1 INTRODUCTION

Although water managers, policy makers and engineers

are generally aware of the hazards that are exposed by
floods, and although average and general numbers are
known in their own region of work, many questions
and facts remain unsolved and are not revealed when
it concerns floods and flooding on a global scale.
How many major flood events occur on an annual
basis? How are these events distributed over the continents?
What is the main cause of these floods? How
large are the areas affected? This is just a sample of
questions on which this overview attempts to give an
indication to initiate discussions on e.g. policy making,
mitigation and coping strategies.
The importance and relevance of a sound and
reliable global database on floods and flooding will
become more evident. Not only insurance companies
will be interested in economic losses and risk exposures,
but research institutes, government and financial
organisations such as (development) banks can also
benefit from accurate data on floods and flooding. A
wide range of scientists is interested in these characteristics
to determine and formulate research questions
for the development of e.g. assessment methodologies.
Engineers can develop more appropriate and suitable
flood management and protection schemes, both structural
and non-structural, by analysing where mitigation
strategies actually work. Governments and international
development agencies want to optimise their
investments to alleviate poverty and to simulate (economic)
prosperity and finally, all these stakeholders
are interested in collecting correct information to
improve their knowledge on floods and flooding.
This contribution gives an overview of characteristic
data on floods and flooding on a global scale. Data
on flood events from 1985 till 2003 have been analysed
and will be presented. An overview and comparison
of flood management strategies gives an indication
how different societies and nations attempt to cope
with these hazards.
In order to analyse data on floods and flooding, a
distinction is made between different categories of
countries and continents. The categorisation is based
on the economic status of countries, as defined by the
World Development Indicators database of the World
Bank (2003):
� Least developed countries: low (US$ 2,975 or less)
Gross National Income (GNI)/capita;
� Emerging countries: middle (US$ 2,976�9,205)
GNI/capita;
� Developed countries: high (US$ 9,206 or more)
GNI/capita.
Definition of floods and flooding
Definitions of �floods� and �flooding� are often confounding
and mixed up when issues concerning high
water stages or peak discharges are portrayed. Here
both denominations are defined as follows:
� A flood is defined as a temporary condition of surface
water (river, lake, sea), in which the water level
and/or discharge exceed a certain value, thereby
escaping from their normal confines. However, this
does not necessarily result in flooding (Munich-Re,
1997).
� Flooding is defined as the overflowing or failing of
the normal confines of e.g. a river, stream, lake, sea
or accumulation of water as a result of heavy precipitation
by lacking or exceedance of the discharge
capacity of drains, both affecting areas which are
normally not submerged.
1.1 Floods, flooding and other natural disasters
The worldwide damage caused by floods has been
extremely severe in recent decades. No other natural
hazard appeared so frequent, has claimed more human
lives, generated such large economic losses, ruined
more fertile land and destroyed more houses.
Out of over 7,000 natural disasters that occurred
during the last decades, more than 74% were water
related. Among these, floods are the most frequent
and account for about one-third (Figure 1.1.a) (Dutta,
2003; Cosgrove & Rijsberman, 2000; Munich-Re,
1997). In economic terms too (Figure 1.1.b), floods
were responsible for about a third of the overall losses
between 1986 and 1995 (Loster, 1999; Munich-Re,
1997) and for 20% during the past 30 years (Dutta,
2003). The largest economic losses were incurred as a
Characteristic data on river floods and flooding; facts and figures
N. Douben & R.M.W. Ratnayake
UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
result of urban floods or by immense areas of farmland
being destroyed. The overall economic loss caused
by natural catastrophes amounted up to approximately
US$ 630 billion between 1986 and 1995. The fastgrowing
costs of floods and other weather-related disasters
(nowadays US$50 to 60 billion per year and
much of this in emerging and least developed countries)
roughly equal the global development aid provided by
all donor countries combined (EO News, 2004).
Natural catastrophes claimed the lives of approximately
367,000 people between 1986 and 1995. More
than half were victims of storm surges, river floods or
flash floods (Figure 1.1.c). Most of the casualties were
recorded in Asia, where large-scale natural events
have been occurring repeatedly (Munich-Re, 1997).
