Damage Identification in Frame

Structures Based on FE Model

Ling Yu1
Professor of Structural Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering,
China Three Gorges University,
Yichang,
Hubei 443002, China;
Department of Mechanics and Civil Engineering,
Jinan University,
Guangzhou 510632, China
e-mail: lyu1997@163.com
Tao Yin
Associate Professor
School of Civil and Architectural Engineering,
Wuhan University,
Wuhan 430072, China
e-mail: tyin@mail.com
Updating
This paper proposed a practical damage detection method for frame structures based on
finite element model-updating techniques. An objective function is defined as minimizing
the discrepancies between the experimental and analytical modal parameters (namely,
natural frequencies and mode shapes), which is set as a nonlinear least-squares problem
with bound constraints. Unlike the commonly used line-search methods, the trust-region
approach, a simple yet very powerful concept for minimization, is employed in order to
make the optimization process more robust and reliable. Noting the objective function
may sometimes be underdetermined for complex structures due to a relatively larger
number of potential damaged elements, this paper attempts to propose a simple and
convenient solution by expanding the original objective function. Moreover, the relative
weighting scheme between different parts in the objective function is also investigated.
One numerical two-story portal frame structure and two laboratory-tested frame struc-
tures, including a simple three-story steel frame structure and a more complex frame
structure with bolted joints, are all adopted to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed
technique. Some important issues about the application of the proposed method are also
discussed in this paper. 关DOI: 10.1115/1.4002125兴

Keywords: damage identification, frame structures, model updating, nonlinear least-

squares problem, trust-region method

1 Introduction
A structure may suffer considerable damage without showing
any outward signs of damage during its lifetime. If the potential
damage could not be detected in time, the accumulated damage
may result in a sudden failure or a fatal disaster of structure,
which are very costly in terms of human life and property damage.
Therefore, the development of a methodology for the accurate and
reliable assessment of structural damage, one crucial step in the
structural health monitoring, is very important to ensure the integ-
rity and stability of structures, to reduce the cost of maintenance,
and to prevent catastrophic failure 关1,2兴.
Structural modal parameters, namely, natural frequencies and
mode shapes obtained from an experimental modal analysis, can
characterize the state of a structure. One common approach is to
employ the vibration characteristics of the structure to assess the
damage locations and to estimate the amount of damage. Damage
identification from changes in vibration parameters of a structure
has been a popular research topic in the past few decades 关3兴.
Among the vibration-based damage identification methods, the
model-updating-based methods are often used because the model-
updating techniques have provided a rich source of algorithms
that can be used to identify damage 关4兴.
The pioneer work related to this field is based on the optimal
matrix update methods, which directly modify the system matri-
ces of the structural finite element 共FE兲 model to reproduce as
closely as possible the measured response from the data. Baruch
and Bar Itzhack 关5兴 modified the structural stiffness matrix based
on the minimal Frobenius norm matrix adjustment technique. Ber-
man and Nagy 关6兴 proposed an approach for structural damage
identification by adjusting structural model matrices. Since the
1
Corresponding author.
Contributed by the Technical Committee on Vibration and Sound of ASME for
publication in the JOURNAL OF VIBRATION AND ACOUSTICS. Manuscript received January
7, 2009; final manuscript received May 29, 2010; published online August 20, 2010.
Assoc. Editor: Jiong Tang.
updated system matrices usually lost their physical meaning of the
original FE model, Kabe 关7兴 proposed a method updating only the
nonzero elements of the stiffness matrix, and Smith and Beattie
关8兴 used the quasi-Newton methods to preserve structural connec-
tivity. However, although many efforts had been done, the inher-
ent drawback lying in the optimal matrix update methods still
restricted their real applications. Besides, since the complete mode
shapes are needed for these methods, the mode shape expansion
technique should be adopted, which would aggregate both the
modeling error and experimental noise in the resultant mode
shapes.
In order to overcome the shortcomings of the optimal matrix
updating methods, a group of methodology, namely, the
sensitivity-based updating methods were investigated by many re-
searchers. Ricles and Kosmatka 关9兴 presented a sensitivity-based
matrix approach based on the first-order Taylor series to identify
structural damage, which is then verified by many numerical
simulations. Hemez and Farhat 关10兴 developed a sensitivity-based
matrix procedure formulating the sensitivities at the element level,
which has the advantage of being computed more efficiently than
forming the sensitivities at the global matrix level. Fritzen and
Jennewein 关11兴 applied a sensitivity-based method to detect struc-
tural damage and found that the accuracy of the initial model of a
structure is of great importance. Lam et al. 关12兴 proposed a
method for the location detection of connection damage in frame
structures and verified the method by both numerical studies of a
six-story frame and experimental investigations of a two-story
frame. Zimmerman 关13兴 developed a closed-form solution for the
sensitivity of the minimum rank perturbation theory damage vec-
tors and calculated stiffness perturbations with respect to errors in
the measured mode shapes or frequency response functions. This
sensitivity allows one to establish confidence in damage existence,
location, and extent assessment. In 2007, Yin et al. 关14兴 proposed
a statistical approach to analyze the influence of measurement
noise on the sensitivity-based damage detection methods through
a typical portal frame structure.
Although the updated matrices have clear physical meaning, the

