Fluid Mechanics

Topic 2.1:Hydrostatics – Fluid Pressure

Overview
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Concepts of pressure
2.1.3 Pressure measurement
2.1.4 Hydrostatic forces on plane surface
2.1.5 Hydrostatic thrust on curved surface
2.1.6 Pressure diagram
Learning Outcomes

Explain the concepts of pressure Determine pressure head,

Apply the concept of pressure
and pressure difference in static pressure gauge and absolute
with pressure measurements.
fluid. pressure.

Formulate and apply the

concept of hydrostatic pressure
Apply pressure diagram method
Identify and illustrate the forces to solve problems when the
to solve hydrostatic related
acting on a hydraulic structure hydrostatic force is exerted on
problems.
plane and curved surfaces
under static condition.
2.1.1 Introduction
Statics rules apply to fluids at rest, hence, there will be no shearing forces acting.
Therefore, all forces exerted between the fluid and a solid boundary must act at right
angles to the boundary.
In the analysis of a problem it is usual to consider an element of the fluid defined by
solid boundaries or imaginary planes. A free body diagram can be drawn for this
element, showing the forces acting on it due to the solid boundaries or surrounding
fluid. Since the fluid is at rest, the element will be in equilibrium,
and the sum of the component forces acting in any direction
must be zero.
Although a body or element may be in equilibrium, it can also be of interest to know
what will happen if it is displaced from its equilibrium position. For example, in the
case of a ship it is of the utmost importance to know whether it will overturn when it
pitches or rolls or whether it will tend to right itself and return to its original position.
 Stable equilibrium. A small
displacement from the
equilibrium position
generates a force producing
a righting moment tending
to restore the body to its
equilibrium position.

Unstable equilibrium. A
small displacement
3 possible
produces an overturning
moment tending to displace conditions of
the body further from its
equilibrium position. equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium. The
body remains at rest in any
position to which it is
displaced.
2.1.2 Concepts of pressure
Pressure is the normal compressive
force acting per unit area.
F
p
A Pressure acts uniformly in all
Units: Pa, Nm-2
Dimensions: ML-1T-1
Two important principles
about pressure were
described by Blaise Pascal, a
seventeenth-century scientist:
directions on a small volume
of a fluid.
In a fluid confined by solid
boundaries, pressure acts
perpendicular to the
boundary.
Figure shows the pressure acting uniformly in all Figure shows the direction of fluid pressure on
directions on a small volume of fluid. boundaries.
Pascal’s Law for pressure at a point
By considering the equilibrium of a small fluid element below a relationship can be
established between the pressures px in the x-direction, py in the y-direction and pϴ
normal to any plane inclined at any angle θ to the horizontal at this point.
Taking summation of the forces in z direction,
Weight of element
F z 0
1
0  p z .b.x  p .b.s.Cos  .x.z.b. .g
2
x
Substituting, Cos  x, z , b Are very small quantities, therefore, the 3rd term
s
is negligible compared to the other 2
x 1
p z .x  p .s.  .x.z.b. .g  0
s 2

p z  p
Taking summation of the forces in x direction,

F x 0
p x .b.z  p .b.s.Sin  0
Since pz = px = pϴ , this concluded that the pressure
p x .z  p .s.Sin  0
at a point is the same in all direction
z
Substituting, Sin 
s
Pascal’s Law:
z
p x .z  p .s. 0 ‘The pressure, p, at any given point in a fluid is independent of its direction’
s Blaise Pascal

p x  p
Pressure variation in
a fluid at rest
Figure shows a cylindrical fluid
element of constant cross
sectional area A, inclined at angle
ϴ from the vertical. There is no
shear acting because the fluid is
at rest.
Summing up all forces along the axis,
pA   p  dp A  gAdsCos  0
dp   gdsCos

When element is horizontal When element is vertical

  900   00
dp  0 dp   gds cos   dz
ds
Integrating, p  constant dp   gdz

Meaning, anywhere in a static fluid, p    gdz

at a given depth the pressure is constant p   g  dz
p   gz  constant Constant
density
Pressure in a liquid at rest The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
increases linearly with distance regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the
from the free surface. same fluid.
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure varies due to
density and elevation.
It is important to measure
atmospheric pressure as it affects
the measurements of pressure in
fluids.
patm = 1 bar = 100 kPa
But sometimes patm becomes zero
when it is considered as datum.
Absolute pressure & gauge pressure
In liquid, the elevation is usually in terms of depth
h and is measured from the free surface
(downwards).
Pressure on fluids is measured in 2 different
system: absolute pressure & gauge pressure.
Absolute pressure: pressure measured with
reference to absolute vacuum pressure.
Gauge pressure: pressure measured with the
help of a pressure measuring instrument, in
which the atmospheric pressure is taken as a
datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is
marked as zero.
Vacuum pressure: pressure measured below
atmospheric pressure.
 pabs  p gauge  patm
Absolute pressure  gh  patm