2 FLOODS; TYPES, CAUSES AND IMPACTS
2.1 Types of flood
In general, a distinction can be made between five
different types of floods, which are partly emanating
from large-scale surface waters (1 and 2) or linked
with relatively small-scale events of local character
and/or stagnant water bodies (3, 4 and 5):
1. River flood. The majority of floods recorded around
the world are the result of river floods in middle or
lower stretches that occur after prolonged precipitation
over large areas of a basin. Melting snow and
obstructing ice can also exceed the conveyance
capacity of river channels, hence leading to flooding.
Normally, river floods last for several days to
several weeks and usually affect large areas
(Munich-Re, 2000);
2. Coastal flood. Areas along coastlines may be subject
to flooding as a result of tsunamis, hurricanes
(cyclonic storms) and unusually high tides. In
addition, long-term processes like subsidence and
sea level rise can lead to the gradual encroachment
of the sea;
3. Flash flood. Flash floods usually develop from local
precipitation of extreme high intensity, as generated
during (slow-moving) thunderstorms, leading
to flooding in a limited area with a high flow rate
and catastrophic amounts of damage. Flash floods
appear sudden and unforeseen and tear away everything
that is not securely fixed. The discharge during
a flash flood amounts many times the normal average
flow in a watercourse. Flash floods can occur
almost anywhere but are particularly dangerous on
steep slopes and are also a common phenomenon in
arid zones due to parched ground, which normally
has a low absorbing capacity;
4. Stagnant and urban floods. Extreme local rainfall,
combined with impeded and/or blocked drainage,
may cause severe inundations. This type of flooding,
depending on topographical and soil conditions
and the existence of adequate and well-maintained
drainage facilities, mainly occurs in flat and lowerlying
regions (e.g. reclaimed areas), but is also often
witnessed in urban areas. When land surface is converted
from fields or woodlands to built-up area, it
loses its ability to absorb rainfall. On average urbanisation
may remove storage capacity and increases
runoff several times compared to natural terrain;
5. Lake and canal floods. Exceptional periods of precipitation
or long lasting inflows from streams and
rivers can cause a substantial rise in the water level
of lakes, which lack sufficient drainage or adequate
outlets. The often densely populated shore
areas then inundate for several metres. Longerterm
or even permanent flooding of lake areas may
occur if sediment fills the lake to the point where
the capacity to store in-flowing water is reduced.
Similarly, flooding by (drainage) canals occurs
20
32%
18%
34%
16%
55%
29%
9%
7%
Number Economic losses Casualties
30%
29%
31%
10%
Flooding Earthquake Windstorm Others
Figure 1.1. Number (a), economic losses (b), and casualties (c) caused by natural
catastrophes worldwide in % (1986�1995;
Munich-Re, 1997).
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
after periods of long or heavy rain, when the
drainage capacity and/or pumping capacity, in case
of reclaimed or polder areas, is exceeded. However,
also during periods of drought a risk of inundation
by embankment failure subsists, as was seen in The
Netherlands during the summer of 2003, when two
peat embankments failed as a result of instabilities.
Compared to river floods the affected area often
remains relatively small, but the damages can be
high, especially in densely populated areas.
2.2 Causes of river floods and flooding
The causes of different types of river floods are numerous.
Approximately 50% of the most frequently occurring
causes are related to anthropogenic interferences
(�man-made floods�). Drainage systems are modified
to prevent flooding, but sometimes these efforts have
adverse effects and actually may enhance the causes
of flooding in up and downstream areas. By protecting
(urban) areas against floods, interferences often
increase flooding risks (e.g. inundation depth) and
concomitant potential damages.
Regarding the anthropogenic influence on the occurrence
of floods, a distinction can be made between
direct (short-term) and indirect (long-term) causes.
The direct causes are related to the failure of flood
defence structures as a result of exceedance of design
conditions or inadequate design, construction, maintenance
and operation. The indirect causes have many
different appearances; important in this case are:
� Physical and spatial planning;
� River training and regulation (confinement of
rivers);
� Water and river basin management (groundwater,
deforestation, etc.);
� Urbanisation (sealing) and settlement in flood
prone areas;
� (Men induced) climate variability.
Natural causes of floods and flooding
Weather patterns determine the amount and location
of precipitation and snowfall. The amount and time
over which precipitation occurs is not constant for any
given area. When the amount of water flowing into an
area exceeds the capacity of the river system, the result
is usually a flood. Deep snow cover can melt into a
large volume of water. Often, heavy rain and a rapid
increase in temperature, combined with rapidly melting
snow, are the cause of major flooding problems.
