447

ELECTRO-MODULATED HYDRAULICS

SUBJECT of electrohydraulics, where an electrically operated valve modulates an

output, has increased significantly in importance in recent years. There are aspects
associated with both open loop and closed loop control which have developed but
principally in the former area. There are many features which can now be incorporated as
standard in many electrical drive amplifiers even for the most basic modulating valve.
Some of these electrical aspects have been introduced to improve the basic performance
of the hydraulic valves and others to make full use of the potential of hydraulic actuation.
This chapter will concentrate on the aspects associated with the valve drive amplifiers
themselves and the consequences in terms of either valve or system performance. This is
not intended to replace an electronics or instrumentation text which should supplement the
material presented here. The chapter deals only with modulating type valves which can
regulate pressure or flow and not with on/off electrically operated valves. These are
broadly divided under the headings of servo-valve and proportional valves but some
common features are discussed first.

Common features of drive circuits

The drive circuits discused in this chapter are all variants under the broad heading of DC
amplifiers and are used to interface the valve with other electrical circuits. They all
conform to a general layout as shown in Figure 5.2.1, although there are many detailed
differences.
There are three principal connection routes: the demand, the supply and the output to
the valve itself. The demand is usually a voltage signal representing the 'opening' of the
448 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

valve to give the required flow or pressure. This may be derived from a number of sources
including a manually set potentiometer, via a switch between pre-set levels, a computer
system, or other electrical circuits. The supply is the power input to run the circuit itself
and supply the power requirements of the valve (depending on type between 15 mW and
50 W). The options for the supply are usually quite varied and they may be unipolar or
bipolar, which requires a plus and minus connection with a common centre ground level.
Voltages are typically in the range 10 to 30 V DC, and the power requirement will depend
principally on the valve. The output of the circuit is the connection to the valve coil (or
coils) and this must be matched with the valve. This usually requires consideration ofthe
maximum output current to correspond to the maximum valve input but voltage levels
must also be adequate.
The vast majority of commercially available valves operate with an electromagnetic
conversion from an input current to a force or torque. The current I, passes through a
copper wire winding which has a resistance R, and therefore there is a heating effect (PR).
The resistance of copper is highly temperature dependent, perhaps increasing by 30% in
normal operation, with a corresponding reduction in output if the coil is operated from a
constant voltage supply. This change could not be tolerated in an open loop system but
might be acceptable in a closed loop system since it could automatically be corrected by
the main loop feedback. However, it is a simple matter to provide the correction in the drive
amplifier directly. This uses a circuit with current feedback but this may also be called a
constant current amplifier or a voltage to current converter. The principle of such circuits
is to pass the coil current through an accurate resistor made with temperature insensitive
material and detect the volt drop across this resistor. A simple circuit showing the series
resistor, and how the volt drop is used as a feedback signal is given in Figure 5.2.2.

In this simple circuit the current through the detecting resistor is not just the current
through the coil but also includes the current through the feedback resistor. The relative
magnitude of the resistances involved means that the difference is usually less than 0.1 %.
Some of the supply voltage is also lost across this detecting resistor which represents a
small power loss. It is usually sized at about 0.5 to 1 in comparison with much larger
coil resistances of 10 to several 100 (values depend on valve type), and so again this is
a small proportion. There are many variants of such circuits with various potential
improvements.
The other main feature common to many circuits is known as dither. This is a signal
ELECTRO-MODULATED HYDRAULICS 449

superimposed on the demand signal to improve hysteresis and frictional effects occurring
principally in the valve. It is usually a sine waveform, although this is not that significant,
at a relatively high frequency and at an amplitude (often adjustable) about 5 - 10% of the
maximum valve signal. The way in which this works is indicated in Figure 5.2.3.
This shows as an example a ramp increase in input signal starting at zero time both

without and then with the dither signal superimposed. A band around this input is intended
to indicate the hysteresis limits of the valve (shown exaggerated). Without dither there is
a delay in valve response and for any changes within the hysteresis boundary the valve
would not respond. The valve drive with dither shows that the response is improved and
will follow the input more accurately. In addition small changes in input will produce an
output in response to the sine peaks when they move outside the hysteresis band. The dither
frequency is high in comparison with the normal valve response, typically 5 times the
valve natural frequency, and is shown at a 'low' level for clarity. Although precision is not
required, the correct selection of dither frequency and amplitude can significantly affect
the success of its use.