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 sensitivity-based methods approximately used only the first-order
Taylor series to some extent and were easily affected by experi-
mental noise. The higher-order terms in Taylor series can be in-
cluded to improve the accuracy of sensitivity-based methods, but
the computational effort would greatly increase accordingly.
At the same time, another class of damage identification meth-
ods based on FE model updating was developed by many re-
searchers, which minimize an objective function defined in terms
of the discrepancies between the experimental modal data mea-
sured from real structures and those calculated from the FE
model. The merit of the model-updating-based methods lies in the
fact that both the connectivity and symmetry of global system
matrices can be well preserved, and thus damage detection results
with physical meaning can usually be guaranteed. Due to the in-
herent nonlinear relationship between the dynamic characteristics
and the structural model properties, these methods are usually
solved by iterative strategy. As one of the most important artificial
intelligence algorithms, the genetic algorithms 共GAs兲 can obtain a
global minimum solution theoretically without utilizing the gradi-
ent information 关15兴 and are employed by many researchers for
structural damage detection based on model-updating methods
关16兴. Besides the GA method, the particle swarm optimization
共PSO兲 and ant colony optimization 共ACO兲 methods, two biologi-
cally inspired algorithms motivated by social analogy, are also
adopted by one of the authors and his research associates for the
purpose of structural healthy monitoring following the model-
updating approach 关17,18兴. However, because of the absence of
the gradient information, there exist some difficulties when these
methods are applied to the large-scale and complex structures due
to their blindness existing in the search strategy. Thus, their con-
vergence speed is sometimes too slow to obtain a solution, espe-
cially for the multidamage cases with the presence of measure-
ment noise and modeling errors 关19兴.
By employing the gradient information of the objective func-
tion, optimization algorithms based on iterative schemes can be
generally divided into two classes: line-search methods and trust-
region methods, and the line-search techniques are much more
well known and commonly found in various applications in struc-
tural damage detection. For instance, Hajela and Soeiro 关20兴 pre-
sented an approach for damage identification by minimizing the
differences between the analytical response and the measured re-
sponse of a structure. Hassiotis and Jeong 关21兴 proposed a tech-
nique for the identification of localized reductions in the structural
stiffness using natural frequency only. Morassi and Rovere 关22兴
proposed an inverse technique to localize the notch effects in steel
frames using the information changes in modal frequencies.
Trust region as a mathematical optimization term was first
coined by Celis et al. 关23兴 in 1985. Basically speaking, the line-
search and trust-region techniques differ in the order in which
they choose the direction and distance of the move to the next
iterative step. At each step, line search starts by fixing the search
direction and then identifying an appropriate step length, while the
trust-region approach first chooses a maximum distance 共the trust-
region radius兲 and then seek a direction and step that attain the
best improvement possible subject to this distance constraint. If
this step proves to be unsatisfactory, the trust-region radius
shrinks and tries again 关24兴. Xu presented that the trust-region
strategy shows better local performance than the line-search strat-
egy for the simulation of a complex coupled subsystem, i.e., a
nuclear reactor 关25兴. Another example shows that the trust-region
search step yields a more significant reduction 共or a better step兲 in
the objective function than the line-search method for an objection
function with two variables in which the current point lies at one
end of a curved valley while the minimizer lies at the other end.
The objective functions for structural damage detection problems
are generally much more complicated than the simple example
shown by Nocedal and Wright 关24兴. It was pointed out by Katafy-
giotis and Lam 关26兴 that the objective function is a nonlinear
function of the parameters even in the case of linear dynamic
051007-2 / Vol. 132, OCTOBER 2010
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models. In such a situation, the trust-region techniques are ex-
pected to establish more robust optimization behaviors than the
line-search methods. Unfortunately, no much attention is paid to
the application of trust-region techniques in the area of structural
damage detection from the literatures. Moreover, the fact that the
line-search methods can be considered as special cases of trust-
region methods in Liu and Chen 关27兴, one of the main purposes of
this paper is to apply the trust-region technique, a simple yet very
