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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
TOFD
INTRODUCTION
HISTORY
• Development of quality control codes related to ToFD in the late 1990’s and 2000’s.
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• Time of Flight Diffraction (ToFD) has a good accuracy for measuring the
through - wall size of crack like defects.
• The accuracy in general is ± 1mm and it can achieve ± 0.3mm when the
defects are monitored.
TOFD BEHAVIOUR
• Normally up to 10% coverage loss is observed due to the two dead zones
(OD surface and ID surface), but the actual percentage depends on the
TOFD setup parameter selection.
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ToFD SUPPLEMENT
• Two dead zones are located near the lateral wave and the back wall
reflection.
• To get full coverage ToFD should be combined with pulse echo (PE)
technique.
• Conveniently, ToFD and PE are complimentary, the strong features of ToFD
are the weak points of PE and vice versa.
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• Sensitivity level: If the instrument sensitivity (gain) is set on very low level, the
TOFD image would display no diffracted echo. If the instrument sensitivity is
set just above electronic noise level, the TOFD image will display a lot of
diffracted echoes which are caused by very small in homogeneities of the weld
seam and does not mean that the weld is really bad.
• Crack size determination: In practice, diffracted echoes at crack tips are not so
clear as they are displayed. Crack tip echoes are part of a noise area caused by
other relevant diffracted echoes of inhomogeneity. That can make sizing with
the TOFD technique difficult.
• Detection of small cracks at backside: This is one of the main disadvantages of
TOFD. In that case traditional UT techniques with angle beam probes are used.
• Crack edges must be sharp, and they are not always.
• There is a dead zone for defect detection under the surface. It means, defects
close to the surface could not be detected. This may be compensated by MPT
(Magnetic Particle Test).
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TOFD Summary
• It is fast, efficient. 'sees' everything and records all raw data for presentation
in a proportionate and representative fashion.
• TOFD is an ideal detection tool which provides an accurate and invaluable
'fingerprint' of condition as a quality control function at the time of
construction.
DISCUSSION
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CHAPTER 2
TOFD Vs OTHER NDT
METHODS
UT Vs ToFD
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RT Vs ToFD
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DISCUSSIONS
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CHAPTER 3
PHYSICS - TIP
DIFFRACTION
1. 0 Diffraction
Diffraction of waves is a phenomenon in which waves spread out at the edges
when they pass through an aperture or round a small obstacle.
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1.1 Mechanism
Diffraction is a resultant of wave displacement at edges
and superposition of waves along the plane of
Propagation.
This is described by the Huygens-Fresnel principle.
• This diffracted wave from the tip of the crack is used to accurately size the
depth of the crack from the ID or the OD.
• The diffracted Waves are much weaker than specularly reflected waves
used for conventional ultrasonic inspection, but they radiate from the tips
in all directions along the same plane as the incident ultrasonic waves.
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Amplitude in dB
variation for both top and
bottom tips of the crack .
• The response is maximum
at 65 degree for both top
and bottom tips.
• Lesser than 45 degree
gives poor amplitude
response. Angle in degrees
DISCUSSIONS
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CHAPTER 4
FUNDAMENTALS OF TOFD
Basic Setup
• 2 probes (transmitter, receiver) in pitch catch
arrangement.
• Wide weld volume coverage
• Longitudinal waves
• Probes symmetrical to the weld center
• Amplifier – at receiver side
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TOFD Signals
Signals received
• Lateral wave (LW), subsurface
• Back-wall echo(BW)
• Mode converted ( shear wave echo)
• Diffracted signals from defects
Transmitter Receiver
Lateral wave
Upper tip
Lower tip
Mode
converted
shear wave
Back-wall reflection
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• Because of the basic pitch-catch probe arrangement the signals from the
near surface region are very compressed in time and these signals may be
hidden beneath the lateral.
• lt is often very useful to collect signals in this region since genuine defect
signals are repeated at longer times and near surface defect signals may
be clearer since they are spread out in time more for the shear waves.
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Transmitter
Receiver
Lateral wave
Back-wall reflection
LW BW
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A-Scan to B-Scan
A-Scan B-Scan
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TOFD dead zones due to lateral waves and backwall. Dead zone size depends on
frequency, pulse length, probe center separation, material thickness, and velocity.
Errors can occur with TOFD if the defect is not symmetrically placed between the two
probes.