Servo-valve circuits have been taken here to include those valves with a torque motor
input. These have two coils and are generally low power inputs in the range 15 mW to 250
mW. The word amplifier is often used to describe appropriate valve drive circuits but in
this case should not be interpreted as a large amplification in power level. It is usual to use
current drivers as described above for servo-valves but it would also be possible to use a
circuit with a voltage output. In both cases fairly conventional operational amplifier
circuits can be used quite successfully to drive such valves, although some regard has to
be given to the inductance ofthe valve with some operational amplifier output stages. The
valve manufacturers also supply suitable drivers matched to their products. These
frequently include additional circuits for the conditioning of feedback signals, providing
a dither generator and even forming a summing junction with basic loop closure gain
terms. These circuits require both positive and negative current output to match the bi-
polar characteristic of torque motors.
The normal maximum output for servo-valves is based on a rated value of current in both
450 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

of the coils. Such valves were historically operated with one coil as a demand and the other
with the feedback signal acting in opposition, and the whole providing the function of a
summing junction. would therefore be possible to operate a valve with up to twice this
rated current in one coil alone to give the full output but this would now be unusual. It is
more normal to operate with the coils driven from the error or control signal and either
connected in series or in parallel. When in series the same (rated) current is flowing
through both the coils to give the full output but of course the steady voltage to provide
this current has to be based on the summed resistance. If the coils are operated in parallel
then the supply must be capable of providing twice the rated current (since it splits half and
half in each coil) but at half the voltage for the series connection. The latter alternative is
often favoured, since if one coil failed (not very likely these days) the second would still
provide valve operation. More importantly it provides the best opportunity of optimising
the valve dynamic response, at least electrically. Since it is easier with this configuration
to provide a higher over-voltage to help establish changes in the current through the coil
inductance more rapidly.

Proportional valve circuits

This section refers predominantly to valves which are operated using proportional
solenoids. These take higher currents than servo-valve coils, in the range 0.5 to 2 A, and
require a current controlled amplifier. The amplifiers would thus be typically rated in the
range 15 to 50 W. Use of the basic analogue circuit described above would give the major
volt drops in the amplifier circuit itself when operated at low outputs. This wastes power
but more importantly can give significant detrimental circuit heating. The reduction of this
higher power dissipation within the circuit has led to the almost universal adoption of Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) output stages in the drive circuits which eliminates the power
wasted within the control circuit itself. Solenoids are uni-directional in their action and so
typical drive circuits are only required to provide one sense of current direction. Simple
flow throttle valves and pressure control valves will only have one solenoid but the
majority of four-way proportional valves have twin solenoid operation, each solenoid
driven by a separate circuit. Proportional solenoids are more often used in open loop
applications and many of the features incorporated into the amplifiers will enhance open
loop system performance.
The force controlled type of solenoid can be simply operated from any DC supply that
will deliver the rated current. A control resistor in series with a battery can give very
acceptable manual control of flow or pressure. There are more sophisticated joy-stick
levers available to give the similar manual input appropriate for a four-way valve.
However, all valve amplifiers work to supply a controlled current to the solenoid as
described above and they use a PWM technique.
A PWM signal is intended to obtain a mean level between upper and lower limits by a
timed switching between these limit levels. will work wherever there is a delay between
switching a signal as an input level and the actual controlled signal finding a new level,
in other words there must be some filtering or lagging effect such as with the lag between
current and a supply voltage in a solenoid (time constant given by ratio Figure 5.2.4
shows two different mean levels produced by PWM signals.
 The difference between the PWM signals is the time spent at the high level in relation
to the time at the low level. The examples in the figure are shown at 25% and 75%, when
this time is split half and half then the mean value should be at 50%. This time split is
sometimes called a mark space ratio but a much better term is modulation ratio. This latter
relates the ratio of ON time to total period time, which gives a more useful linear
relationship with the resulting mean level. PWM frequencies are usually very high,
frequently in the kHz region. They should not be confused with, nor do they act as, dither
frequencies which are usually much lower.
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The majority of proportional valves are constructed with some spool overlap which
gives an effect generally referred to as a deadband. Valve amplifiers usually incorporate
a deadband compensator which reduces the apparent deadband in relation to the actual
overlap. This is achieved by jumping the output signal to a value set at about 10- 20% of
its maximum for a small change in input around the zero value. This is shown in Figure
5.2.5 together with the effect on the spool opening.
The deadband compensator usually switches in at a fixed level of about 1-2%, whereas
the level of output is usually adjustable. It can be set appropriately for both the valve and
the application. There are many cases in open loop applications where a deadband is an
advantage.
Itis usually possible to adjust the gain between the input signal and the maximum output
of the driver. This does not affect the matching of the amplifier to the valve coil but rather
the value of input signal which gives the rated output. This allows interfacing flexibility
with a number of different source circuits, which may have from 1 to 10 V maximum
available. Another option with many drive circuits is to accept a current magnitude input
signal as an alternative to a voltage. There are several interface standards for conveying
information as a current, most commonly the 4 - 20 mA system. Information as a current
will not degrade if conveyed over large distances and the 4 - 20 mA system allows break
(open circuit) detection if the current falls below the 4 mA minimum.
As referred to in the chapter on Actuator peiformance hydraulic loads may behave like
ELECTRO-MODULATED HYDRAULICS 453

