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PEMP

EMM2512

Ferrous Alloys

Dr. N S Mahesh

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 1


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EMM2512

Session Objectives
At the end of the session delegates should have understood
– Classification of materials
– Ferrous alloys and its classification
• Iron-Iron Carbide diagram
• AISI/SAE and UNS Designation Systems
• Manufacture of steel coil and sheet for the automobile
industry
• Steel
– High strength steel types
– Ultra high strength steel
• Cast iron and types

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 2


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Classification of Engineering Materials


Metallics Metals
Alloys
Intermetallic
compounds

Polymerics Composites Ceramics


Plastics
Glasses
Rubber
Porcelain
Elastomers
Semiconductors
Textile
Stoneware
leather
Cement

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Mass Fractions by Material in Automobile


• Ferrous metals • 985 kg or 64%
• Non-ferrous metals • 138 kg or 9%
• Plastics • 143 kg or 9+%
• Other materials • 192 kg or 13%
• Fluids • 74 kg or 5%
• Total • 1532 kg or 100%

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EMM2512

Metal Alloys

Most engineering metallic materials are alloys. Metals are


alloyed to enhance their properties, such as strength,
hardness or corrosion resistance, and to create new
properties, such as superconductivity and shape memory
effect.

Engineering metal alloys can be broadly divided into

• Ferrous Alloys
and
• Non-ferrous Alloys

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Why Ferrous Alloys are important as


engineering construction materials?
• Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant quantities
within the earths crust
• Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced using
relatively economical manufacturing techniques
• Extremely versatile
Steels
and
Cast Iron

Composition, Microstructure, Properties and Applications

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EMM2512

Ferrous Alloys

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An Iron – Iron carbide diagram showing the


phases present in any alloy containing up to 6% Carbon

Steel generally has


less than about 0.7%
C, but can have up to
2.11% C.
The phase diagram
only strictly applies to
an iron – carbon
combination
Steel and iron often
have other alloying
elements in them,
which modify the
phase diagram

Polymorphism of Fe:
At 1394 C: d  g At 912 C: g  a
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Fe-Fe3C system EMM2512

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Fe-Fe3C system
Five basic solid phases
• d-phase: solid solution of C in bcc Fe at high T.
• Austenite (A, g): solid solution of C in fcc Fe.
Maximum solubility of C in fcc Fe: 2.11wt% at
1148°C.
• Ferrite (F, a): solid solution of C in bcc Fe.
Maximum solubility of C in bcc Fe: 0.022wt% at
727°C.
• Cementite (Fe3C): Fe-C intermetallic compound of
complex structure; metastable.
• Graphite (G): pure C; stable.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 10


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Fe-Fe3C system EMM2512

Peritectic reaction: δ+Lγ Eutectic reaction: Lγ+Fe3C


Eutectoid reaction: γa+Fe3C
The product of eutectoid transformation is a laminar structure of F and Fe3C, known as pearlite.
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 11
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Microstructure of Ferrous Alloys EMM2512

γ-Fe
(Austenite):
solid solution of
C in FCC iron,
formed by
solidification
from liquid, large
grains and
straight grain
boundaries,
stable at high
temperatures,
high solubility
for C, high
ductility and
formability

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 12


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α-Fe (ferrite): A
solid solution of C in
BCC iron, formed
from austenite
through solid phase
transformation,
small grains and
irregular grain
boundaries, stable at
room temperature,
very low solubility
for carbon, ductile
and soft, not so
strong

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Pearlite (P): A
composite
structure of
laminar ferrite and
cementite, formed
as a product of
eutectoid
transformation
from Austenite,
good combined
strength and
toughness, ideal
for structural
applications

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 14


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Hypoeutectoid steels:
Steel of <0.77%C. These
account for low and medium
carbon steels. Microstructure
consists of pearlite and pro-
eutectoid ferrite. The
proportion of pearlite
increases with increasing C%
towards 0.77wt%. Higher
portion of P makes the steel
stronger but less ductile.

Pearlite (dark regions)


Ferrite (white regions)

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EMM2512

Hypereutectoid steels: Steels


of >0.77%C. These accounts for
high-C steels. Microstructure
consists of pearlite matrix and
cementite network along grain
boundaries; cementite network
reduces toughness and ductility
significantly. Proportion of
cementite increases with
increasing C content away from
0.77wt%.