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PCS
S S
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1. The first arrival time from the lateral wave signal to the receiver:
tL = 2S/V
2. The second arrival time from the top tip diffracted signal
to the receiver:
2. t1 = 2 [(d2 + S2)1/2 ] / V + 2 t0
3. t2 = 2 [{(d+h)2 + S2}1/2 ] / V + 2 t0
Note:
V- speed for the longitudinal wave in steel
L1, L2 – Half of the path of the diffracted signal so it takes time t 1/2
S – Half distance of the probes separation.
t1 – The arrival time of the top tip diffracted signal
t0 - Probe delay
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DISCUSSION
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CHAPTER 5
EQUIPEMENT SETUP
AND PARAMETERS
SELECTION
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Probe
Transducers / probe that are used for TOFD are different from the
conventional manual ultrasonic testing. The various properties of TOFD
probe, the effect of change in frequency , diameters and PCS will be discussed
in the following slides.
Use of the high frequency probes for testing is a compromise on the wider
beam coverage.
Beam spread
Higher the bream spread more volume on the test material can be covered.
High dampened and broad band probes are generally used in ToFD to get
wider beam coverage ( larger volume coverage).
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Calculate the beam spread using different frequency and diameter and see
the changes in beam spread.
Use Snell's law to find the incident angle of Perspex, for 5 MHz probe with refracted
angle is 600 in steel is used to carry out ToFD :
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1.Calculate the beam spread in steel for longitudinal wave and shear wave
for the following probes :
i.450
ii.600
iii.70
Given:
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Probe frequency
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Probe angle
Probe angle
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For the initial scan, 2/3T rule is used for PCS using the following formula :
PCS (2S) = 2x t x Tan ø x 2/3
Or
PCS (2S) = 1.33 x t x Tan ø
If the focus is other than 2/3T, PCS should be calculated based on depth (d) :
PCS (2S) = 2x d x Tan ø
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Probe-Centre Separation
Change in PCS will effect the focus and the coverage of the volume.
Following figures shows the effect on depth of focus for increase and
decrease in PCS.
When PCS is increased weld coverage increases, if all other parameters are
remains the same.
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Settings
Gain setting
• Setting gain (dB) in TOFD is difficult as its works on the principle of
diffraction, the diffracted signals received are quite weak as compared to
the reflected signals.
• Amplitude of the defects in TOFD cannot be used to decide the size of the
defect and for its evaluation.
• For a given PCS, setting of time-to-depth conversion is best carried out using the
lateral wave signal and the back wall signal with a known material velocity and
thickness (usually V1 block).
• For curved components geometrical corrections may be necessary.
Sensitivity settings
• For all examination levels the sensitivity shall be set on the test object.
• The amplitude of the lateral wave shall be between 40% and 80 % full screen
height (FSH).
Note Any change of the TOFD set-up, e,g. probe centre separation (PCS),
thickness requires a new setting.
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Calibration
The following parameters shall be set based on the thickness of the item being
tested :
Type of Scan : Non Parallel / Parallel
Set the lateral wave, back wall and the mode converted signals on the screen using
the reference block and verify the timing of lateral wave and the back wall signals
against the manually calculated timings. Range start and range (parameters in the
equipment) shall be used to set the screen.
Calibration
Pre inspection and post inspection calibration shall be carried out using A2
/ V1 blocks or other blocks similar in thickness as the object being tested.
Scan area of 0 to 50mm shall be selected.
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Scanning
Limitations
• Defect depth only accurate when
the probes are symmetrically
positioned with regard to the
defect.
• Defect lateral position is unknown.
Limitation
Weld inspection: weld cap often
reduces or makes impossible
the extend of the scan.
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Mechanical Scanner
• Magnetic wheels.
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Based on the material and the thickness of the weld the following
parameters should be selected :
2. Calculate the initial PCS focusing at 2/3T and subsequent PCS at the
required depth or coverage.
3. Select the type of scan i.e parallel or non parallel scan. Initial scans
for welds are non parallel scans.
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j. Select the encoder and calibrate the encoder to record the position
of the probes. Defect locations may be wrong if encoder is not
calibrated properly. Verify the encoder resolution after calibration
with the resolution manufacturers given by the manufacturer.
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Twin transducer TOFD with both transducers on the same side of the
defect/weld.
