The International System of Units (SI)

A guide for professionals

Advantages of SI

The International System of Units, symbolized SI, is the simplified modern version of
the metric system. Congress has adopted SI as the preferred measurement system for
the United States because of its many advantages:

 No conversions (only one unit for each quantity)

 No numbers to memorize (derived units are defined without numerical factors)
 No fractions (decimals only)
 No long rows of zeros (prefixes eliminate them)
 Only 30 individual units (compared to hundreds of traditional units)
 Easy to pronounce and write (short names; simple letter symbols)
 Based on natural standards (size of Earth, water, laws of physics)
 Coherent system (symbols can be manipulated algebraically)
 World standard (even traditional U.S. units are defined by it)

Base and derived units (Table 1)

SI is built on seven fundamental standards called base units. They are listed in Table 1
or Table 6 and defined in Table 8. All other SI units are derived by simply multiplying
or dividing these base units in various ways. No numerical factors are involved
(except for the sievert). Derived units are defined with the same equation as the
quantity they measure. For example, speed (v) is defined as distance per time (v =
d/t). The word "per" means "divided by." So the SI unit of speed is a meter per
second--the unit of distance divided by the unit of time. In symbols, you can show
division three ways: a slash, horizontal bar, or negative exponent. For example, 8
meters per second may be written:

8 m/s 8 m·s1

To multiply units, use a raised dot (·) but don't pronounce it or spell it out:

15 N·m (pronounced and spelled out: 15 newton meters)

For convenience, some derived units have been given special short names and
symbols of their own (Table 1 and Table 6). See below for details and examples
 Table 1 Common units*
Symbol Unit Name Quantity Definition
m meter length base unit
kg kilogram mass base unit
s second time base unit
K kelvin temperature base unit
°C degree Celsius** temperature
m2 square meter area m2
m3 cubic meter volume m3
L liter** volume dm3 = 0.001 m3
N newton force kg·m/s2
J joule energy N·m
W watt power J/s
Pa pascal pressure N/m2
Hz hertz frequency 1/s
Electrical units
A ampere current base unit (= C/s)
C coulomb charge
V volt potential J/C = W/A
ohm resistance V/A

Prefixes (Table 2)

Understanding prefixes

Prefixes are short names and letter symbols for numbers (powers of ten). A prefix is
attached to the front of a unit, without a space. Prefixes are easier to write and say
than powers of ten, ordinary notation, or traditional number names. Compare:

25 MW (pronounced and spelled out: 25 megawatts)

(the 106 is a power of ten)
25 000 000 W (ordinary notation)
25 million watts (traditional number name)
A unit with a prefix attached is called a multiple of the unit. It is not a separate unit.
Note in Table 2 that the larger prefixes (mega and up) end in "a" and have capital
symbols. The smaller prefixes (kilo and down) have lowercase symbols and mostly
end in "o". The symbol for micro (µ = 106) is a lowercase Greek m, called mu. Most
of the twenty prefixes are powers of a thousand (103, 106, 109, 1012,...). These prefixes
(shown without an asterisk in Table 2) are the easiest to use and the most common. As
you go up the "ladder" of these prefixes, the unit is multiplied in steps of 1000, or 103.
Note that 100 (= 1) is a step, although it has no prefix name. Using meter (m) as an
example:

km = 1000 m [kilometer]
Mm = 1000 km [megameter]
Gm = 1000 Mm [gigameter]
Tm = 1000 Gm [terameter]

Going down the prefix scale, a unit is divided in steps of 1000. In other words, it is
multiplied in steps of 0.001 (= 1/1000). For example,

mm = 0.001 m [millimeter]
µm = 0.001 mm [micrometer]
nm = 0.001 µm [nanometer]
pm = 0.001 nm [picometer]

Changing prefixes by moving the decimal point

Choose a prefix that will simplify an expression by eliminating unnecessary

placeholding zeros (non-significant digits). To switch to the next larger prefix (upward
in Table 2), move the decimal point three places to the left. Include 100 (no prefix) as
a step, but ignore the prefixes with asterisks. When the decimal point is not written,
we understand that it follows the last digit.

