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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO.

2, APRIL 2007 795

A New Approach Traveling-Wave Distance


Protection—Part I: Algorithm
Ernesto Vázquez, Member, IEEE, Jorge Castruita, Oscar L. Chacón, Member, IEEE, and
Arturo Conde, Member, IEEE

Abstract—This paper describe a new ultra-high speed protection This paper describes a new algorithm for traveling-wave dis-
algorithm for traveling-wave distance protection for transmission tance protection; the proposed algorithm explores the possibility
lines, based on pattern recognition of the first wavefront that ar- to characterize the wavefront behavior for internal and external
rives at the relay location due to fault. The algorithm uses prin-
cipal component analysis (PCA) to preprocess data from the power faults of the protected transmission line using the first wave from
system in order to eliminate redundant information and enhance the fault. The principal component analysis (PCA) method ex-
hidden patterns in the traveling waves for internal and external tracts the features from the relaying signals in order to im-
faults. The algorithm was proven using PSCAD/EMTDC simula- plement a pattern recognition process in a 2-D space called fea-
tions in a three-phase 400-kV power system considering critical ture space. The representation of the original relaying signals in
fault cases. The results show the feasibility to implement this al-
gorithm for transmission-line ultra-high speed protection. the feature space shows a linearly separable structure and it is
not necessary to use a classification technique to solve it. The
Index Terms—Distance measurement, pattern recognition, pro-
basic concepts of this algorithm were described in [11].
tective relay.
The algorithm uses a data window with 25 sample points of
relaying signal , covering a period of 25 s at a sampling rate
I. INTRODUCTION of 1 MHz. Although the higher sampling rate in actual digital
OWER system protection has traditionally relied on the relays is 8 kHz, it will increase in the coming years. Addition-
P measurement of power frequency components for the de-
tection of faults. In conventional protection schemes, the signals
ally, the lack in the bandwidth of the CT and CCVT is an actual
restriction; however, the new optical transducers will solve this
of high frequency introduced by a fault are considered as inter- problem in the future.
ference and are filtered out [1]. However, these high-frequency The algorithm was proven using PSCAD/EMTDC simula-
components contain extensive information about the fault type, tions considering critical cases as faults close to the relay loca-
location, direction, and sustain time. In fact, the high-frequency tion, faults close to line remote end, faults occuring near a zero
transient signals generated by a fault contain more information voltage, and high-impedance faults. In all cases, the algorithm
about the fault than power frequency signals [2]–[4]. discriminates between internal and external faults.
The basic principle of the traveling-wave distance protection
is to measure the time interval between the arrival of an inci- II. TRAVELING-WAVE PROTECTION
dent wave toward the fault point and that of the corresponding
When a fault occurs in the transmission line by virtue of the
wave reflected from it. Most present schemes use the correlation
superposition theorem, the fault-injected components and
function method to recognize the wavefront returning from the
can be acquired by subtraction of the steady-state compo-
fault [5], [6]. This is the radar principle. Most recently, some dif-
nents from the postfault signals (incremental signals) using a
ferent techniques have been used to improve the results obtained
delta filter [12]. The forward and backward traveling waves
by the correlation function, such as wavelets [7], neural net-
and used in the traveling-wave protection are defined as fol-
works [8], and pattern recognition methods [9]. However, these
lows [13]:
new approaches use the same concept to recognize the second
wavefront returning from the fault. The common characteristic
(1)
of these algorithms is that they have at least an operation time
of , where is the travel time between the relay and the fault (2)
point. Recently, a hybrid algorithm [10] has been proposed to
solve the problem to detect faults that are very close to the relay where is the line characteristic impedance and and
location that use an impedance element equivalent to a first zone travel along the transmission line in opposite directions.
in typical distance relay. When they hit a discontinuity, part of it will be reflected and a
part will pass to other sections of the system.
When a fault occurs in a transmission line at a position that is
Manuscript received June 8, 2005; revised February 20, 2006. Paper no.
TPWRD-00336-2005.
km away from the relay, traveling waves would be generated
The authors are with the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey and propagate along the line. If we can get the time interval
66451, México (e-mail: evm@ieee.org; ochacon@mail.uanl.mx; con_de@ between the reflected wave and that of the backward wave, then
yahoo.com).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
can be acquired from and the surge velocity by
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2007.893376 (3)
0885-8977/$25.00 © 2007 IEEE
796 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

Fig. 1. Traveling waves across a junction.

Fig. 2. Graphical interpretation of PCA.