Transducer size
• Decreasing transducer diameter - decreases output
• Decreasing transducer diameter - increases beam divergence
• Decreasing transducer diameter - decreases near field length
• Decreasing transducer diameter - decreases contact area, emission point
closer to front of probe wedge
Probe frequency
• Decreasing frequency - increases wavelength
• Decreasing frequency - decreases resolution
• Decreasing frequency - increases time duration and intensity of
lateral wave
• Decreasing frequency - increases beam divergence
• Decreasing frequency - decreases near field length
• Decreasing frequency - increases penetration
• Decreasing frequency - decreases acoustic scatter
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DISCUSSIONS
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CHAPTER 6
ERRORS IN TOFD
OUTLINE
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Errors in Timing
Problem
• All depth calculations are based on the assumption that the defects are
symmetrically(centrally) located to the two probes.
• Depth error is high in near surface area as compared to the mid wall.
Solution
• Un-symmetrical defect errors can be reduced by offset scan
To compensate the depth error to some extent
• Lowering PCS - but weld coverage compromised, may require more scans.
• Higher frequency probe – minimizes ringing effect in other words increases
resolution.
• Higher digitizing rate - availability.
Problems
• Small dimensional defects may be missed as the signal may go around the
defect.
Solutions
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Problem
Solution
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Calculate the dead zone for the lateral wave with 2 cycles, 10 MHz probe
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Problem
Some times it is difficult to resolve top and bottom tips for the defects – particularly
for volumetric defects .
Solution
• Decreasing PCS.
• Decreasing pulse length.
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Problem
Error in depth measurement due to defect not centrally located(Off-Axis) between
transmitter and receiver probes.
Related
• The error will be higher when the defect is at the
boundary of the beam on the same ellipse.
• The depth error can vary from almost zero to 60%
and greater. If the flaws are only present in the
weld volume then the depth error is less than 1%
to 3%.
Solution
• Parallel scan where the defect will be at the center of the probes for more
accurate information on depth.
• Using a large PCS
In practice:
• Maximum error on
absolute depth position
lies below 10%.
• Error on height
estimation small defect
is negligible.
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• Like conventional UT, in TOFD couplant is used to efficiently transmitter and receive
ultrasound.
• This coupling film is so thin that its influence on the timing of the ultrasonic signals
is negligible.
• However thick films of couplant lead to lateral wave being not straight (wavy) as
ultrasound may take more time to pass through the areas where the couplant film
is thick.
• The wedge causes a delay (probe delay). Probe delay is not constant and is
different for lateral wave, backwall echo, flaw tips etc., because of beam spread,
and angle. This adds to all arrival times.
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• Usually it is assumed that the inspection surface is flat plane. Minor departures
flatness will obviously degrade the accuracy somewhat as the probes will be
displaced up or down from the assumed positions. The depth error will be of the
same order as , or less than, the displacements of the probes.
Effects of velocity
Overall effects
Overall effects will be all the effects (errors) discussed in this lesson, if all the
effects are added the overall depth effect may be derived. However some of
the major effects ( like timing effect) may contribute more than the other
effects which may be minor or negligible.
Other effects
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DISCUSSION
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CHAPTER 7
DIGITIZATION PRINCIPLES
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Digitization
• Conversion of analogue A-scan (amplitude) to digital numbers (digits) by taking
samples of a signal at a regular interval.
• Analog signals are continuous electrical signals; digital signals are non-continuous.
• Digital information exists as one of two digits, either 0 or 1. These are known as bits
and the sequences of 0s and 1s that constitute information are called bytes.
• Analog signal can be converted to digital signal by ADC. The reading of an analog
signal at regular time intervals (frequency), is the sampling value of the signal at
the point.
• Each such reading is called a sample (a particular combination of 0’s and 1’s) and is
considered to contain exact information for that stage;
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Digitization – Continued.,
• The sampling frequency has to be greater than the
bandwidth of the signal being sampled.
• Nyquist Sampling Theorem - for a correct representation of a
digitized signal, the sampling frequency has to be at least
twice as high as the bandwidth.
• It is recommended that digitizer frequency (Ideal minimum
frequency) is at least 5 times the probe central frequency to
reduce the amplitude error to within 10%.
• An analog-to-digital
converter (abbreviated
ADC, A/D or A to D) is a
device that converts a
continuous physical
quantity (usually
voltage) to a digital
number that represents
the quantity's
amplitude. The
conversion involves
sampling of the of the
data, so it necessarily
introduces a small
amount of error.
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Pulse Width
• An ultrasonic probe consists of a piezo-
electric material which when set into
vibration with a voltage pulse produces a
burst of ultrasound.
• The use of different voltages ranging
dependents on the probe frequency and
the type of crystal element.
• The pulse width helps to optimise the
shape of the received signal. The first edge
of the rectangular pulse sets the crystal
element into oscillation.
