385

ACTUATOR PERFORMANCE
THE BROAD definition for hydraulic actuators covers linear actuators (single- and
double-acting cylinders); semi-rotary actuators; and hydraulic motors (full rotary actua-
tors) used specifically for actuator duties as opposed to motor drives. Components
normally involved are hydraulic cylinders and the treatment given in this chapter
concentrates on these devices. The ideas are also generally appropriate for application to
both semi-rotary actuators and motors with the modifications indicated at the end of this
chapter.
As well as extending the theory used elsewhere in this book this chapter acts as a
summary of the major formulae associated with actuator performance. Unlike the other
sections in this book reference is also made to other unit systems.

The movement of a piston will be determined by the flow supplied if transients associated
with pressure changes are neglected (this qualification is discussed later in this chapter).
In the case of a cylinder supplied from a pump with a constant flow Q, then the speed U,
can simply be defined:

It follows that this relationship also provides a means of calculating the pump delivery
required to achieve a given speed or time of operation. Working formulae which are cast
to give the operating time of a cylinder are given in Table 4.2.1. Suitable rearrangement
will give the pump delivery necessary. It should be noted, however, that these are ideal
figures and may be modified in practice as described below.
This assumes that the acceleration (and deceleration) transients are negligible, which
is generally true if the system has low mass, low maximum speed, long stroke, or an
appropriate combination of these. The speed is thus controlled by the pump flow and may
be calledflow limited. In the flow limited case increasing the relief valve setting would not
change the piston speed. Nor would a reduction in setting unless it was reduced to a very
low level when the piston would slow as some flow passed through the relief valve in
which case the flow limit assumption is no longer valid.
There is an alternative to the actuator speed being established by a flow limit, this is
called pressure limiting. This is the more usual case when the speed is controlled by
significant pressure drop across a throttle or a proportional valve. Other pressure drops in
the flow path may be considered including the throttling effect of the inlet and outlet ports
of the cylinder, back-pressure in the return and other pressure losses in the pipework.
Reducing the relief valve setting as described above reaches the lower limit as a flow case
when the relief valve pressure becomes equal to the pressure drops within the circuit.
There is simply insufficient pressure to push the flow around the circuit and the fluid takes
the easier path through the relief valve. It then becomes a pressure limited case.
The above analysis can easily be modified to determine the maximum speed when
pressure limited, by calculating the maximum flow and substituting this for the pump flow
 This shows clearly that the speed can be changed by both the throttle valve opening and
by the supply pressure. It is in this sort of circumstance that "fiddling with the relief valve"
can change the piston speed but this is not the recommended method of adjustment once
an operating pressure has been selected. This equation is appropriate for either meter-in
or meter-out control. The example in the introductory chapter on The hydrostatic principle
and basic circuits includes both flow limiting (in the extend direction) and pressure
limiting (in the retract direction) where the "supply" pressure is established by the load
weight.
Note that the case of a pressure compensated flow control valve is analogous to the
pump flow case where a 'fixed' flow will be delivered irrespective of load and other
pressure drops. This then can be considered as the flow limited case within the range of
normal valve operation.

Basic linear actuator force analysis

The equations above are modified by the inclusion of a pressure difference across the
actuator piston but the principles established remain unchanged. The maximum capability
388 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