spring/mass systems in an oscillatory fashion. This is best avoided because large pressure
transients and noise are also usually produced. These oscillations are usually excited by
rapid accelerations or more frequently the higher decelerations possible for an actuator
and load. A deceleration (and acceleration) limit can easily be incorporated into valve
drivers and eliminates these oscillations. These limits are called ramp limits since the rate
at which a valve is ramped open or shut is controlled. In the case of flow control the rate
of spool movement gives a rate of change of flow, and since flow is equated with velocity
then this rate limit is effectively an acceleration limit. The effect of a ramp controlled
opening and closure of a valve on an oscillatory load can be seen in Figure 5.2.6.
Ramp control can be implemented as one setting, limiting all valve movements or as a
so called four quadrant controller. In this case opening and closure rates can be
independently set for two solenoids, effectively gi ving individual control of acceleration
and deceleration in both directions of travel. The ramp is also useful with pressure control,
for example a pump rapidly coming on-load can cause unnecessary noise and pressure
fluctuations. The more gradual changes possible with ramp control avoids such transients.
There are also many valves available which include position feedback - the stroke
controlled proportional solenoid options. The drive circuits for these valves not only
include the normal facilities but also the necessary supply and conditioning of the
feedback signal and the completion of the closed loop control of the valve. In most cases
this latter is likely to be more sophisticated than a simple proportional controller and may
even be a digital controller for robust performance.
Drive circuits for proportional valves are available in a wide range of configurations
from amplifiers built into plugs to sophisticated cards which include many optional
features. The range of alternatives and facilities offered with most amplifier systems is
very large and should meet most interfacing and open loop control requirements.
Additionally, monitor points and LEDs give a good indication of the correct operation of
the system and can assist with any fault diagnosis. The current actually supplied to a
solenoid, an indication of a cable break or the position of a valve spool may be accessible.
Other features available may be controlled from external logic signals, for example
external selection of demand voltage levels which are pre-set on the circuit or an inhibit
function to interlock with other safety logic. There is greater sophistication possible when
used with a PLC to set different options in different parts of a machine cycle.
Many of these features can be built into the connecting plug of the valve or on an on-
board driver circuit for either a force controlled or a feedback valve. The fullest range of
adjustment requires a rack mounted amplifier, some are very versatile including micro-
processor control (see also Figure 8.8.5). In addition there are DIN mounted modules or
individually housed amplifiers which give almost the same capability.

Electromagnetic compatibility
As discussed in the chapter on Legislation and safety, most hydraulic components and
some systems fall into the benign category of The Electromagnetic Compatibility
Directive and are thus exempt. The requirements apply to apparatus liable to cause
electromagnetic disturbance or to have its performance affected by such disturbance. They
set standards for both the emissions from any electrical device or installation as well as the
454 THE HYDRAULIC HANDBOOK

immunity of both these to interference. Perhaps the key lies in this last word. It is all about
"interference", and eliminating it between any two or more items of operating equipment
both by reducing interference output and reducing interference susceptibility of all the
items involved. The components mainly affected in hydraulic systems are the electro-
hydraulic valves (all types), their amplifiers, feedback transducers and switches, and
electric motors or power packs. Note that some of these components may also be covered
by other Directives as well. In the case of a complete installation then this may also include
the wiring and cabling.
In some respects this means that techniques for noise suppression that were used when
deemed necessary (or found necessary!) will now be routinely incorporated. This includes
the techniques of input/output protection, screening and filtering which can to some extent
be incorporated retrospectively in existing designs and products. However, the screening
particularly at cable terminations requires more stringent methods and even improved
connector types. Many of these ideas have generally been incorporated into existing
devices, however, it seems likely that future generations of products will have addressed
these aspects more fundamentally with ideas incorporated from the outset. However, most
manufacturers are developing an EMC strategy to introduce new and improved methods
including integration of control cards and transducers in valves which will improve
intrinsic immunity.
Demonstration of conformity to the Directive for most hydraulic products may take
place either through testing or through the production of a TCF (Technical Construction
File). The TCF includes a description of the product, with drawings, circuit or block
diagrams, and details of the EMC provisions with wiring layout, filters, screening and
installation details. It may also include any relevant test results. Testing requires a
specialist facility which is relatively expensive. However, it is likely that more in-house
facilities will be produced for development work, relying on specialist test houses only for
final conformance testing.
This is a situation which is still developing rapidly and likely to continue to change for
some time in the future. More detailed discussion is beyond the scope of this book and
EMC is thus best tackled by studying a specialist text.