Basics of hydrodynamics

Characteristics of cross section

B
øD
S y S
O
O
b
pipe diameter D [m] channel depth y, h [m]
channel width - at bottom b [m],
- at water level B [m]
mean depth y s  S B [m]

flow area, cross sectional area S [m2]

wetted perimeter O [m]
hydraulic radius R  S O [m]
S D2 D
- circular pipeline with diameter D: R  
O 4D 4
- wide channel B > (2030)y S ≈ By, O ≈ B  R ≈ y
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 Trajectory and streamline (at particular time)

stream fibre - elementary volume of liquid defined by

pack of streamlines
whole flow – body of all flow fibres

elementary stream tube

elementary stream fibre

 ds
point velocity u
dt

u
dS elementary discharge dQ  udS
ds trajectory - real path of particle at time
M streamline  at point M – envelope curve of immediate
substantial particle velocity vectors
(primary element)
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 flow discharge (mass discharge)
dV
Q   dQ   udS
dt S
S – flow area S

 to streamlines (axis)

pipe mean velocity

Q 1
v    udS
S SS
umax
channel S

v
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 Kinds and forms of flow
• unsteady Q  Qt 
• steady Q  const. non-uniform S ≠ const., v ≠ const.
uniform S = const., v = const.

• with free level – flow limited by solid walls, free level on surface,
motion caused by own weight of liquid
• pressure flow – flow limited by solid walls from all sides, motion
caused by difference of pressures
• jets – limited by liquid or gas surroundings, motion by own weight or
by delayed action (inertia)

• laminar
• turbulent

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 Laminar and turbulent flow
• laminar – particles of liquid move at parallel paths
• turbulent – motion of particles of liquid: irregular and
inordinate, fluctuations of velocity vector in time and
space, mixing inside flow
vL
Criterion – Reynolds number Re 

L – characteristic length:
diameter D for pipelines,
hydraulic radius R for other profiles
ReD < 2320  laminar (ReR !)

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 Continuity equation

S dL 
dt  Q 
t Q  L dL d t
 
Q d t dL
S1 S dL S
S2
 Q  S dL 
Q d t  Q  dL d t  dt
 L  t
Q S Q S
 dL d t  dL d t   0
L t L t
general continuity equation for flow of compressible liquid
at definite cross section under unsteady flow
- expresses the law of perdurability of matter
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 Q S
Forms of continuity equation  0
L t
unsteady flow of incompressible liquid

 = const.  Q  S  0
L t

steady flow of incompressible liquid

S Q
0  0  Q = const.
t L

v1 Q v2
 v1S1  v 2S2  Q

S1 S2

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 Euler hydrodynamic equation (ideal liquid)
 
Application of the 2 Newton’s kinetic law:
nd
F  m  a
balance of forces: p  dp  S  p  S    S  ds  g  cos   m  a

du
m  a    S  ds 
dt

p  dp   S  p  S    S  ds  g  cos     S  ds  du
dt
ds
u  , ds  cos   dz
dt
Euler hydrodynamic equation dp    g  dz    u  du  0
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 Bernoulli equation BE (ideal liquid)

Integration of Euler hydrodynamic equation

 dp    g   dz     u  du  0
p z u
u2
p    g  z     const. Bernoulli equation for ideal liquid
2
under steady flow
p u2
z   const.
g 2g
considering the mean cross-sectional velocity

p v2
z   const.  E
ρg 2g

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 Derivation of BE from the balance of mechanical energy
of elementary volume EV
force F

work performed by flow on EV: A  p  S  ds

volume of EV

m  u2   S  ds  u2
kinetic energy of EV: Ek  
2 2
potential energy of EV: Ep  m  g  z    S  ds  g  z
total mechanical energy of EV: Emech.  A  Ek  Ep J
Principle of conversation of mechanical energy:
Emech.  const.
Total mechanical energy Emech. per unit of gravity :
Ep  A  Ek p u2
hE   z   const. m
  g  S  ds g 2g
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Components of BE for ideal liquid

z geodetic head,
potential energy head
of position [m]
p E
g pressure head,
potential energy head
of pressure [m]
v2
velocity head,
2g
kinetic energy head,
dynamic head [m]

p1 v12 p2 v 22
z1    z2  
ρg 2g ρg 2g

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Bernoulli equation BE (real liquid)
a) Coriolis number
b) hydraulic resistances

a) Coriolis number  - coefficient of kinetic energy

• point velocity u  v tube:

v 2
• in technical calculations - mean velocities v 
2g
 depends on - shape of cross section
- form of velocity profile:
circular pipelines and regular channels  = 1,05  1,2,
laminar flow  = 2,
current technical calculations of pipelines  ≈ 1,0
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 b) hydraulic resistances
• motion of real (viscous) liquid  hydraulic resistances

– internal friction in liquid  non-uniform

 
– friction of liquid around solid walls  velocity field

– deformation of velocity and pressure field in singularities

(reduction and enlargement of flow, bends, closures ...)

• part of energy is consumed  losses Z

 energy decreases in the flow direction
 line of energy decreases

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 Form of Bernoulli equation for real liquid

p1 v12 p2 v 22
h1    h2   Z
g 2g g 2g

Z – loss head (losses)

 v2 
Z  f  ,
 2g 

hydraulic slope
(gradient, friction slope)
dZ
iE 
dL
energy decreases in the flow direction 
 line of energy decreases
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 Application of Bernoulli equation (for Z = 0)
Pitot tube Suction effect of flow
energy l.
2
v1 2g p.l.
p1
u2 v 2
z g 2
2g 2g
p2 r.l.
p1
g  p2 g
g p0
u Hs

p1 u2 p2
  p1 1v12 p2  2 v 22
g 2g g   
ρA g 2g ρA g 2g
p2  p1 u2
z balance of relative pressures:
g 2g
 p2
0  p2  ρBgHs Hs 
u  2gz ρB g
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 Momentum equation in flow of liquid
 
momentum of primary element H  mu
from mechanics of primary  element:
  du
dF  dm  a  dm  , dm    Q  dt
dt
 
du
 dF    Q  dt 
dt
 
dF    Q  du
 u
2 
 d F    Q   d u
u
1
  
 dFi    Q  u 2  u1 
i
for the whole flow:
    

dFi  Fi , u  v,  Fi  F
i
  
F    Q  v 2  v1 
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determined volume of liquid x

- external forces: F2
 
 Fi  F y 2

   v2
 F    Q  v 2  v 1
F1 FR
 v1
v 1  entrance
 FA
 velocity 1 G
   
v 2  outlet      FR   FA
 F  F1  F2  G  FA

F1 = p1S1 ... pressure force in entrance profile

F2 = p2S2 ... pressure force in outlet profile
FA ... force of solid wall acting on liquid inside
FR ... force of liquid acting on solid wall
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