powerful concept for minimization 关28,29兴 in the structural dam-
age detection based on FE model updating. Herein, the objective
function is defined as a nonlinear least-squares problem with
bound constraints, where the discrepancies between experimental
and analytical modal parameters are minimized.
Furthermore, the least-squares problem may be sometimes un-
derdetermined due to the relatively larger number of unknown
parameters when the proposed method is applied to the real struc-
tures. Therefore, another objective of this paper is to propose a
simple and convenient objective function expansion scheme for
treating with the underdetermined situation. Moreover, a weight-
ing strategy between different components of the objective func-
tion vector is also investigated. Three frame structures, one nu-
merical two-story portal frame and two laboratory frame
structures, are employed in this paper to verify the feasibility and
efficiency of the proposed method. The obtained results are very
encouraging, showing that the proposed method can successfully
identify the single damage and multidamages with the presence of
both measurement noise and modeling errors.
2 Theoretical Background
The eigensystem equation and stiffness matrix of an n degrees
of freedom 共DOF兲 system can be written as follows, respectively:
⌲ ␸ j = ␭ j M 0␸ j 共1兲
N␪
K = K共␪兲 = 兺␪K,
i=1
i i ␪ = 关␪1, ␪2, . . . , ␪N␪兴NT ␪⫻1 共2兲
where K is the global stiffness matrix of a damaged structure and
M0 is the global mass matrix of a healthy structure; since the
change in mass matrix before and after damage is very small, it is
always assumed to be unchanged. ␭ j and ␸ j are the jth eigenvalue
and eigenvector of the damaged structure, respectively, j
= 1 , 2 , . . . , Nm, and Nm is the number of measured modes. ␭ j
= 共2␲ f j兲2 and f j is the jth natural frequency. Ki is the elemental
stiffness matrix of the ith element, and ␪ is the elemental stiffness
parameter 共ESP兲 vector, i.e., the elemental Young’s modulus vec-
tor here. N␪ is the total number of elements in the FE model of the
structure.
2.1 Objective Function. The objective function is defined as
a problem minimizing discrepancies between the experimental
and analytical modal parameters. The minimization of the objec-
tive function is stated as a bound-constrained nonlinear least-
再 冎
squares 共BCNLS兲 problem as follows:
N
兺
1 1
min f共␪兲 = 储r共␪兲储2 = r2共␪兲:l ⱕ ␪ ⱕ u 共3兲
␪苸RN␪ 2 2 i=1 i
r共␪兲 = 关r f 共␪兲NT f ⫻1,r␸共␪兲NT ␸⫻1兴N⫻1
T
共4兲
where r共␪兲 is an N-dimensional vector-valued function, and N
= N f + N␸. N f and N␸ are the dimensions of natural frequency and
mode shape error vectors, respectively. l and u 苸 RN␪ are vectors
of lower and upper bounds, respectively. In this paper, all compo-
nents of l and u are set to be 0 and 1, respectively, for the purpose
of damage identification. r f 共␪兲 is an N f -dimensional vector repre-
senting the difference in frequency ratio before and after damage,
shown as follows:
Transactions of the ASME
 冏
rif 共␪兲 = 1 −
f ia共␪兲
f ti
冏 共5兲
where N f = Nm and the symbol 兩 · 兩 means the absolute value. rif 共␪兲
is the ith component in the frequency error vector r f 共␪兲, and sub-
scripts t and a denote the tested and analytical data, respectively.
r␸共␪兲 is an N␸-dimensional vector indicating the discrepancies
between measured and analytical mode shapes corresponding to
the measured DOFs 共MDOFs兲 only, and thus no mode shape ex-
pansion or FE model reduction is required here. It is assumed that
only Nd DOFs are measured. In this paper, r␸共␪兲 is expressed as
the difference between 1 and modal assurance criterion 共MAC兲
关30兴, given below,
关共␸ti兲T␸ia共␪兲兴2
r␸i 共␪兲 = 1 −
关共␸ti兲T␸ti兴关␸ia共␪兲T␸ia共␪兲兴
where N␸ = Nm, and ri␸共␪兲 is the ith component in the error vector
r␸共␪兲. It should be pointed out that no scaling or normalization is
required in the mode shape error provided in Eq. 共6兲.
The gradient matrix and Hessian matrix of f共␪兲 have a special
structure, which should be exploited to improve the iterative effi-
ciency of the solution procedure for the nonlinear least-squares
problem. When a truncated Taylor series expansion of the ith
component of r共␪兲 at the point ␪k is used and only the first two
order items are kept, the following approximate expression can be
obtained:
ri共␪兲 ⬵ ri共␪k兲 + ⵜri共␪k兲T共␪ − ␪k兲, i = 1,2, . . . ,N
Thus, the objective function is given by
N N
兺 兺
1 1
f共␪兲 ⬵ f̂共␪兲 = r 2共 ␪ 兲 = 关ri共␪k兲 + ⵜri共␪k兲T共␪ − ␪k兲兴2
2 i=1 i 2 i=1
1 共iii兲 if f共␪k + dk兲 ⱕ f共␪k兲, then ␪k+1 = ␪k + dk; and 共iv兲 update the
= f共␪k兲 + gTk 共␪兲共␪ − ␪k兲 + 共␪ − ␪k兲THk共␪兲共␪ − ␪k兲
2
where
gk共␪兲 = ⵜf共␪k兲 = J共␪k兲Tr共␪k兲
Hk共␪兲 = ⵜ2 f共␪k兲 ⬵ J共␪k兲TJ共␪k兲
where g共␪兲 represents the gradient vector of f共␪兲, H共␪兲 is the
Hessian matrix of f共␪兲, and J共␪兲 is the N-by-N␪ Jacobian matrix
of r共␪兲.
2.2 Trust-Region Approach for BCNLS Problem. The
trust-region algorithm for the BCNLS problem is solved by the
function lsqnonlin implemented in the optimization toolbox of
MATLAB 关31兴, and the theoretical background of the implementa-
tion is only briefly reviewed in this section in order to make this