of a linear actuator may be represented by a constant load moved with constant velocity
over the whole of the stroke, with the resulting load-travel diagram shown as the horizontal
line in Fig 4.2.1. This is seldom realised in practice since the usual motion includes
acceleration from rest which mayor may not be followed by a period of uniform velocity
and possibly deceleration approaching the end of the stroke with a cushion or other means.
An actual load is more likely to take the form of the curve shown in Figure 4.2.1. The
area under this curve represents the actual work done, which is obviously less than that
under constant load conditions. In other words the actual work done by the cylinder is
usually less than its potential capacity.
The force necessary to accelerate (or decelerate) a load is obtained from Newton's
Second Law as the product of the mass M, and the acceleration a:
F=Ma
There are other components of force which must also be considered and strictly the force
above is the net force balance; a sum of all the components along the cylinder axis.
Friction will frequently be present, which will be added to the total force required to
accelerate a load, or subtracted from the total force required to decelerate a load. The
frictional forces inherent in hydraulic cylinders are usually small as discussed in that
chapter, and frequently only the frictional forces associated with movement of the load
itself are significant.
Where the load is moved vertically, the load itself represents a further force to be
overcome (for upward movement) or assisting the actuator force (for downward move-
ment). Since the friction force mayor may not be of the same sign as the weight, the four
possible conditions are detailed below for clarity:
Load movement Force equation
accelerating upwards Fh - Ff = M (a + g)
decelerating upwards Fh + Ff = M (a + g)
accelerating downwards Fh - Ff = M (a - g)
decelerating downwards Fh + Ff = M (a - g)

Where Fr = the friction force

Fh = the hydraulic force (i.e. normal cylinder force)
and consistent units are used.

Where the subscripts 1,2 depend on the direction. This gives the force in N if the
pressures are in MPa and the areas in mm
One further case is sufficiently common to be considered. That is where hydraulic force
generated by the actuator continues to be applied during deceleration of the load. This is
the case with a cushioned cylinder approaching the end of its stroke or where separate
cushioning devices are used to decelerate the moving load. For horizontal movements, the
total force involved during deceleration then becomes:
Cushion force = Ma - Ff + Fh
For vertical movements this is again modified by the weight of the load as above. This
total force represents the force present in the cushioned side of the cylinder. The cushion
ACTUATOR PERFORMANCE 389

stroke is usually quite limited (and fixed); the higher the initial speed the higher will be
the required deceleration and may reach the limits imposed by the construction of the
cylinder. Excessive velocities may be damaging, or may affect cushioning suitability.
Thus, in general, if the intended operating velocity of a hydraulic cylinder exceeds 0.5
m/s the supplier should be consulted regarding the suitability of the cylinder and cushion
(where applicable) for these piston speeds.

Combined analysis for linear actuator

The hydraulic force acting will depend on the pressures acting on the piston and this will
depend on the pressure drops as a result of flow in the other circuit components. This in
turn will change as the load speed (and hence flow) changes. This transient situation can
be accounted for with an equation which also includes the pressure drops. This is again
developed for valve control but could be extended to include any other pressure losses.
Figure 4.2.2 shows the general configuration and defines the symbols used.
The effects of fluid compressibility have been neglected in the analyses presented so far.
In many instances this is quite valid since the transient times associated with load
accelerations are usually long in relation to those associated with compressibility and even
these can frequently be neglected. A more detailed analysis can obviously include these
effects but it is beyond the scope of this book. However, an estimate can simply be made
of the delay occurring before pressures in a system have reached a new steady value. This
can be compared with other time intervals occurring and will indicate whether a more
detailed consideration is required.
 In this case there is only one oil column which changes pressure as the piston moves
since the rod side is always atPs. The final case is the equal area, through-rod design, where
the above equation still applies but with In this case stiffness will be a minimum
when V I V 2, and the piston is in its mid position, giving:

Strictly speaking the volume of the fluid column lengths in the lines to the cylinder
should also be taken into account. This may be significant if the control valve is remote
from the cylinder when the total volume should be used. The connecting stiffness between
both the body of the cylinder and its mounting, and between the rod connection and the
load may also be significant. If these are too 'flexible' then they may form a lower limit
to performance than that of the fluid column stiffness.

Semi-rotary actuators
The formulae for semi-rotary actuator designs based on geared cylinders can be adapted
from those given above. It is possible to modify the equations to deal with torque and
angular motion or to refer load detail back through the effective radius and deal with the
linear piston motion as given. In either case some estimate should be included for the
frictional losses in the internal gearing or linkage. In the case of vane-type semi-rotary
actuators, the output torque is proportional to the effective vane area, the only frictional
losses are those of the seals (usually negligible) and the output shaft bearing (s). The
equations are most appropriately cast in the rotational form.
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