Furnace - Heating entire component - best
Electrical elements -Controllable; Portable; Site use; Clean;
Component cannot be moved.
Gas burners - direct flame impingement; Possible local
overheating; Less controllable;Portable; Manual operation
possible; Component can be moved.
Radiant gas heaters - capable of automatic control; No flame
impingement; No contact with component; Portable.
Induction heating - controllable; Rapid heating (mins not hours);
Large power supply; Expensive equipment
10 June, 2017
Measuring pre heat in Welding
The purposes
of measuring
Demonstration of Welding
conformance to process
specified requirements control
Parameters to be measured:
welding current preheat/interpass
arc voltage temperature
travel speed force/pressure
shielding gas flow rate humidity
10 June, 2017
Pre-heat Application
Application Of Preheat
Heat either side of joint
Measure temp 2 mins after heat removal
Always best to heat complete component rather than
local if possible to avoid distortion
Preheat always higher for fillet than butt welds due to
different combined thicknesses and chill effect factors.
10 June, 2017
Pre-Heat Application
Electrical Heated Manual Gas Operation

Elements
10 June, 2017
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t < 50 mm
A = 4 x t but max. 50 mm
the temperature shall be
measured on the surface
of the workpiece facing the
welder
10 June, 2017
Point of Measurement
BS EN ISO 13916
t > 50mm
A = 75mm minimum
the temperature shall be
measured on the face
opposite to that being
heated
allow 2 min per every 25
mm of parent metal
thickness for temperature
equalisation
10 June, 2017
Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
10 June, 2017
Combined Thickness
The Chilling Effect of the Joint
10 June, 2017
Combined Thickness
Combined chilling effect of joint type and
thickness.
10 June, 2017
The Chill Effect of the Material
10 June, 2017
Heating Temperature Control
TEMPILSTICKS - crayons, melt at set temps. Will not
measure max temp.
Pyrometers - contact or remote, measure actual temp.
Thermocouples - contact or attached, very accurate,
measure actual temp.
10 June, 2017
Temperature Test Equipment
Temperature sensitive
materials:
•crayons, paints and
pills
•cheap
•convenient, easy to
use
•doesn’t measure the
actual temperature!
10 June, 2017
Calibration, validation and monitoring
Definitions:
Measurement = set of operations for determining a value of a
quantity
Repeatability = closeness between successive measuring
results of the same instrument carried out under the same
conditions
Accuracy class = class of measuring instruments that are
intended to keep the errors within specified limits
Calibration = checking the errors in a meter or measuring
device
Validation = checking the control knobs and switches provide
the same level of accuracy when returned to a pre-determined
point
Monitoring = checking the welding parameters (and other
items) are in accordance with the procedure or specification
10 June, 2017
Calibration and validation
Frequency - When it is required?
once a year unless otherwise specified
whenever there are indications that the
instrument does not register properly
whenever the equipment has been
damaged, misused or subject to severe
stress
whenever the equipment has been rebuild
or repaired
See BS EN ISO 17662 for details!
10 June, 2017
Welding parameter calibration/validation
Which parameters need calibration/validation?
How accurate?
depends on the application
welding current - ±2,5%
arc voltage - ±5%
wire feed speed - ±2,5%
gas flow rate - ±20% (±25% for backing gas flow rate)
temperature (thermocouple) - ±5%
depends on the welding process
see BS EN ISO 17662 and BS 7570 for details
10 June, 2017

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Responsible QCI

Duties and Responsibilities

• Inspection and testing before welding

• Inspection and testing during welding

• Inspection and testing after welding

• Post weld heat treatment

• Non conformance and corrective actions

• Calibration and Validation of measuring and inspection equipment

• Identification and traceability

Conditions for Visual Inspection (to ISO 17637)

Aids to Visual Inspection (to BS ISO 17637)

When access is restricted may use:

Fillet Weld Gauges

HI-LO Single Purpose Welding Gauge

TWI Multi-purpose Welding Gauge Misalignment Gauges

Stages of Visual Inspection (to BS ISO 17637)

For high integrity fabrications inspection required throughout

are being controlled in accordance with Procedure

• A permanent union between materials caused by heat, and

The junction of members or the edges of members

A configuration of members (BS499)

Edge Open & Closed Corner Lap

Butt weld Spot weld

Edge weld Plug weld

Partial Penetration Butt Weld

Full Penetration Butt Weld

Design Throat Actual Throat

Weld cap width

Maximum solid solid-liquid Boundary

Root Face Root Face

Angle of bevel Angle of bevel

Root Face Root Gap Root Face

Single sided preparations are normally made on thinner materials, or

Single Bevel Single Vee

Double sided preparations are normally made on thicker materials, or

Double -Bevel Double -Vee

Calculating Throat Thickness from a known Leg

Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7

Question: The Leg length is 14mm.

Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm Throat Thickness

Calculating Leg Length from a known Design

Leg Length = Design Throat Thickness x 1.4

Question: The Design Throat is 10mm.

Answer: 10mm x 1.4 = 14mm Leg Length

Importance of Fillet Weld Leg Length Size

Approximately the same weld volume in both Fillet

Importance of Fillet weld leg length Size

Fillet welds - Shape

Mitre Fillet Convex Fillet

EFFECTIVE THROAT THICKNESS

Deep penetration fillet welds from high heat

H-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Upwards)

J-L045 6G Inclined Pipe (Downwards)

Butt welds in plate (see ISO 6947)

Butt welds in pipe (see ISO 6947)

Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

H-L045 J-L045 Horizontal - PC

Fillet welds on plate (see ISO 6947)

Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Fillet welds on pipe (see ISO 6947)

Flat - PA Horizontal - PB Overhead - PD

Horizontal - PB Vertical up - PF Vertical down - PG

Weld: Flat Weld: Vertical upwards Weld: Vertical Downwards