4 000 m = 4 km
1 500 mg = 1.5 g
500 mL = 0.5 L
76 000 kg = 76 Mg
2 300 µs = 2.3 ms
To switch to the next smaller prefix (downward in Table 2), move the decimal point
three places to the right.

0.005 m = 5 mm
0.009 kg = 9 g
0.003 2 mm = 3.2 µm

When moving the decimal point to the right, you may have to add one or two
placeholding zeros at the end of the number to show where the (unexpressed) decimal
point goes.

0.03 g = 30 mg
0.2 L = 200 mL

The prefixes hecto, deka, deci, centi, marked with asterisks in Table 2, are not powers
of a thousand. For simplicity and ease in calculations, their use is limited. They are
most commonly seen in:

 centimeter (cm).
 multiples of cubic meter (m3). See below and Table 3.
 multiples of square meter (m2). See below and Table 4.

Important. When changing prefixes on centimeter or square meter, you move the
decimal point a different number of places, not the usual three. See below.

Complications with square and cubic meter (Table 3 and Table 4)

Prefixes on the area and volume units are a bit tricky. A prefix on square meter (m2) is
squared along with the unit. For example, a square kilometer (km2) is the area of a
square 1 km on a side. So its area is = 1 million square meters (106
m ). See Figure 3. Although "kilo" means thousand (103), a square kilometer is not the
2

same as a thousand square meters. This is easier to explain with powers of ten:

km2 = (km)2 = (103 m)2 = 106 m2

Similarly, a prefix on cubic meter (m3) is cubed with the unit. For example, a cubic
kilometer (km3) is the volume of a cube 1 km on a side. So its volume is
= 1 billion cubic meters (109 m3). Although "kilo" means
3
thousand (10 ), a cubic kilometer is not the same as a thousand cubic meters. This is
easier to explain with powers of ten:

km3 = (km)3 = (103 m)3 = 109 m3

If we used only those prefixes that are powers of 103, multiples of the square meter
would step by a million (106) per prefix. Multiples of cubic meter would step by a
billion (109) per prefix. This is inconvenient, because of the large number of
placeholding zeros that can result. So, we use the extra prefixes hecto (100), deka
(10), deci (0.1), and centi (0.01) to fill in the gap between kilo (1000) and milli
(0.001). As shown in Table 3, these extra prefixes, when cubed, make the cubic meter
step by the usual three places per prefix (103, 106, 109 and 103, 106, 109).

Liter. A further complication of cubic meter is that some of the common multiples
have special short names and symbols of their own, left over from an old version of
the metric system:

liter (L) = cubic decimeter (dm3) = 0.001 m3

milliliter (mL) = cubic centimeter (cm3) = 106 m3
microliter (µL) = cubic millimeter (mm3) = 109 m3

For simplicity, it's best to avoid other prefixes with liter. For example, don't call a
cubic meter a "kiloliter." See Figure 2 and Table 3.

Square meter. Unfortunately, multiples of square meter can't be made to step by the
usual 1000 per prefix. That's because the square root of 1000--unlike the prefixes--is
not a power of ten. To change the prefix on square meter, you must therefore move the
decimal point 2, 4, or 6 places instead of the usual 3. Study Table 4 and Figures 3 & 4
carefully. As far as prefixes are concerned, square meter is the trickiest unit. A square
hectometer (hm2 = [100 m]2 = 10 000 m2) is commonly called by its old metric name,
hectare (ha). A hundred hectares (or square hectometers) is a square kilometer (km2).

Prefixes on a calculator

In simple cases where all the prefixes are the same, you can ignore them when
entering quantities. The answer will have that same prefix. For example, when adding
lengths in millimeters, you don't need to enter the prefix "milli." Your answer will
then be in millimeters. When calculating the volume of an object from dimensions in
centimeters, you don't need to the enter the prefix "centi." Your answer will then be in
cubic centimeters (cm3), also called milliliters (mL).