paper self-contained.
Following the MATLAB notations, for any vector x 苸 Rn, diag共x兲
denotes an n-by-n diagonal matrix, with the vector x defining the
diagonal entries in their natural order. The first-order optimality, a
necessary condition for Eq. 共3兲, is equivalently stated as
D共␪兲2g共␪兲 = 0, D共␪兲 = diag共兩v共␪兲兩1/2兲
where the vector v共␪兲 contains the information of bound con-
straints defined as in Ref. 关32兴. Noting Eqs. 共9兲 and 共10兲, the
scaled modified Newton step d̂k = D−1k dk for Eq. 共11兲 can be de-
fined as the solution of the following linear system:
B̂kd̂k = − ĝk
where
ĝk = Dkgk = DkJTk rk
B̂k = DkHkDk + diag共gk兲Jvk ⬵ DkJTk JkDk + diag共JTk rk兲Jvk 共14兲
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and Jv共␪兲 is the Jacobian matrix of 兩v共␪兲兩 关29兴.
In the neighborhood of a local minimizer, if the positive scalar
⌬k is large enough, the Newton step defined by Eq. 共12兲 is a
solution to a quadratic approximation model subjected to an ellip-
tical constraint as
兵
min ␺共d̂兲 = ĝTk d̂ + 2 d̂TB̂kd̂:储d̂储 ⱕ ⌬k
1
其 共15兲
dˆ 苸RN␪
The above quadratic model can be solved by the trust-region ap-
proach 关28兴 efficiently, a simple yet very powerful concept for
minimization. Moreover, the minimization restricts the trust-
region subproblem to a two-dimensional subspace V; thus, the
computational effort can be significantly saved especially for a
large-scale optimization problem. V = 具v1 , v2典. v1 is in the direc-
共6兲 tion of the gradient ĝ. v2 is either an approximate Newton direc-
tion or a direction of a negative curvature, which can force the
global convergence and achieve a fast local convergence by a
proper selection of subspace V.
Therefore, instead of the model described in Eq. 共15兲, another
two-dimensional quadratic approximation model subjected to an
elliptical constraint is redefined as
兵
min ␺⬘共d̂⬘兲 = ĝ⬘k Td̂⬘ + 2 d̂⬘TB̂⬘k d̂⬘:储d̂⬘储 ⱕ ⌬k
1
其 共16兲
dˆ ⬘苸R2
where the two-dimensional gradient vector ĝ⬘k and the correspond-
ing Hessian matrix B̂⬘k can be given by ĝ⬘k = VTk ĝk and B̂⬘k
共7兲
= VTk B̂kVk, accordingly.
A basic framework for the trust-region approach in this paper is
described as follows: 共i兲 formulate the above two-dimensional
trust-region subproblem in Eq. 共16兲; 共ii兲 solve the subproblem to
determine the scaled trial step d̂⬘k , then d̂k = Vkd̂⬘k , and dk = Dkd̂k;
共8兲 trust-region size ⌬. The four steps are repeated until convergence.
The convergence criterion is as follows: 共1兲 the change in relative
function value is less than a predefined tolerance, i.e., 兩关f共␪k兲
共9兲 − f共␪k−1兲兴 / f共␪k−1兲兩 ⬍ ␧; or 共2兲 the first-order optimality is satisfied,
i.e., 储D共␪k兲2g共␪k兲储⬁ ⬍ ␧, and H共␪k兲 is a positive-definite matrix at
共10兲 the same time.
The essential idea behind the trust-region approach is to adjust
the trust-region size ⌬ for ensuring a sufficient decrease in the
objective function; i.e., the reduction in objective function should
be at least a fraction of the reduction of the quadratic model
within the trust region following certain rules 关33兴.
2.3 Weighting Strategy. The components of the objective
function vector r共␪兲 can be weighted separately based on their
relative importance. The following procedure is for the weighted
nonlinear least-squares problem,
冐 冐
N
1 W f r f 共␪兲 2
兺
1 1
f共␪兲 = 储Wr共␪兲储2 = 共wiri共␪兲兲2 = 共17兲
2 2 i=1 2 W ␸r ␸共 ␪ 兲
共11兲 W = diag共w兲, W f = diag共w f 兲, W␸ = diag共w␸兲, w = 关wTf ,w␸T 兴T
共18兲
where W, W f , and W␸ are all diagonal weighting matrices. w f and
w␸ are Nm-dimensional weighting vectors of the frequency and
mode shape errors in objective function, respectively. Generally,
the relative magnitudes between w f and w␸ are unknown. Without
共12兲 loss of generality, it is assumed that w̄␸ = wi␸ , w̄ f = wif , i
= 1 , 2 , . . . , Nm, and the weight ratio 共WR兲 defined by WR
= w̄␸ / w̄ f can be utilized to represent the relative importance be-
共13兲
tween the frequency and mode shape errors within the above ob-
jective function. The larger the WR value is, the more important
the mode shape part in the objective function is.
OCTOBER 2010, Vol. 132 / 051007-3
 2.4 Expansion of Objective Function. It must be pointed out
that there is an inherent limitation for directly implementing the
MATLAB function lsqnonlin to the box constrained nonlinear least-
squares problem. That is this function does not solve underdeter-
mined systems. In other words, it requires that the number of
equations 共i.e., the number of components of the objective func-
tion vector兲 be at least as great as the number of unknown vari-
ables. Otherwise, this function will only be used with the bounds
ignored in the underdetermined case. Specifically, for the method
proposed in this paper, the condition N = 2Nm ⱖ N␪ should be sat-
isfied 共see Eq. 共4兲兲. In such a situation, the number of unknown
parameters ␪ should be restricted to be relatively smaller. There-
fore, in order to meet the requirement of N ⱖ N␪, a simple and
convenient expansion process for the initial objective function
vector is proposed, and the general form of the vector-valued
function r共␪兲 is given by