To simplify the calculations, the modal analysis method is


always adopted to decouple the phase signals into three inde-
IV. PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS
pendent modal components, including one earth mode and two
aerial modes. Three of the constant modal transformation ma- A common method derived from statistics for analyzing data
trices for perfectly transposed lines are the Clark, Wedepohl, is PCA [14]. The purpose of PCA is to identify the dependence
and Karrenbauer transformations [13]. structure behind a multivariable stochastic observation in order
The proposed approach characterizes the wavefront behavior to obtain a compact description of it.
for internal and external faults of the protected transmission line Fig. 2 illustrates the PCA [15]. In this figure, OA is the first
using the first wave from the fault. The proposed algorithm uses principal component direction of the distribution that generates
the PCA to extract the features from the relaying signal in the cloud of points, and OB is the second principal component.
order to implement a pattern recognition process in 2-D sub- Is evident that the projection onto OA shows more structure than
space without using any classification method. the projection onto OB. Clusters are thus more likely to be dis-
tinguished by projection in a high-variance direction than in a
low-variance one. Hence, the dimensionality reduction in the
III. TRAVELING WAVESHAPE PCA could retain most of the intrinsic information in the data. In
The shape of traveling waves in homogeneous lines will be PCA, the th principal component direction is along an eigen-
distorted by the resistances of the line conductor and the insula- vector direction belonging to the th largest eigenvalue of the
tion due to skin and corona effects. However, these distortions covariance matrix of the input data.
introduce smooth changes in the waveshape. In the other hands, For a data set of th dimension vectors , we can prove that
once a fault occurred, the traveling waves reached the substa- axes correspond to the largest eigenvectors in
tion at both transmission-line ends. The impedances of the sub-
station elements (lines, transformers, and reactor, for example) (6)
represent a junction that produces transmission and reflec-
which are associated with the largest eigenvalues of the
tion waves, and their magnitudes are
covariance matrix . The new data representation is
(4) (7)

(5) where , is the mean of the data set and


are the -dimensional compact description of the original
where is the initial traveling wave due to the fault, is the data set . An advantage to use PCA to preprocessing data is a
surge impedance of the faulted line, and is the equivalent reduction in data dimension that eliminates redundant informa-
surge impedance of all elements of the substation except the tion and allows simplifying the classification process. A com-
faulted line. plete PCA example is described in [16].
Thus, a traveling wave that arrives at any junction between
two elements of different surge impedance will undergo a V. TRAVELING-WAVE REPRESENTATION USING PCA
change as it travels across the junction. A very simple scenario
is shown in Fig. 1, where an incident wave reaches the A. Data Window
substation B, and it travels to the next line as a transmission The principal idea to use the PCA is carried out as a pat-
wave , but its shape is distinct with respect to the original tern recognition process to discriminate between internal and
wave . The wave will be the same as that incident wave external faults using the basic features extracted from the first
only if the surge impedances are equal . wave that arrive at the relay. For the present study, we neglect the
Therefore, a traveling wave that arrives at a relay location CT and CCVT transient response, with an infinite bandwidth.
due to the external fault (line BC) undergoes a shape change The proposed algorithm uses the Wedepohl transformation
as it travels across substation B, but for the wave produced by matrix with aerial mode 1 of the traveling wave , and an
internal faults (line AB), its shape is minimum distorted. This -dimensional matrix is formed with samples of (data
traveling waveshape change is used as an operation principle of window). In order to consider the first wavefront from the fault,
the algorithm proposed in this paper. we decide to use 25 samples of separate 1 s between
VÁZQUEZ et al.: A NEW APPROACH TRAVELING-WAVE DISTANCE PROTECTION—PART I 797

all data windows obtained by simulation were normalized with


values between 0 and 1; to avoid changes in the traveling wave-
shapes, they were scaled using

if
(10)
if

These normalized vectors will be use as a test pattern to


principal components calculation. An advantage to use (10) is to
solve the problem of sign rotation in the principal components
axes [11], allowing it to discriminate between an internal and
external fault in a direct way, without necessity to implement a
classification process.
At any time, the vectors can be represented as

.. .. .. ..
Fig. 3. Data window used in the algorithm. . . . .
(11)
.. .. .. ..
. . . .

We obtain the eigenvectors and eigenvalues , from the co-


variance matrix of
Fig. 4. Power system test.