Pearlite matrix

Cementite

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Low-carbon steels (mild steels): 0.1-0.25 %C


• high formability, high ductility, toughness
• Microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite
• Cold work is used to increase hardness
• typical applications: pipes, panels, sheets, wires

Composition of plain carbon steels


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High-strength low alloy steels (HSLA): 0.25-0.55%C


• Alloying elements
– Copper, vanadium, nickel and molybdenum
• good combination of strength and ductility
• bridges, pressure vessels, towers, welded
structures

Composition of HSLA

Mechanical properties and applications of HSLA


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AISI/SAE and UNS Designation Systems EMM2512

AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute


SAE: Society of Automotive Engineers
ASTM: American Society for Testing and Materials
UNS: Unified Numbering System

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Typical Applications and mechanical property ranges for oil


quenched and tempered plain carbon and alloy steels

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Medium-Carbon Steels: 0.25-0.60 wt%


• Microstructure: Tempered
Martensite Quench and Anneal
• High strength and Reasonable
Ductility
• Railway wheels, tracks, gears,
crankshafts etc

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 21


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High-Carbon Steels-0.60-1.4 wt% C


• Hardest, strongest and least ductility, wear resistant
• Carbon tool steels: 0.8~1.2%C
– High alloy tool steels are often alloyed with Mo, V, W, Cr and/or
Ni.
– UNS: Txxxxx
• Typical applications: chisels, hammers, knives, saw blades, drills, dies,
machine tool cutters, punches, cutlery, springs (0.6~0.8%C) and high
strength wire Cutting blades

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Designation, composition and applications of Tool steels

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Stainless Steels
Stainless Steels: Addition of Cr and Nickel to Fe-C will significantly increase
corrosion resistance

Three basic classes, specified by microstructure:


Ferritic: Fe-Cr alloys (12~25%Cr), can be cheap
Martensitic: Fe-Cr alloys, low Cr, hard, cutting tools
Austenitic: Fe-Cr-Ni alloys (18Cr-8Ni), corrosion resistance

Ultra high strength stainless steel (17-7PH): Precipitation hardened, high


strength and hardness

Alloys designation

AISI UNS
2xx S2xx00
3xx S3xx00 304, 316, 316L (Austenitic)
4xx S4xx00 410 (Martensitic), 446 (Ferritic)
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Stainless Steels EMM2512

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Steel
• Low cost
• Ease of forming
• Consistency of supply
• Corrosion resistance with zinc coating
• Ease of joining
• Recyclable
• Good crash energy absorption
• Heavier than alternative materials
• Corrosion if uncoated

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High strength steel strengthening mechanism


• Rephosphorized steel
• Interstitial-Free (IF) steels
• Bake-hardening steels
• Grain and grain boundaries
• Multiphase steels
– Duplex steel (ferrite + austenite)
– Dual-phase steels(ferrite +martensite)
– TRIP steels (TRansformation Induced Plasticity)
– Complex steels
• Ferrite +bainite+martensite phases with a fine grained
microstructure

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 28


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High Strength Steel Grades EMM2512

Type Range of yield Strengthening mechanism


stress MPa
Low carbon mild 140-180 Residual carbon, Mn, Si
steel sheet
Rephosphorized 180-300 Solid solution hardening
Bake hardening 180-300 Strain age hardening
HSLA 260-420 Grain refinement and precipitation
hardening
Dual Phase 450-600 Martensitic (hard) phase in ferritic
ductile matrix
TRIP Steel 500-800 Transformation of retained
austenite to martensite on
deformation
Complex and 800-1200 Bainitic/martensitic phases formed
martensitic steels by controlled heat treatment
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 29
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Heat Treatments
• A – Furnace Annealed – Slow cooled
• N - Normalized - Air cooled.
• O - Oil Quenched
• WQ – Water quenched.
• WT(370)– Water quenched, tempered at 370°C for 1 hour.
• WT(705)– Water quenched, tempered at 705°C for 1 hour.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 30


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What is Heat Treatment?


Heat treatment is thermal processing of alloys for inducing
certain property changes in the material

It comprises of :
• Heating the material to specified temperature
• Holding at heat treatment temperature so that desired
transformation is complete
• Cooling in a specified rate to room temperature

Two major types


a. Surface heat treatment – carried out only to modify the surface
properties (case hardening - nitriding, carbonitriding etc.,)
b. Bulk heat treatment – carried out to modify the properties in
entire volume of material (annealing, hardening, tempering)
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Thermal Processing of Alloys


• Heat Treatment of Steels
– Hardenability
– Influence of quenching medium, specimen size, and
geometry
• Annealing Processes
– Annealing of ferrous alloys
∗ Full annealing
∗ Normalizing
– Process annealing
– Stress relief
• Precipitation Hardening

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 32


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EMM2512

Heat Treatment of Steels


• Conventional heat treatment procedures for producing
martensitic steels involves

– continuous and rapid cooling of an austenitized specimen


in some type of quenching medium, such as water, oil, or
air

• The optimum properties of a steel that has been quenched and


then tempered can be realized only if,

– during the quenching heat treatment, the specimen has


been converted to a high content of martensite

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Non-uniform Cooling Rate during Quenching


• During the quenching treatment,
– it is impossible to cool the specimen at a uniform rate
throughout
– the surface will always cool more rapidly than interior
regions.
• The austenite will transform over a range of temperatures,
yielding a possible variation of microstructure & properties
with position within a specimen.