r共␪兲 = 再 关rTf 共␪兲,r␸T 共␪兲兴T , for N = 2Nm ⱖ N␪

关rTf 共␪兲,r␸T 共␪兲,rTe 兴T , for N = 2Nm ⬍ N␪
冎 共19兲

where re is an Ne-dimensional vector, representing the expansion

part of the objective function vector r共␪兲. In order to simplify the
analysis, the condition fact that all components of the expansion
vector re are equal constants is investigated in this paper. In such
a situation, the dimension of the expansion vector 共Ne兲 is conve-
niently set to be TOE⫻ 2Nm. Times of expansion 共TOE兲 is a posi-
tive integer denoting the times of expansion of the objective func-
tion, and it can be employed to investigate the influence of the
dimension of expansion vector on damage detection results. The
amplitude of the expansion vector is represented by a non-
negative scalar multiplier, namely, MULT. Thus, the expansion
vector takes the form re = MULT⫻ INe⫻1, and INe⫻1 is an
Ne-dimensional vector with all elements equal to 1.
3 Numerical Simulations
3.1 Finite Element Model of Portal Frame. In order to il-
lustrate the application of the proposed method in the structural
damage detection, a set of simulations was carried out for a two-
story portal frame in Ref. 关12兴, in which the semirigid effects of
beam-column and column-base connections are neglected. The FE
model of the frame is modeled by 18 two-dimensional frame el-
ements with equal length. The numbering of both nodes and ele-
ments is shown in Fig. 1. The sectional and material properties of
the frame are listed in Table 1.
The first six natural frequencies for the healthy structure are
listed in Table 2. Both the 16 measured DOFs and their corre-
sponding directions are also listed in the table. The effect of ex-
perimental noise is considered here. As an example, NL
= 共1% , 10%兲 means that the natural frequencies and mode shapes
have a measurement noise level 共NL兲 with standard deviations of
1% and 10%, respectively. Herein, a relatively lower frequency
noise level adopted here is due to the fact that the accuracy of
experimental natural frequencies is usually much higher than that
of mode shapes in a real situation.
3.2 Cases Considered. For convenience, 20% reduction in
elemental Young’s modulus is used to simulate damage of stiff-
ness loss, and two damage cases shown in Table 3 are considered.
Case 1 共D14兲 is a single-damage case, in which only element 14
has 20% stiffness reduction. Case 2 共D2-8-17兲 is a multidamage
case, where elements 2, 8, and 17 are set as damaged elements
simultaneously, each with 20% stiffness reduction. The elemental
damage extent 共EDE兲 is used instead of the ESP to conveniently
show the damage status of each element, and EDE= 1 − ESP.
Since EDE is a vector, the residual sum of squares 共RSS兲 of EDE
is conveniently employed to measure the proximity of the identi-
fied and actual damages.
Fig. 1 Finite element model of two-story portal frame
3.3 Parameter Study for Damage Identification. There are
some control parameters 共such as TOE, MULT, and WR兲 in the
proposed method. In order to investigate the influence of these
parameters on the damage detection results, the parameter studies
are carried out one by one in the following parts.
First, the influence of the dimension of the expansion vector
共i.e., the TOE values兲 is investigated. For the single-damage case
共D14兲, Fig. 2 shows the RSS of EDE values against the dimension
of the expansion vector 共TOE兲 when its amplitude 共MULT兲 is
equal to 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, and 5, respectively. The discontinuous
TOE values are employed here in order to illustrate the corre-
sponding results more clearly for the expansion vector with dif-
ferent amplitudes. Figure 2共a兲 shows that the RSS of EDE values
are invariable with the increase in TOE when MULT= 0. It indi-
cates that the dimension of the expansion vector does not affect
the identified results if all components of the expansion are zero.
When the amplitude of the expansion vector 共i.e., MULT兲 is non-
zero, it is found from Figs. 2共b兲–2共f兲 that the RSS of EDE values
increases; i.e., the accuracy of the identified damage extent is
getting worse gradually along with the increase in dimension of
the expansion vector. For different MULT with some certain TOE,
the RSS of EDE values converges to the fixed values, say, 3.11
⫻ 10−2, and the larger MULT is, the smaller TOE is required for
achieving this fixed value. Most importantly, for the expansion
vector with all considered amplitudes 共i.e., MULT values兲, it is
clear from Fig. 2 that the minimum error of the identified damage
extent 共i.e., the RSS of EDE values兲 occurs at only one time of
expansion, i.e., TOE= 1. This indicates that only one time expan-
sion of objective function is needed for the single-damage case. A
very similar phenomenon can be observed from the multidamage
Table 1 Sectional and material properties of two-story portal
frame
Properties Column Beam
Young’s modulus 2.00⫻ 1011 N / m2 2.00⫻ 1011 N / m2
Sectional area 2.98⫻ 10−3 m2 3.2⫻ 10−3 m2
Moment of inertia 1.26⫻ 10−5 m4 2.36⫻ 10−5 m4
Density 8950 kg/ m3 7593 kg/ m3

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 Table 2 Natural frequencies „Hz… and MDOF of health frame

Modal number
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6

Health 39.89 122.51 278.49 304.07 379.37 440.04

MDOF
共node and direction兲 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x, 6x, 7x, 9x, 10x, 11x, 12x, 13x, 14x, 15y, 16y, 17y, 18y

case 共D2-8-17兲, shown in Fig. 3.
Second, based on the above discussions, the dimension of ex-
pansion vector should be equal to the length of the original objec-
tive function vector 共i.e., TOE= 1兲 for this case study. In such a
situation 共TOE= 1兲, the MULT values are set to be the same as
before 共i.e., 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, and 5, respectively兲, and the error of
identified damage extent 共i.e., the RSS of EDE values兲 is com-
pared in Fig. 4 for both the single-damage and multidamage cases
in order to investigate the influence of the amplitude of the expan-
sion vector on the accuracies of identified damage. It is clear from
this figure that the RSS of EDE values for both damage cases
increases gradually, showing that 0 can be considered as a suitable
value for MULT. That is to say, only zero elements are needed in
the expansion vector.
Finally, it should be noted that in the above discussions, it is
assumed that the relative importance between the frequency and
mode shape errors are equivalent 共i.e., the weight ratio, WR= 1兲
without loss of generality. Although WR can also be set to other
values, the conclusions about choosing the suitable TOE and
MULT values are the same as above. In order to investigate the
influence of WR on the accuracy of identified damages separately,
the values of TOE and MULT are kept to be their relatively opti-
mal values derived above 共i.e., TOE= 1 and MULT= 0兲, and the
corresponding results for both single-damage and multidamage
cases are shown in Table 4. It is very clear from this table that
WR= 1 gives the best identification results for both damage cases.
It indicates that the relative importance for both the natural fre-
quency and the mode shape errors in the objective function should
be equivalent.
It is concluded from the above parameter studies of the two-
story portal frame that the identified results are relatively optimum
when TOE= 1, MULT= 0, and WR= 1. In the following section,
these optimal parameters are used to identify the damage of the
frame structure for both single-damage and multidamage cases
under noised condition.
3.4 Damage Identification Results of the Portal Frame. In
order to investigate the uncertainties associated with the identified
results, the coefficient of variation 共COV兲 is adopted. The identi-
fied EDE values for both single-damage and multidamage cases,
together with corresponding COV values, are all illustrated in Fig.
5. It is very clear from this figure that the damage location and the
corresponding extent are well identified for both the single-
damage and multidamage cases under noised condition by using

Table 3 Cases considered for two-story portal frame

Descriptions of each case

Case No. Damaged element共s兲 MULT WR

1 14 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 5 0, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, 100, 1000, inf