However, in complex problems, or when the dimensions have different prefixes, it is

best to enter all the prefixes with the "exponent" key (usually labeled E, Exp, or EE).
This key is calculator shorthand for "times 10 to the...[power]." For example, to enter
25 MW (megawatts), key in 25 E 6 (because M = 106). To enter 4.6 µm
(micrometers), key in 4.6 E 6 (because µ = 106). Note that, on most calculators, you
must enter negative exponents with the change-sign key (not the minus key) which
may be labeled as +/- or (-).
When you enter prefixes, there are three complications you must carefully watch out
for:

 Cubic meter (Table 3). Because a prefix on cubic meter is cubed, you must
multiply its exponent by 3 before entering it. For example, to enter 5 cubic
hectometers (hm3), mentally multiply hecto's exponent, 2, by 3 to get 6. Then
key in 5 E 6.
 Square meter (Table 4). Because a prefix on square meter is squared, you must
multiply its exponent by 2 before entering it. For example, to enter 8 square
centimeters (cm2), mentally multiply centi's exponent, 2, by 2 to get 4. Then
key in 8 E 4.
 Kilogram (Table 5). For historical reasons, kilogram (not gram) is the base
unit of mass. If the equation calls for the base unit, you must enter the power
of ten that goes with the kilogram, not with the gram. That is, you must step
down one prefix (subtract 3 from its exponent). Examples:

Enter 25 kg as 25 kilograms [ignore the prefix kilo]

Enter 48 g as 48 E3 kilograms [step down from 100 (no prefix) to 103]
Enter 30 mg as 30 E6 kilograms [step down from 103 (milli) to 106]
Enter 7 Mg as 7 E3 kilograms [step down from 106 (mega) to 103]

Assigning a prefix to an answer. Keep your calculator set to display in engineering

(ENG) notation. Answers will then show in the form where the exponent a is a
multiple of three, like most of the prefixes. Most calculators can't display superscripts.
Instead, they use the E symbol as shorthand for a power of ten. For example, 52E3
means When recording a quantity, simply replace the displayed power of ten
with the equivalent prefix. For example, a displayed answer of 52E3 meters is written
as 52 km. A displayed answer of 750E3 watts is written as 750 mW. Again there are
three complications you must carefully watch out for:

 Cubic meter. Because a prefix on cubic meter is cubed, you can't just
substitute the prefix that is equivalent to the displayed power of ten. Instead,
you must use the prefix shown in Table 3. You can usually determine this
prefix quickly by taking the cube root of the displayed power of ten, mentally
dividing the exponent by 3. For example, suppose your calculator displays an
answer of 78E6 cubic meters. Since 6 / 3 = 2, the prefix is 102, or hecto (h).
Write the answer as 78 hm3 (cubic hectometers).
 Square meter. Because a prefix on square meter is squared, you can't just
substitute the prefix that is equivalent to the displayed power of ten. Instead,
you must use the prefix shown in Table 4. Sometimes you can find this prefix
quickly by taking the square root of the displayed power of ten, mentally
dividing the exponent by 2. For example, suppose your calculator displays the
answer 47E6 square meters. Since 6 / 2 = 3, the prefix is 103, or kilo (k). Write
the answer as 47 km2 (square kilometers). The calculator will sometimes give
you a power such as 103 or 109 that is not divisible by 2. Then you must move
the decimal point by hand to get one of the powers in Table 4 (100, 104, 106,
etc.). This is a slight bother. For example, rewrite a displayed answer of 5.7 ×
103 m2 as 57 × 104 m2, which can then be expressed as 57 cm2.
 Kilogram (Table 5). Because kilogram (not gram) is the base unit, prefixes are
all offset by 1000. For most equations, the displayed answer will be in
kilograms (not grams). If you wish to assign a prefix, you must multiply the
displayed power of ten by 1000, or 103. That is, you must step up one prefix
(add 3 to the exponent). Examples:

Record 65 E0 kilograms as 65 kg [step up from 100 to 103 (kilo)]