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Heat Treatments of Steels (Cont’d)

• The successful heat treating of steels to produce a


predominantly martensite microstructure throughout
the cross section depends mainly on three factors:

1. the composition of the alloy

2. the type and character of the quenching medium

3. the size and shape of the specimen

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What About Cooling Rates?


• Faster cooling gives “non-equilibrium
microconstituents”…
– Bainite
– Martensite
– And more!
• To know what microconstituents are present, you
must look at cooling curve diagrams

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 36


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Microconstituents Vs. Cooling Rate


• Spheroidite: Spherical “globs” of Fe3C in Ferrite

• Pearlite: Layers of α ferrite and Fe3C


– Course Pearlite
In creasing Cooling Rate

– Fine Pearlite

• Bainite: 200 – 500 °C Transformation

• Martensite: Rapid Cooling

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 37


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TTT Diagrams

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 38


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Full TTT Diagram

The complete TTT


diagram for an iron-
carbon alloy of
eutectoid
composition
A: austenite
B: bainite
M: martensite
P: pearlite

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 39


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Bainite
• Upper (550-350°C)
– Rods of Fe3C
• Lower (350-250°C)
– Fe3C Precipitates in Plates of
Ferrite
• It is still Ferrite and Cementite!
It’s just acicular.

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 40


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EMM2512

Martensite

• Diffusionless transformation
of FCC to BCT (more
volume!)
• Lenticular structure
• Very hard & very brittle.

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Slow Cooling

Time in region indicates


amount of
microconstituent!

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Medium Cooling

Cooling Rate, R, is
Change in Temp / Time
°C/s

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Fast Cooling

This steel is very


hardenable… 100%
Martensite in ~ 1 minute
of cooling!

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What is Tempering?
• Martensite needs to be tempered to get better ductility. This
happens when Fe3C is allowed to precipitate from the
supercooled Martensite.

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Spheroidite
• If tempered for a long
time, Fe3C forms
“spheres” and grows
inside Ferrite.
• Very soft, easy to
machine

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Temperature EMM2512

Austenite
Austenite + Ferrite
723 o C
Water or oil Furnace cooling
cooling Air cooling

Heat Quench Isothermal Spheroidizing


Normalizing Annealing Austempering
treatment hardening annealing annealing

Purpose Strength Machinability Machinability Strength, Machinability Cold


toughness forgeability

Micro Ferrite + Ferrite +


Martensite Ferrite+Pearlite Ferrite+ Bainite
structure Pearlite spheroidized
Pearlite
cementite
Con-rod, Transmission Transmission
Spring Bolt, ball
Parts streeing gear, drive gear, drive,
joint
knuckle pinion pinion

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Ref [1]
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Cast Iron
• Carbon content ranging from 2-4.3%
• Castable, hard & strong
• Wide range of types depending on:

1. The chemical composition of the iron; the existence


of certain alloying elements.
2. The cooling rate of the casting in the mould.
3. The type of graphite formed and its percent
composition.

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Fe-Fe3C diagram showing CI


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Cast Iron Types


• Gray (graphite flakes) CI
• Malleable CI
• Nodular (ductile/spherulitic) CI
• White CI

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Gray (Graphite Flakes) CI


• Gray fracture surface
• Maximum C%
• C precipitate as flakes
• High Si% forms flakes
• Good wear resistance,
vibration damping
machineability
Pearlitic matrix
Graphite flakes
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Ductile (Nodular/spherulitic) CI
• C precipitates in black nodules
• High fluidity/castability
Good machineability
Wear resistance
Pearlitic matrix
Spherulites

• Alloy elements produce nodules

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White CI

• Iron carbide forms


instead of iron and
graphite
• Iron carbide in
pearlite
Pearlitic
• White fracture matrix
Cementite
surface

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Malleable CI

• Initially formed as white CI


• Heat-treated in
malleablizing furnace to
dissociate Fe3C to iron and
graphite
• Good wear resistance
Ductility Pearlitic matrix
Fluidity
Graphite clump

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Cast Irons - Microstructures


From a microstructural view point, cast irons can regarded as steels embedded with a
carbon-rich phase, which can be either graphite or cementite (Fe3C). Graphite offers no
strength nor toughness and acts like voids in the iron; cementite is very hard and brittle.

Grey iron: graphite White iron: cementite


flakes embedded in plates embedded in
ferrite matrix, cutting pearlite matrix,
the continuity of the renders the metal
matrix and rendering high hardness and
the metal high brittleness.
brittleness.

Malleable iron:
Nodular iron: graphite clusters
graphite nodules in converted from
ferrite matrix, decomposing
significantly cementite in white
improving toughness iron, significantly
and ductility of the improving toughness
metal and ductility of the
metal
 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 55
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EMM2512

Summary
• Ferrous alloys and its classification, Iron-Iron
Carbide diagram
• Steels - AISI/SAE and UNS designation
• Heat treatment of Steels
• Cast iron and its types

 M.S Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies - Bangalore 56

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