2 2, 8, 17

Fig. 2 Identified RSS of EDE values against TOE for single-damage case „D14…

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 Fig. 3 Identified RSS of EDE values against TOE for multidamage case „D2-8-17…

the proposed method. Furthermore, relatively larger COV values
occur at the actual damaged locations, showing that these loca-
tions are more significantly influenced by the measurement noise
for this numerical case study.
Herein, it should be pointed out that the optimum value of TOE
being equal to 1 is only for this particular case study. For other
applications, the basic principle for choosing suitable values of
TOE should ensure that the length of expended objective function
is no less than the number of unknown parameters. Note that the
larger the TOE value is, the larger the computational effort would
be, especially for the complex structure with a large number of
elements.
4 Experimental Verification
To further evaluate the proposed method in laboratory condi-
tions, two experiment models, i.e., a simple three-story steel frame
关34兴 and a more complex aluminum frame with bolted joints 关35兴,
are adopted. The applications of the proposed method on the two
laboratory models are investigated one by one in the following
two subsections.
4.1 Three-Story Steel Frame
4.1.1 Configuration of Three-Story Steel Frame. The building
model was constructed using three steel plates of 850⫻ 500
⫻ 25 mm3 and four equally sized rectangular columns of 9.5
⫻ 75 mm2, as shown in Fig. 6. The plates and columns were
properly welded to form rigid connections. The building was then
welded on a steel base plate of 20 mm thickness. The steel base
plate was in turn bolted firmly on a shaking table using a total of
eight bolts of high tensile strength. The overall dimensions of the
building were 1450⫻ 850⫻ 500 mm3. All the columns were
made of high strength steel of 435 MPa yield stress and 200 GPa
modulus of elasticity. The 9.5⫻ 75 mm2 cross section of the col-
umn was arranged in such a way that the first natural frequency of
the building was much lower in the x-direction than in the
y-direction. This arrangement restricted the building motion in the
x-direction, and thus the building was effectively reduced to pla-
nar building in the x-z plane. The thickness of each steel floor was
25 mm so that the floor can be regarded as a rigid plate in the
horizontal direction, leading to a shearing type of deformation.

Fig. 4 Identified RSS of EDE values against MULT when TOE= 1

Table 4 Effect of weight ratio on identified results „RSS of EDE… when TOE= 1 and MULT= 0

WR
Damage case 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

D14 0.0115 0.0111 0.0107 0.0045 0.0278 0.4016 0.4445

D2–8-17 0.0085 0.0090 0.0076 0.0036 0.0437 0.2186 0.2320

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 Fig. 5 Damage identified results under NL= „1% , 10%…
The geometric scale of the building model was assumed to be 1/5.
To have a better simulation, an additional mass block of 135 kg
was placed on each floor of the building model.
The building model was subjected to a white noise random
ground excitation generated by a 3 ⫻ 3 m2 Material Testing Sys-
tem 共MTS兲 shaking table of the Hong Kong Polytechnic Univer-
sity. Each building floor was equipped with one B&K 4370 accel-
erometer in the x-direction. The signals from the accelerometers
were analyzed by commercial computer software ARTEMIS, devel-
oped by Structural Vibration Solutions in Denmark, to identify the
modal parameters 共natural frequencies and mode shapes兲 using the
method of frequency domain decomposition 共FDD兲. Since this
frame can be simplified as a 3DOF shear building model, all the
three modes can be measured 共Nm = 3兲 and thus utilized in the
following identification process.
4.1.2 Finite Element Model and Its Updating. Table 5 com-
pares the analytical natural frequencies with the experimental re-
sults. From this table, it can be seen that the differences between
the initial analytical frequencies and the experimental results from
the healthy structure are obvious, and the maximum error is
5.491%, which occurs at the first mode. Thus, the model-updating
process is performed before the damage detection procedure is
carried out. The ESP, i.e., the elemental Young modulus, of each
story is considered as the updating parameter, and the number of
unknown model parameters is 3. Since the dimension of the ob-
jective function vector 共2Nm兲 is larger than the number of un-
known parameters 共i.e., 6 ⬎ 3兲, no expansion of the objective
function is required for this model. The WR is set to 1 reasonably
according to the conclusions drawn from above numerical simu-
lations. After the model updating, the natural frequencies calcu-
lated from the updated FE model are very close to the correspond-
ing measured results, as shown in Table 5. The updated FE model
is then adopted in the following damage detection procedure.
4.1.3 Damage Identification. The four damage patterns con-
sidered in the experimental studies are shown in Table 6. They
were implemented step by step by cutting the width of the col-
umns b in the first story to 51.30 mm 共pattern i兲 and then to 37.46
mm 共pattern ii兲 within a height of 60 mm from the bottom, fol-
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Fig. 6 Configuration of three-story frame model „all dimen-
sions in mm…
lowed by cutting the width of the columns in the second story to
51.30 mm 共pattern iii兲 and then to 37.46 mm 共pattern iv兲 within a
height of 60 mm from the second floor, as shown in Fig. 7. The
measured natural frequencies before and after damage for each
damage pattern are listed in Table 7.
Since the identification model of the three-story frame structure
共i.e., a three-story shear building model兲 is simple, the computa-
tional effort is very small by using the proposed damage detection
method, and the convergence can be achieved only after a few
iteration steps for all damage patterns, as shown in Fig. 8. The
damage identification results for all damage patterns are listed in
Table 8. It is very clear that both the identified damage location
and extent are very close to the actual ones, showing that the
proposed method is very effective.
4.2 Aluminum Frame With Bolted Joints. In order to fur-
ther investigate the capacity of the proposed damage detection
method for a more complex experimental model, an aluminum
portal frame with bolted joints is employed here 关36兴. The healthy
Table 5 Natural frequencies „Hz… of health structure
Modal No. Experimental Initial analytical Updated analytical
1 3.369 3.554 共5.491%兲 3.378 共0.267%兲
2 9.704 9.957 共2.607%兲 9.664 共0.412%兲
3 14.282 14.389 共0.749%兲 14.253 共0.203%兲
Notes: The values in parentheses denote error 共%兲 between analytical and experi-
mental natural frequencies.
OCTOBER 2010, Vol. 132 / 051007-7
 Table 6 Damage patterns of three-story frame model