Pressures
Gauge pressure p gauge  gh
Pressure head
p
Pressure head, h 
g

Pressure head is the vertical height

of a column of a given fluid of mass
density ρ which would be necessary
to produce pressure, p.
Units: m, cm or mm
Stated with the density of given
fluid. E.g. 10 m of Hg
Example
QUESTION SOLUTION

What is the pressure gauge, p  gh h

P
absolute pressure and the pressure  1000  9.81 10 gh
head in terms of mercury at 98.1 103
 98.1kPa 
13600
location (2) the tank shown?  7.213m of Hg
1 pabs  gh  patm
Elevation = 75 m  98.1  100
10 m
 198.1kPa

Elevation = 60 m
Try yourself
Determine the pressure at the bottom of the tank shown in Figure.
Try yourself
A mountain lake has an average temperature of 100C and a maximum depth of 40 m.
The barometric pressure is 598 mm Hg. Determine the absolute pressure at the
deepest part of the lake.
 1 2 3
2.1.3 Pressure
measurement Barometers Piezometers Manometers
Barometers
Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a
barometer; thus patm is often referred to as the
barometric pressure.
The pressure at point B is equal to the atmospheric
pressure, and the pressure at A can be taken as zero
since there is only Hg vapor above point A and the
pressure is relatively low to patm and can be neglected.
Piezometers
One end is connected to the point
where pressure to be measured and
other is open to the atmosphere.
The rise of liquid gives the pressure
head at point A,

PA  gh
Manometers
Used to measure the pressure difference between two points in a pipe or in two
different pipes.
Consists of a U-tube, containing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the
points, whose pressure difference to be measure.
Most common types:
U-tube differential manometer
Inverted U-tube differential manometer
Different types of manometers
Example
The mercury manometer in the
Figure is used to measure the
pressure difference between two
conduits A and B. Determine the
pressure difference if the conduits
are filled with water.

Solution:
 
pB  p A   w g  zC  z A    Hg g  z D  zC    w g  z D  z B 
pB  p A  (9810  0.6)  (13600  9.81 0.5)  (9810  1.5)
 57.88kPa
Example
Conduit A and B, in the Figure, are
filled with air at a density of 1.5
kg/m3. If the pressure at A is 50
kPa, what is the pressure at B?

Solution:
 
pB  p A   air g  z A  zC    Hg g  z D  zC    air g  z B  z D 
pB  50000  1.5  9.81 0.4  13600  9.81 0.2  1.5  9.81 0.5
 23.32kPa
2.1.4 Hydrostatic forces on plane surface
For plane horizontal surface, the
pressure is given by:
p  gh

The associated resultant force

would be:
F  pA
 gAh
Example
A rectangular tank 6 m and 3 m wide contains water up to a depth of 2.5 m. Calculate
the pressure and resultant hydrostatic force on the base of the tank.

p  gh
 9810  2.5
 24525Pa
2.5 m
F  p A
3m  24525  6  3
6m  441.45kN
Hydrostatic forces on inclined surface
A plane surface is immersed in a liquid, inclined at an angle ϴ as shown below
Consider an elemental strips The resultant force F will act at a
where the pressure p is constant single point known as the centre
and the elemental force dF can of pressure CP. The location of
be written as: this point is determined by
dF  pdA consideration of moment
equilibrium, taking moment
 ghdA about O.
The resultant hydrostatic force F Moment due to resultant force:
is obtained by integrating dF over
the entire immersed surface: hP
M  F
sin 
F  g  hdA Distance from free  gAhG 
hP
A
water surface to the centroid sin 
F  gAhG of the immersed area gAhG hP

sin 
Summation of moments due to Using parallel axis theorem:
elemental forces: 2
 hG 
A    
2
M   sdF s dA I A

G
A
 sin 
2
Ah
  sghdA  I G  2G
A
sin 

  sg sin dA Rewriting,

A

 g sin   sdA sin 2   AhG 

2
hP  IG  2 
A
AhG  sin  
Equating:
gAhG I G sin 2 
 g sin   s 2 dA hP   hG
sin  A
AhG

AhG hP  sin 2   s 2 dA
A Second moment of area
sin 2  2 of the immersed area taken
hP 
AhG A  s dA about O
 Example
An inclined rectangular gate, 1.5 m by
1.0 m with water on one side is shown
in Figure. Determine the total resultant
force acting on the gate and locate its
centre of pressure.
A  1 .5  1 .0  1 .5 m 2
hG  2  0.5 sin 60  2.433m
F  1000  9.81 1.5  2.433  35.8kN
1 .5  1 .0 3
IG   0.125m 4
12
0.125  sin 2 60
hP   2.433  2.46m from free surface
1.5  2.433
 Example
A circular butterfly gate pivoted about a horizontal axis
passing through its centroid is subjected to hydrostatic
thrust on one side and counterbalanced by a force F,
applied at the bottom as shown in Fig. If the diameter of
the gate is 4 m and the water depth is 2 m above the
gate, determine the force F required to keep the gate in
position.