TABLE I (12)
FAULT CONDITIONS USED TO ESTIMATE PC (13)

It is easy to prove that the sum of all eigenvalues in is


equal to 1.0, meaning that the PCA represents an orthogonal
transformation.
Every data window represents a single point in a 25-dimen-
sional space, and the idea for using principal components is to
reduce this representation to the minimum possible subspace.
samples that is a sampling rate of 1 MHz. A fault detector is The most representative principal components correspond to
used to build the data window that carries out the next criteria the dominant eigenvectors that are associated with the largest
eigenvalues in the covariance matrix . In our case, the first two
Normal condition (8) eigenvalues contain 95% of the meaningful information.
Therefore, the dominant eigenvectors are the new axes where
Fault condition (9)
the traveling waves will be represented after the transfor-
mation
where was selected as 0.1 p.u., and the base quantity is the
nominal operation voltage of the transmission line. Therefore,
the first sample of the data window is the first sample of (14)
that fulfills (9), as is described in Fig. 3.
where is the row vector with the mean value for each of the
25 dimensions of the original data, and is the representa-
B. Principal Components Calculation
tion of vectors in the 2-D subspace of the first two principal
We used the PSCAD/EMTDC program [17] to simulate the components.
three-phase 230-kV power systems shown in Fig. 4 and charac- Previous results indicate a strong effect of the fault condition
terize the first wave from the fault. Details of the transmission on the principal components, especially with respect to the fault
lines used are contained in the Appendix (Fig. 11). Table I de- inception time [11]. It is solved by grouping the fault condi-
scribes the fault conditions used to calculate the principal com- tions (Table I) for the same inception time, obtaining 16 groups,
ponent; the simulation process produces 1056 data windows ( , (faults were simulated 16 times in a 60-Hz voltage signal) each
) formed with samples of . having 66 data windows, including both internal and external
In order to implement the algorithm in any power system, in- faults. This process generates 16 pairs of principal components
dependent of the network configuration and operation voltage, for each inception time.
798 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

Fig. 5. Algorithm diagram blocks.

VI. ALGORITHM

A. Fault Inception Time Detection Fig. 6. Discrimination between internal and external faults.
A correct representation of the traveling wave in the
principal components 2-D subspace, requires knowing the fault
inception time in order to select the correct transformation vec- the breaker. In addition, the algorithm has a directional detector
tors. To do this, a counter restarts every time the zero-crossing to block breaker operation for any fault behind the relay loca-
detector is activated. When a fault occurred, the algorithm ver- tion. Some directional detectors are explained in [13].
ifies the criteria to select the first sample of the data
window, and uses this condition to stop the counter. In this situa- VII. RESULTS
tion, the output of the counter indicates the fault inception time. The algorithm was evaluated in distinct scenarios simulated
When there is not a match between this time and the time used in the power system test (see Fig. 4). Every scenario was formed
to calculate any principal components, the algorithm uses the as combination of different faults, locations in the transmis-
transformation vectors for the next inception time available. sion lines, time inceptions, and fault resistances. Initially, the
PCA application for discrimination between internal and ex-
B. Discrimination Between Internal and External Faults ternal faults is described with the following six fault cases.
The proposed algorithm extracts the first two principal com- 1) Fault in line 1, 82 km from the relay position; inception
ponents from the absolute value of the data set, and the proce- time of 8 ms .
dure solves the problem of sign rotation. As result of this proce- 2) Fault in line 1, 91 km from the relay position; inception
dure, the left-side plane of the principal component subspace time of 8 ms .
corresponds to internal faults and the right-side plane corre- 3) Fault in line 1, 85 km from the relay position; inception
sponds to the external faults, including critical cases, when the time of 8.4 ms .
faults occur very close to the middle substation among lines. 4) Fault in line 2, 8 km from the transmission lines union;
Even more, it is enough to verify the sign of the first principal inception time of 8 ms .
component, as described in (15) 5) Fault in line 2, 15 km from the transmission lines union;
inception time of 8 ms .
Internal fault
(15) 6) Fault in line 2, 20 km from the transmission lines union;
External fault.
inception time of 7.8 ms .
Consequently, it is not necessary to use a classification tech- These six faults were not being considered in the principal
nique to discriminate between internal and external faults. components extract process and include two faults that did not
occur at 8 ms, but near it. Fig. 6 describes how the PCA differen-
C. Diagram Blocks of the Algorithm tiates between internal and external faults using these six faults
Fig. 5 shows the diagram blocks for the proposed algorithm. as an example. The first two graphics show the samples of the
The voltage and current signals are obtained thought ideal CT traveling wave for each fault, before and after the scaling
and CCVT, and using the Wedephol transformation, we obtain process. Once these signals are normalized, it is possible to ob-
the aerial mode 1 of the traveling wave . Once a fault oc- serve some differences between the waveforms for both internal
curred in the transmission line, the algorithm builds the data and external faults. The principal features of these differences
window as a normalized 25-dimensional vector and chose were captured in the PCA vectors during the process. After that,
the transformation vector to represent it in principal components the normalized signals are represented in the principal compo-
2-dimension subspace. If a fault is detected (projection of is nent subspace, where those differences are amplified, showing
in the left-side plane), the algorithm prepares the trip signal to that the final structure of the fault conditions in 2-D is linearly
VÁZQUEZ et al.: A NEW APPROACH TRAVELING-WAVE DISTANCE PROTECTION—PART I 799

Fig. 7. Waveshapes for phase-a-to-ground faults. Fig. 9. Waveshapes for three-phase faults.