Damage patterns
Undamaged 共i兲 共ii兲 共iii兲 共iv兲

b b SRE b SRE b SRE b SRE

Story No. 共mm兲 SRE 共mm兲 共%兲 共mm兲 共%兲 共mm兲 共%兲 共mm兲 共%兲

1 75 0 51.30 11.6 37.46 21.1 37.46 21.1 37.46 21.1

2 75 0 75 0 75 0 51.30 11.6 37.46 21.1
3 75 0 75 0 75 0 75 0 75 0

Notes: SRE denotes stiffness reduction extent, which is computed based on shear building assumptions.

state of the frame is composed of four aluminum beams with

hollow rectangular cross sections, which were connected by
bolted joints at the four corners. Figures 9 and 10 show a sketch of
this bolted frame structure tested in the laboratory and the joint
design, respectively.
4.2.1 Finite Element Model. Figure 11 shows the FE model of
the bolted frame structure, which consists of 40 plane two-
dimensional frame elements, 40 nodes, and 120 DOFs. In this FE
model, we assumed a uniform constant stiffness and mass distri-
bution for the beams without considering any stiffness degrada-
tion at the four corner joints. The FE model of the bolted frame
has the following material properties: Young’s modulus E = 7
⫻ 1010 N / m2, section area A = 2.241⫻ 10−4 m2, moment of iner-
tia I = 1.431⫻ 10−8 m4, and material density ␳ = 2.7⫻ 103 kg/ m3.
Furthermore, additional masses m1 and m2 were included in the
Fig. 7 Details of damaged column

Table 7 Measured natural frequencies „Hz… before and after damage

Damage patterns
Modal No. Undamaged 共i兲 共ii兲 共iii兲 共iv兲

1 3.369 3.259 共3.265%兲 3.113 共7.599%兲 3.076 共8.697%兲 3.003 共10.864%兲

2 9.704 9.485 共2.257%兲 9.302 共4.143%兲 9.192 共5.276%兲 9.082 共6.410%兲
3 14.282 14.209 共0.511%兲 14.136 共1.022%兲 13.660 共4.355%兲 13.330 共6.666%兲

Notes: Values in parentheses denote error 共%兲 between measured natural frequencies from undamaged and damaged frames.

Fig. 8 History of convergence for damage identification

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 Table 8 Comparison on results of actual and identified damage extent

Damage patterns
共i兲 共ii兲 共iii兲 共iv兲
Actual Identified Actual Identified Actual Identified Actual Identified
Story No. 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲 共%兲

1 11.6 11.0 21.1 22.3 21.1 21.1 21.1 22.7

2 0 0 0 0.7 11.6 12.5 21.1 21.2
3 0 0.2 0 0 0 0.2 0 0

FE model of the aluminum frame, where m1 = 0.052 kg for the
corner joints and m2 = 0.0318 kg for the bolts used to fix the soft
springs for the experimental modal test under free-free boundary
condition.
Damage was set on the middle of the bottom beam by cutting it
into two beams, which were then connected at the webs only,
while the flanges were not connected in order to simulate damage
Fig. 9 Frame structure with bolted joints
Fig. 10 Joint designs
for a reduction of bending stiffness compared with the former
undamaged state. The damage is located at element 8 of the FE
model 共refer to Fig. 11兲. Moreover, there was additional mass
added into the middle of the bottom beam except for the stiffness
reduction. This is because the two bottom beams were connected
by the bolts whose mass was not considered in the initial FE
model. The location of the additional mass corresponds to element
8, together with its neighboring ones 共elements 7 and 9兲 in the FE
model. In order to investigate the influence of the additional mass
on the results of damage identification, a so-called mass increas-
ing coefficient 共MIC兲, i.e., elemental mass density, is adopted to
represent the extent of increased elemental mass. The first six
natural frequencies and corresponding mode shapes before and
after damage 共excluding the three rigid-body modes兲 are measured
by the laboratory modal test and employed in the damage detec-
tion process. The measured mode shapes were composed of 42
translational DOFs out of 120 DOFs, as shown in Fig. 11.
Table 9 compares the natural frequencies calculated from the
initial FE model and the measured ones under both the healthy
and damaged structures. It is found from this table that the ana-
lytical natural frequencies agree well with the experimental ones
for the healthy structure except for the fourth and sixth modes. For
the damaged structure, the first, third, and sixth natural frequen-
cies are found to be affected more significantly by the damage.
This can be verified from the sensitivity analysis of frequencies
with respect to the EDE, as shown in Fig. 12. It is clear from this
figure that the first, third, and sixth frequencies are affected sig-
nificantly if either element 8 or element 28 is damaged although
only element 8 is the actually damaged one. On the other hand,
although not presented here, the mode shapes calculated from the
initial FE model and the ones measured from the healthy structure
yield very similar results showing very high MAC values. As a
result, the initial FE model can well represent the real dynamic
characteristics of the healthy frame structure, and no model-
updating process is required. The following damage identification
process is thus based on the initial FE model.