Record 250 E3 kilograms as 250 g [step up from 103 to 100 (no prefix)]
Record 74 E6 kilograms as 74 mg [step up from 106 to 103 (milli)]
Record 98 E3 kilograms as 98 Mg [step up from 103 to 106 (mega)]

Table 2 Prefixes
Power
Symbol Prefix Ordinary Notation U.S. Name
of Ten
Y yotta 1024 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
Z zetta 1021 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000
E exa 1018 1 000 000 000 000 000 000
P peta 1015 1 000 000 000 000 000
T tera 1012 1 000 000 000 000 trillion
G giga 109 1 000 000 000 billion
M mega 106 1 000 000 million
k kilo 103 1 000 thousand
h hecto* 102 100 hundred
da deka* 101 10 ten
100 1 one
d deci* 101 0.1 tenth
c centi* 102 0.01 hundredth
m milli 103 0.001 thousandth
µ micro 106 0.000 001 millionth
n nano 109 0.000 000 001 billionth
p pico 1012 0.000 000 000 001 trillionth
f femto 1015 0.000 000 000 000 001
a atto 1018 0.000 000 000 000 000 001
z zepto 1021 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001
y yocto 1024 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001
Guidelines for correct use (and common mistakes)
1. Write symbols exactly as shown in the tables. Do not change the case, or add
an "s" for the plural, or use abbreviations, or write a period after a symbol
(unless it ends a sentence). Units named for a person have capitalized symbols.
So does the liter (L), because a lowercase el (l) is easily confused with the
numeral 1.* All other units have lowercase symbols, even when the
surrounding text is capitalized.
Correct Incorrect
kg [kilogram] Kg KG kgs. kg. KG.
km [kilometer] Km KM KM. km. Kms. kms.
mm [millimeter] MM mm. Mm
cm [centimeter] cms. CM cm.
K [kelvin] °K
s [second] sec secs. Sec. S
3
cm [cubic centimeter] cc cu. cm
A [ampere] amp
* Note: The lowercase l symbol for liter is currently still allowed, but the capital L is preferred
in North America.
3. Leave a space between the number and the unit, for legibility. On a computer,
use a non-breaking ("hard") space, when available, if there is a danger that the
space will break and wrap to the next line.
Correct Incorrect
35 mm 35mm 35-mm
75 lm 75lm
0g 0g
20 °C 20°C 20° C
4. Do not capitalize spelled-out names, even when the symbol is capitalized
(unless all words are capitalized, as in a title, or the unit begins a sentence).
Unit and prefix names are common nouns, not proper nouns. [Exception: The
C in "degrees Celsius" is capitalized.]

Correct Incorrect
100 watts 100 Watts
100 W 100 w
50 megawatts 50 Megawatts
50 MW 50 mw

5. Use normal (upright) type for unit and prefix symbols. Use italic (slanted) type
for quantity, variable, and constant symbols.
Units or prefixes Quantities, variables, or constants
3 g [grams] 3 g [acceleration of gravity]
m [meter] m [mass]
c [centi] c [speed of light]
6. Pronounce units and their multiples with the primary stress on the first
syllable, so the sound of the prefix won't be lost. Exceptions: candela [can-
DELL-uh] and steradian [ste-RAID-ee-un].
Correct Incorrect
kilometer (km): KILL-oh-meter kil-OM-uh-ter
micrometer (µm): MIKE-row-meter my-KROM-uh-ter
7. Write a zero in front of a leading decimal point, so the point won't become
"lost."
Correct Incorrect
0.5 m .5 m
8. The international convention for writing long numbers is to use spaces (not
commas) to separate digits into groups of three, counting both left and right
from the decimal marker. This space is usually omitted if there are only four
digits left or right. Many countries use a comma as the decimal marker, so the
U.S. tradition of inserting commas as digit separators can cause great
confusion. On a computer, use a non-breaking ("hard") space, when available,
if there is a danger that the space will expand on justification or break and
wrap to the next line.