• The second edge of the rectangular pulse
also sets the crystal element into oscillation
again but the phase of the burst of
ultrasound is 180 degrees out of phase with
the first set of oscillations.
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Effect of PRF
• PRF is rate of voltage pulses transmitted from pulser to transducer
(remember this is not probe frequency!!!!!!!!).
• Selecting low PRF results in loss of data or missing scan data which are
caused due to high scan speed, wide beam angles chosen, high resolution,
low communication speed.
Under sampling
Sub-sampled image:
• Nyquist is not met
• Amplitude error, phase shift,
distortion
Over sampling
• A higher sampling rate will result in more data points, thus larger files.
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Aliasing Effect
The dotted line indicates the aliased signal recorded by the ADC and is sampled as a 1
MHz signal instead of a 5 MHz signal
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• For an 8 bit digitizer, it is 28 digital numbers i.e 256 (0 to 255, ToFD in RF mode
-127 to +128)
• For an 10 bit digitizer, it 210 digital numbers i.e 1024 (0 to 1023, ToFD in RF
mode -511 to + 512)
• For ToFD data in the RF mode, how many dB’s it takes to display the data for
an 8 bit digitizer :
dB = 20 x log A1 / A2
Signal Averaging
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Consider an example:
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Low Pass Filter : Low pass filter will allow the Using the full band signal will increase noise level
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DISCUSSION
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CHAPTER 8
INTEPRETATION,
ANALYSIS & SIZING
Transmitter Receiver
Positive
Negative
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Top Tip
Bottom Tip
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• A TOFD-testing has to be carried out such that satisfactory images are generated
which can be evaluated with confidence. Satisfactory images are defined by
appropriate:
coupling
sensitivity setting,
time-base setting.
surface-breaking indications
o disturbance of the lateral wave
o disturbance of the back wall reflection;
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• Point-like discontinuity:
This type shows up as a single hyperbolic shaped curve which may lie at any
depth.
Other indications that cannot be classified may require further testing and analysis.
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Time window
shall start at
least 1μSec
prior to Lateral
Wave.
Gain Settings
Low
High
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Missed Scan
Loss of Signal
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Screen Calibration
• Identify the Phase of the lateral and back wall for screen calibration ( suggested to
keep the cursor on good portion prominently displaying phase information in the
D-scan and then go to from A-scan to place the blue and red cursors before
performing the screen calibration option).
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Before
After
Lateral wave removal – done to view masked defects by lateral wave. This
operation is not always completely successful.
Before
After
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Sizing Techniques
Location & Length measurements
• Flaw length from a non-parallel scan( D- Diffracted flaw signal
Scan), is measured from end to end of the
signal after compensating for beam spread.
• If the flaw is curved, then it is difficult to Resultant flaw signal
accurately measure the length and done
more often with errors. Curved flaw
• Length of the flaw is defined by the
difference of the x-coordinates of the
extremities of the indication.
Height measurements
• Uses the accurate time of arrival of the signal unlike the length
measurement technique.
• The height is defined as the maximum difference of the z- coordinates.
• For indications displaying varying z-coordinates along their length, the
height should be determined at the x-position where the difference of the
z-coordinates is greatest.
• Another method is counting the number of rings when the resolution of
the tips is not seen.
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DISCUSSIONS
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CHAPTER 9
CODES & STANDARDS
- TOFD
• ASME XIII requires RT, Code Case 2235 lists conditions under which RT may
be replaced by UT
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Requirements -
For ½” and thicker materials.
Coverage of HAZ
Scan plan
Calibration/Validation block
Computer-based data acquisition required with data recording
Flaw sizing is required
Acceptance criteria
• When ToFD is used to replace RT, then should also be used with an additional
surface technique.
Magnetic Particle Testing
Penetrant Testing
Manual UT
DISCUSSIONS
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CHAPTER 10
APPLICATIONS OF
TOFD
Applications
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Manual Scanning
• Manual scanning is achieved by the use of jigs which has the probe
holders and it allows the probes to be moved (adjusted) horizontally to
set the PCS. Encoders are fixed to the jigs to record the position of the
probes.
• In manual scanning we can mark the PCS and the edges of the probe so
that the inspector knows if he is deviating from the marked positions. Use
of guides (magnetic strips, rulers etc.) will also help to get the scan
straight. Always set the probes such that the weld axis is in the centre of
the two probes.
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Mechanical Scanning
DISCUSSIONS
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