Fig. 11 Finite element model including measured DOF numbers and directions

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 Table 9 Comparison on natural frequencies „Hz… before and after damage

f analytical f health f damaged Error 共%兲

Modal No. 共1兲 共2兲 共3兲 共1兲 ⬃ 共2兲 共1兲 ⬃ 共3兲 共2兲 ⬃ 共3兲

1 45.01 44.81 42.56 0.45 5.76 5.29

2 45.22 45.56 45.20 0.75 0.04 0.80
3 76.71 76.87 73.69 0.21 4.10 4.32
4 132.46 130.45 130.45 1.54 1.54 1.0⫻ 10−3
5 185.67 186.37 186.20 0.37 0.28 0.09
6 252.78 244.21 234.20 3.51 7.93 4.27

4.2.2 Damage Identification. Two cases shown in Table 10 are
considered for this aluminum frame, as above mentioned. In case
1, only the stiffness reduction 共i.e., the EDE values兲 is considered,
and the number of unknown parameters is 40. While both the
stiffness reduction 共EDE兲 and mass increase 共MIC兲 are considered
simultaneously in case 2, the total number of unknown parameters
is increased from 40 to 80. For this experimental example, the
dimension of the original objective function vector is 12, which is
much less than the number of unknown parameters to be identi-
fied, i.e., 40 for case 1 or 80 for case 2. Therefore, an expansion of
the original objective function is required in such a situation so
that the proposed method can be effectively applied to identify the
damage of the frame structure.
As mentioned before in the numerical simulations of the two-
story portal frame, the suitable TOE value should ensure that the
dimension of expended objective function is no less than the num-
ber of unknown parameters, while the suitable values of MULT
and WR should be 0 and 1, respectively. In order to further verify
this under experimental condition with the aluminum frame
model, investigations for the three control parameters are carried
out for case 1, and the corresponding results are shown in Figs. 13
and 14. It is found from Fig. 13共a兲 that the identification results
are getting worse and worse with the increase in TOE values, and
the identified results are the best when TOE is equal to the mini-
mum value of 3. In such a situation, the whole dimension of the
objective function vector is 48= 共TOE+ 1兲 ⫻ 12, which is greater
than 40, the number of unknown parameters. For different values
of MULT, Fig. 13共b兲 shows that the best identified results can be
found when the MULT is equal to zero, which matches the previ-
ous observations from the numerical case studies. Note that WR
= 1 is assumed in Fig. 13 without loss of generality as before. As
for the effect of WR on the identification results, Fig. 14 shows
the identified damage for case 1 when both TOE= 3 and MULT
= 0. It can be seen that the identified results are the best when the
relative importance between the frequency and mode shapes er-
rors is equivalent, i.e., WR= 1.
Figure 15 shows the identified damage of case 1. It is found that
the actually damaged element 8 is well identified. However, some
obvious false alarms are found at some undamaged elements, such
as elements 7, 9, and 14. This is partly because the initial FE
model is not accurate enough since the additional mass of the
bolted joint in the lower horizontal beam is neglected in this case.
Case 2 is used to test the performance of the proposed method
when the stiffness reduction and mass increase are both consid-
ered simultaneously, and thus the number of unknown parameters
is doubled as compared with that in case 1. According to the
above discussion, the suitable TOE value should be 6; i.e., the
condition 共TOE+ 1兲 ⫻ 12= 84⬎ 80 is met in such a situation. Fig-
ure 16 shows the identification results in case 2. It is shown in Fig.
16共a兲 that the identified EDE values are a little better than those in
case 1 since the actually damaged element 8 is more easily iden-
tified while the falsely identified undamaged elements 7 and 9 are
excluded. Unfortunately, some undamaged elements are also
falsely identified here, especially for element 38. The MICs are
shown in Fig. 16共b兲. It is clearly found that the identified MIC
values of elements 7, 8, and 9 are all nonzero, showing that the
masses of these elements are increased, especially for element 8.
This observation matches with the real situation.
The convergence of the proposed method for the aluminum
frame structure with two damage cases is shown in Fig. 17. It is
very clear that the convergence speed is fast for both damage
cases, and it takes only a few iteration steps for the proposed
method to achieve the solution. Moreover, the reduction in the

Fig. 12 Sensitivity of natural frequencies to EDE

Table 10 Case considered for frame with bolted joints

Case descriptions
Case No. EDE MIC TOE MULT WR

1 Yes No 3, 10, 100,1000 0, 1, 3, 5 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10

2 Yes Yes 6 0 1

Notes: “Yes” denotes that EDE 共or MIC兲 is considered, and “no” denotes not considered.

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 Fig. 13 Identified EDE value when WR= 1 for case 1

objective function value is much more significant in the first few
iteration steps, showing a very good convergence property of the
proposed method.
5 Conclusions
A method for damage identification in frame structures based
on the FE model-updating technique is proposed in this paper. The
objective function, written as a bound-constrained nonlinear least-
squares form, is defined as minimizing the discrepancies between
the experimental and analytical modal parameters. The frequency
error in the objective function is expressed as the difference in
frequency ratio before and after damage, while the mode shape
error is represented by the difference between 1 and the MAC
value, and no scaling or normalization of mode shape vector is
required. The minimization problem is solved by the trust-region
method instead of the commonly used line-search methods in or-
der to make the optimization process more robust. Note that the
dimension of the objective function is sometimes less than the
number of unknown parameters to be identified, especially for the
complex structures with a large number of members and connec-
tions. Thus, the original objective function is expanded in order to
meet the requirement of least-squares form, and a very convenient
expansion process is proposed in this paper. Furthermore, the rela-
tive importance between frequency and mode shape errors in the
objective function is also investigated, and it is found that the
relative weight between the two components should be equivalent
for the objective function adopted in this paper. The validity of the
proposed method is verified by one numerical two-story portal
frame and two laboratory-tested frame structures. The obtained
results show that the proposed method is well suitable for the
damage identification in the frame structures.
Acknowledgment
The project is jointly supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China 共Grant No. 50978123兲, the Guangdong Natu-
ral Science Foundation 共Grant No. 10151063201000022兲, and the

Fig. 14 Identified results when TOE= 3 and MULT= 0 for case 1

Fig. 15 Identified results when TOE= 3, MULT= 0, and WR= 1 for case 1

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 Fig. 16 Identified EDE and MIC values when TOE= 6, MULT= 0, and WR= 1 for case 2

Fig. 17 History of convergence for frame structure with bolted joints

Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities 共Grant
No. 21609601兲. The authors are deeply indebted to Professor M.
Link, University of Kassel, Germany, who provided the experi-
mental data of the frame structure with bolted joints.
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