Preferred Traditional U.S.

65 238 65,238
7 132.6 or 7132.6 7,132.6
3.023 578 3.023578
0.817 5 or 0.8175 0.8175

9. Use decimals, not fractions. Do not use more than one prefix with a unit, or a
mixture of units.
Correct Incorrect
8.5 kg
3.15 m 3 m 15 cm
30 nm 30 mµm
10. Do not mix symbols with spelled-out names in the same expression.
Correct Incorrect
5 kg/L 5 kg/liter 5 kg per L
5 kilograms per liter 5 kilograms/liter
11. Do not attach extra information to a unit symbol.
Correct Incorrect
120 V (alternating current) 120 VAC
120 V (ac) 120 Vac
12. In a compound unit, it's best to attach a prefix only to the left-hand or
numerator unit, so quantities will be easy to compare. Exception: because
kilogram is the base unit, kilogram (not gram) is generally used in the
denominator.
Preferred Avoid
mN·m N·mm
3
Mg/m g/cm3
kW/m2 W/cm2
MJ/kg kJ/g
13. Don't use more than one slash (/) or "per" in a compound unit. To prevent
confusion, insert parentheses or use negative exponents.

Correct
J/(kg·K) or J·kg-1·K-1
joule per kilogram kelvin
Incorrect
J/kg/K J/kg·K
joule per kilogram per kelvin
[The above expressions are ambiguous
because they could mean either J/(kg/K) or
(J/kg)/K, which are not the same]

Common Quantities
 Length

Figure 1. Length comparisons

 Volume
Table 3 Common multiples of cubic meter
(The prefix is cubed)
Symbol Name Equivalent Examples
3
km cubic kilometer 109 m3 mountain
hm3 cubic hectometer 106 m3 large building
dam3 cubic dekameter 103 m3 large house
m3 cubic meter 100 m3 desk
dm3 (L) cubic decimeter (liter) 103 m3 bottle
cm3 (mL) cubic centimeter (milliliter) 106 m3 bean
mm3 (µL) cubic millimeter (microliter) 109 m3 sand grain

For details on the use of prefixes, see cubic meter and Prefixes on a calculator. Multiples larger than
cubic kilometer or smaller than cubic millimeter are rarely used because of the large number of
placeholding (non-significant) zeros that can result. The alternative names liter, milliliter, and
microliter and their symbols are holdovers from an older version of the metric system. They are
acceptable for use with SI.

Figure 2. Multiples of the cubic meter make nesting cubes. Note that as you go from
one cube to the next larger, the sides (prefixes) increase ten times but the volume
increases 1000 times (because 103 = 1000).
 Table 4 Common multiples of square meter
(The prefix is squared)
Symbol Name Equivalent
2
Mm square megameter 1012 m2 = 1 000 000 km2
km2 square kilometer 106 m2 = 100 ha = 100 hm2
hm2 (ha) square hectometer (hectare) 104 m2 = 10 000 m2
m2 square meter 100 m2 = 10 000 cm2
cm2 square centimeter 104 m2 = 100 mm2
mm2 square millimeter 106 m2

For details on the use of prefixes, see square meter and Prefixes on a calculator.

Figure 3. Multiples of the square meter make nesting squares. Note that as you go
from one square to the next larger, the sides (prefixes) increase 10 or 100 times, but
the area increases 100 or 10 000 times (because 102 = 100 and 1002 = 10 000).
 Figure 4. Area comparisons

Mass and Density

Mass is the quantity of matter, measured in kilograms (kg). In everyday language,

mass is usually called "weight," as in "my weight is 75 kg" or "I weigh 75 kg."
However, in correct scientific language, the word weight is reserved for the force of
gravity which, like any other force, is measured in newtons (N). See Force. It is
therefore better to say, "my mass is 75 kg." The kilogram was originally defined as the
mass of a cubic decimeter (liter) of water, which varies slightly with the water's
temperature. The kilogram is now defined exactly by a platinum prototype preserved
in France.