Vertically immersed,  90 12.57

hP   4  4.25m from free surface
A    2 2  12.566m 2 12.56  4
hG  4m M  0
FR  1000  9.81 4  4  493.1kN 2 F  FR hP  4 
  44 493.1 4.25  4 
IG   12.57 m 4 F  61.638kN
64 2
2.1.5 Hydrostatic thrust on curved
surface
Water pressure will act normal on an
immersed curved surface. The total
thrust acting on the surface can be
resolved into two components i.e.
horizontal and vertical components.
 Elemental force: Vertical component of the total force
dF  ghdA on the curved surface area:
A

Horizontal component: FV   ghdA sin 

0
dFH  ghdA cos  A Volume of water prism
FV  g  dV (real or virtual) over the
Vertical component: 0
elemental area
dFV  ghdA sin  FV  gV  W
Thus, horizontal component of the
total force on the curved surface Resultant hydrostatic force:
area: A
FR  FH  FV
2 2
FH   ghdA cos 
0

FH  ghG AV That acts at an angle:

 FV 
  tan 1   To the horizontal
Vertical projected area of the curved surface  FH 
Example
An open tank 6m by 1m in cross-section holds
water to a depth of 5m. Determine the
magnitude, direction and line of action of the
forces exerted upon the plane surfaces AB and CD
and the curved surface BC of the tank.
Hydrostatic force on AB: Hydrostatic force on BC:
FAB  9810  3  1 1.5  44.145kN FH  9810  2 1 3  1  78.48kN
1 33    23 
IG 
12
 2.25m 4 FV  9810   2  3 1  89.68kN
 4 
2.25
hP   2m from free surface
3  1 .5 FBC  78.482  89.682  119.17 kN

 89.68 
Hydrostatic force on CD:   tan 1    49
 78.48 
FCD  9810  2 1 5  98.1kN
FCD acts vertically at the surface centroid FBC passes through the origin O
Example
A radial gate whose face is part of a
circle of radius 3.0 m holds water at its
back as shown in Figure. The sector of
the circle represented by the gate has
an angle of 30° at its centre. Water
stands to a depth of 1.5 m above the
top of the gate. The other side of the
gate is open to the atmosphere.
Determine the total resultant force
acting on the gate and its direction. The
width of the gate is 2m.

Project the curved surface onto a
vertical plane to calculate FH
y  3 sin 30  1.5m
hG  1.5  0.5  1.5  2.25m
A  1.5  2  3m 2
FH  9810  2.25  3  66.22kN
Consider the weight of water
above the surface to calculate FV
x  3 cos 30  2.6m
DE  3.0  2.6  0.4m
30
AACE     32  2.356m 2
360
AACD  0.5  2.6  1.5  1.95m 2
AADE  2.356  1.95  0.406m 2
A AEFH  0.406  0.4  1.5  1.006m 2
Vd  1.006  2  2.012m
FV  9810  2.012  19.74kN
FR  66.22 2  19.74 2  69.17 kN

 19.74 
  tan 1    16.9
 66.22 
2.1.6 Pressure diagram
The resultant force and centre of pressure can be found graphically for walls and
other surfaces of constant vertical height for which it is convenient to calculate the
horizontal force exerted per unit width.
General principal:
Hydrostatic force per unit width of immersed surface is given by the area of the
pressure diagram.
The FR is given by the volume of pressure prism.
CP is given by the location of the centroid pressure diagram.
Consider ABC the pressure diagram of a vertical wall of a tank containing a liquid.

R will act through the centroid P which is at a depth of 2/3 H from A

If the plane surface is inclined and
submerged below the surface, the
pressure diagram is drawn
perpendicular to the immersed
surface and will be a straight line
extending from p = 0 at the free
surface to p = ρgH at depth H.
As the immersed surface does not
extend to the free surface, the
resultant force R is represented by
the shaded area, instead of the
whole triangle, and acts through the
centroid P of this area.
Example
A 2 m x 3 m tank with vertical sides
contains oil of density 900 kg/m3 to a
depth of 0.8 m, which floats on 1.2 m
depth of water as shown in figure.
Calculate the resultant hydrostatic force
and its location on the 3 m side of the
tank.
FR  Volume of pressure prism
  A1  A2  A3  3
 0.5   o  g  0.8  0.8   o  g  0.8  1.2   0.5   w  g  1.2  1.2  3
 55.1kN

AT yT  A1 yc1  A2 yc 2  A3 yc 3
A1 yc1  A2 yc 2  A3 yc 3
yT 
AT


2825.28  2  0.8 8475.84  0.8  0.5  1.2   7063.2  0.8  2  1.2 
3 3
18364.32
 1.344m from the free surface
End of Topic 2.1