Fig. 8. Phase-a-to-ground faults in a 2-D subspace. Fig. 10. Three-phase faults in 2-D subspace.

separable (third graphic); when the absolute value is used to rep- inception time and Fig. 10 shows its projection in principal
resents the wave , the separation plane corresponds to the component subspace; the results are correct in both cases.
vertical axes, as is described in (15). A problem in traveling-wave protection is the detection of
As we used information from the first wave of the fault, it closeup faults due to very short transit times of the waves. With
is not necessary to consider a more complex power system a 25- s data window, and considering a wave speed of 300,000
configuration, and a single-end fed system is enough. Addition- km/s (light speed), it is possible to detect a fault 7.5 km away
ally, if more elements are connected in the substation between from the relay position. A future work is to reduce the length of
both lines, as transformers or other transmission lines, their the data windows to improve this aspect.
impedance will change the waveshape for external faults, but In the second part of this paper, we used a two double-cir-
not for internal faults. In other words, the PCA characterizes cuit power system to test the algorithm; these results include
the waveshape based on the change of impedance experimented critical cases as faults close to the relay location, faults close
by the traveling wave from the fault to relay position. to line remote end, faults occurring near a zero voltage and
The first results of the new algorithm are described in high-impedance faults. In all cases, the algorithm discriminates
Figs. 7–10. Fig. 7 describes the waveshapes for 22 phase-a-to- between internal and external faults.
ground faults conditions simulated with for 90
as an inception time for the same fault locations indicated in
VIII. CONCLUSION
Table I. Projections of each waveshape (data window) are shown
in Fig. 8, and we can see that the algorithm recognizes between The basic principle of traveling-wave distance protection is
internal and external faults . In the same way, Fig. 9 to measure the time interval between the arrival of an incident
describes 22 solid three-phase faults simulated for the same wave toward the fault point and that of the corresponding wave
800 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 22, NO. 2, APRIL 2007

[6] E. H. Shehab-Eldin and P. G. McLaren, “Travelling wave distance pro-


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is linearly separable for all faults with the same inception time,
independent of its position. Discrimination between internal and Ernesto Vázquez (S’93–M’97) received the B.Sc.
degree in electronic and communication engineering
external faults is carried out verifying the sign of the first prin- in 1988, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in elec-
cipal component, and it is not necessary to use a classification trical engineering from the Universidad Autónoma de
technique. Finally, the results show excellent performance of the Nuevo León (UANL), Monterrey, México, in 1991
and 1994, respectively.
algorithm. Currently, he is a Research Professor in Electrical
Engineering for the UANL. In 2000, he was with
APPENDIX the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada,
where he was working in traveling-wave protection
algorithms. His research areas are power electrical
Line 1, configuration A. systems protection and artificial-intelligence applications in power systems.
One conductor/phase.
Main conductors , Jorge Castruita received the B.Sc. degree in industrial electronics from the
Universidad Autónoma de Coahuila, Monclova, México, in 2001 and the M.Sc
ohms/km. degree in electrical engineering from the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo
Ground conductors , León, Monterrey, México, in 2004.
ohms/km. His research area is power system protection.
Line 2, configuration B.
Oscar L. Chacón (M’93) received the B.Sc. de-
Two conductors/phase. gree in chemical engineering from theUniversidad
Main conductors , ohms/km. Autónoma de Nuevo León, Monterrey, México,
Ground conductors: , in 1968, the M.Sc. degree from the University of
Houston, Houston, TX, in 1974, and the Ph.D. degree
ohms/km. from the University of Texas in Austin in 1987.
Currently, he is a Full Time Professor with the
REFERENCES Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. His research
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elling wave relay—Theory and realization,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., Universidad Veracruzana, Boca del Rio, México, in
vol. PWRD-1, no. 1, pp. 272–279, Jan. 1986. 1993, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical
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in power system protection,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Power System Tran- Nuevo León (UANL), in 1996 and 2002, respectively.
sients, 1997, pp. 401–406. Since 2003, he has been a Full Time Professor with
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IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-97, no. 5, pp. 1607–1617, tion and power quality.
Sep./Oct. 1978.

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