For historical reasons, the kilogram is the only base unit that includes a prefix (kilo).
Other prefixes are attached to the word gram in the usual way. In equations requiring
the base unit, prefixes are therefore offset by 1000. See Table 5 below and Prefixes on
a calculator. A megagram (Mg = 1000 kg) is often called by its old names, metric ton
or tonne.

Density is mass per volume (m/V). The SI unit of density is therefore kilogram per
cubic meter (kg/m3). Because the kilogram was originally based on water, the density
of water is approximately

1 kg/L = 1 kg/dm3 = 1 Mg/m3 = 1 g/mL = 1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3

although this varies slightly with the temperature of the water. The density of water
comes closest to 1 kg/L at about 4 °C (277 K), the temperature at which water is most
dense.
 Table 5 Common multiples of kilogram
(The prefix is offset by 1000)
Symbol Name Equivalent Approximation
Pg petagram 1012 kg mass of 1 km3 of water
Tg teragram 109 kg mass of 1 hm3 of water
Gg gigagram 106 kg mass of 1 dam3 (1000 m3) of water
Mg megagram (metric ton) 103 kg mass of 1 m3 of water
kg kilogram base unit mass of 1 dm3 (L) of water
g gram 103 kg mass of 1 cm3 (mL) of water
mg milligram 106 kg mass of 1 mm3 (µL) of water
µg microgram 109 kg

Figure 5. Mass comparisons

 Temperature

Temperature is the average heat energy per particle (molecule, atom, ion, etc.). See
Energy. The SI temperature unit is the kelvin (K). Zero kelvins (0 K) is the coldest
theoretical temperature, called absolute zero, although nothing can get quite that cold.
The advantage of the kelvin scale is that it has no negative numbers, an essential
requirement in energy calculations. Do not use the word "degrees" or the symbol °
with kelvins.

For everyday purposes, you may also use the older metric temperature scale, degrees
Celsius (°C), formerly called centigrade. Celsius degrees are the same size as kelvins
but the zero point is shifted to the normal freezing point of water (0 °C = 273.15 K).
To get a feel for kelvins and degrees Celsius, see Figure 6 below.
Figure 6. The kelvin and Celsius scales
 Time, Speed, Acceleration, and Frequency

The SI unit of time or period (t) is the familiar second (s). Prefixes may be attached to
form multiples such as millisecond (ms) and kilosecond (ks). Traditional time units
may also be used: minute (min = 60 s), hour (h = 3600 s), day (d = 86 400 s), and year
(a ). These units are not SI, but are often used with SI when it is convenient.
The international symbol for year (a) is from annus, Latin for "year." In fields like
geology that deal with very long natural periods, prefixes are used with year: ka =
thousand years, Ma = million years, Ga = billion years. See Table 7.

Speed (v) is distance per time (v = d/t). The SI unit of speed is therefore meter per
second (m/s). A slow walk is 1 m/s. The fastest humans can sprint 10 m/s. Typical
freeway speeds are around 30 m/s or about 100 km/h. The speed of sound in air is
about 340 m/s. The speed of light in vacuum, the fastest possible speed, is about 300
Mm/s. Velocity, a vector quantity, is speed in a given direction.

Acceleration (a) is the change in velocity per time. It is therefore measured in (m/s)/s,
expressed more simply as meters per second squared (m/s2). At Earth's surface, the
acceleration due to gravity is about 9.8 m/s2, a quantity known as g.

Frequency (f) is reciprocal time . The SI unit of frequency is therefore one

per second (1/s). For convenience, this derived unit is given the special name hertz
(Hz). Wave phenomena are commonly measured in hertz (wave cycles per second).
Audible sound ranges from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Radio and television signals measure in
megahertz (MHz). Visible light measures in terahertz (THz).
 Force

Force (F) is the quantity of push or pull. A force applied to an object (mass) causes it
to accelerate in the direction of the force. This is described by Isaac Newton's famous
Second Law of Motion:

The SI unit of force is derived from this equation. It is therefore a kilogram meter per
second squared (kg·m/s2). For convenience, this derived unit is given the special name
newton (N).

In correct scientific language, the force of gravity is called weight. The weight of a
lemon or small apple, on Earth, is about 1 N of force. The weight (in newtons) of any
object on Earth can be quickly approximated by multiplying its mass in kilograms by
10 (by moving the decimal point one place to the right). For example, a 75 kg person
is pulled downward by gravity with a force of about 750 N. Remember that an
object's mass is the amount of matter it contains, which doesn't depend on location.
But the object's weight (as physicists use the word) depends on the local acceleration
of gravity. Weight varies slightly from place to place on Earth and can be almost any
value outside Earth. But also remember that, in everyday language, "weight" usually
means mass, so we normally "weigh" things in kilograms, not newtons. Isaac Newton
explained the difference between mass and weight three centuries ago, but our
everyday language has not yet caught up!

Pressure

Pressure (p), also called stress, is force per area (p = F/A). The SI unit of pressure is
therefore newton per square meter (N/m2). For convenience, this derived unit is given
the special name pascal (Pa). At sea level, atmospheric pressure averages about 100
kPa (kilopascals). Normal human blood pressure varies from about 8 to 18 kPa (above
atmospheric). The pressure deep in the ocean measures in megapascals (MPa). Steel
and concrete have strengths measured in megapascals.
 Energy (including work and heat)

Energy (E) goes by many names, such as work (mechanical energy), heat, light,
sound, waves, motion (kinetic energy), stored (potential) energy, gravitational energy,
electrical energy, electromagnetic radiation (radio waves, infrared, ultraviolet, x rays,
gamma rays), chemical energy, and nuclear energy. However, they are all
fundamentally the same and we can measure them all with the same unit. Energy can
be defined as the ability to do work. Work is force times distance--the force applied to
an object times the distance it moves as a result (E = Fd). The SI unit of energy is
therefore newton meter (N·m). For convenience, this derived unit is given the special
name joule (J). For example, if it takes 50 N to lift an object, the energy needed to lift
it 2 meters is

Heat is the random kinetic energy of the invisible particles that make up matter
(molecules, atoms, ions, etc.). It takes about 4.2 kJ of energy to heat a kilogram (liter)
of water 1 kelvin or Celsius degree. See Temperature.

Power

Power (P) is energy per time: the energy flow rate. The SI unit of power is therefore
joule per second (J/s). For convenience, this derived unit is given the special name
watt (W). A so-called "horsepower" is about 750 W. The Earth receives about 175 PW
(petawatts) from the Sun. The entire human population consumes various forms of
commercial energy at the rate of about 12 TW (terawatts).
 Other units
Symbol Unit Quantity Definition
Table 6 Dimensionless
Specialized SI units
rad radian plane angle
sr steradian solid angle
number of
mol mole base unit
particles (n)
Electromagnetic
S siemens conductance
F farad capacitance C/V
Wb weber magnetic flux V·s
T tesla magnetic flux density Wb/m2
H henry inductance Wb/A
Light
cd candela luminous intensity base unit (= lm/sr)
lm lumen luminous flux cd·sr (= 1/683 W at 540 THz)
lx lux illuminance (illumination) lm/m2
Ionizing Radiation
Bq becquerel radioactivity 1/s (decays per second)
Gy gray absorbed dose J/kg (of body mass)
Sv sievert dose equivalent Gy·Q·N (Q = quality factor)
Biochemistry
kat katal catalytic activity mol/s

Table 7 Non-SI units commonly used with SI*

Symbol Non-SI Unit Customary Definition SI Definition
Plane Angle
° degree (arc degree) 1/360 circle
minute (arc minute) 1/60° = 1/21 600 circle
second (arc second)
Time (solar)
min minute 60 s 60 s
h hour 60 min 3600 s
d day 24 h 86 400 s
a year (seasonal)
Ma megayear million (106) years
Ga gigayear billion (109) years

* These units are used worldwide and are convenient in many situations. However, they are not SI and
can make calculations more difficult.