Saturated soils (i.e. natural sealing) are encountered
after long periods of heavy rain, which reduces the
absorption capacity considerably. Precipitation results
in surface runoff and flows rapidly into streams and
rivers. Permafrost can also cause flooding, similar as
in the case of saturated soils.
When heavy rain and unusually mild temperatures
move into an area with frozen rivers, ice jam flooding
can occur. Rising water stages break ice layers into
large chunks, which float downstream and often pile
up near narrow passages or obstructions, such as
bridges, dams and barriers. The potential for a backwater
flood depends on the initial water levels before
the formation of the ice dam and on the time period
that the ice dam remains intact. During periods of thaw
or due to volcanic eruptions, masses of water and volcanic
debris enclosed in glaciers sometimes burst out
and shoot down the mountain as a flash flood (also
called mudflow or lahars).
Moraines are masses of debris deposited by retreating
glaciers, behind which water can be trapped.
Especially when the permafrost base is receding, thus
robbing morainic areas of the stability that the frost provides,
the frozen core melts, water seeps through and
the barrier is eroded. When the moraine dam breaks,
masses of water are suddenly released and gush into the
areas below. These events are also known as glacial lake
outburst floods (GLOF�s). When a steep mountain
stream enters a flat valley, there is a sudden decrease in
gradient and velocity. Sediment transported is suddenly
deposited along the valley walls in an alluvial fan. The
mountain stream becomes choked with sediment and
breaks up into numerous distributary channels. These
obstacles of sediment and debris can cause a flash flood
after periods of intense and heavy rainfall.
Natural and man-made causes of
floods and flooding
Landslides and debris flows nearly always have natural
causes but are frequently influenced or triggered
by human action. Alterations in the structure or gradient
of the slope, the extraction of materials (e.g. during
road construction), changes in the natural vegetation
or changes in water resources management have caused
many landslides in the past. The large solid content in
the water sometimes leads to a river blocking itself.
When the barrier breaks, e.g. after periods of exceptional
precipitation, a wave of sediment-laden water
shoots down the river. However, these barriers can
also cause a substantial rise in water levels, resulting
in a backwater flood.
Backwater floods usually occur in connection with
torrential rain and flash floods, due to the fact that the
local drainage system cannot cope with large volumes
of water that accumulate in a short period of time. The
causes may be �external� (e.g. a drainage system that
is overloaded by large volumes of precipitation) or
�internal� (e.g. a backwater gate fails, is put out of
action or when there is a blockage).
Man-made causes of floods and flooding
It may seem contradictory, but many river engineering
works reduce the natural storage for floodwaters,
21
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
both by preventing water from flowing into the floodplains
and, where impermeable floodwalls are used,
by not allowing water to be stored behind the (natural)
banks. Some adverse developments in river engineering,
and thereby potential causes of floods include:
� Exceedance of design conditions or inadequate
design of dams, storage reservoirs and flood control
reservoirs, coupled with a reduced amount of areas
that can be flooded without causing too much damage
(e.g. natural floodplains or detention ponds);
� River regulation, which increases the flood wave
propagation, leading to downstream problems;
� Excessive levee construction and channelling, accelerating
peak flows, wave heights and celerities;
� Exceedance of design conditions or inadequate or
faulty design of levees, construction errors and the
use of incorrect construction materials;
� Inadequate maintenance of flood defence structures
(ageing, damage);
� Inadequate riverbed maintenance (sedimentation
or erosion at critical points);
� Technical or human failure in the operation of safety
installations such as levee openings and spillways;
� Exceedance of design conditions or inadequate control
and operation of storage reservoirs (reduced
buffer capacity).
The overtopping or failure of a dam or levee often
leads to a failure within a short period of time. This
also applies to dams and levees in which it is not so
much the structure that is threatened as its stability by
erosion of the dam base or levee bank. An important
element of a dam is therefore its spillway, which must
be designed in such a way that very rare, excessive
inflows can be channelled without causing any damage.
Furthermore, levee and dam failures can also be
caused by:
� Weakening by sliding and piping due to prolonged
deep soaking by high water levels;
� Damage caused by earthquakes, landslides, etc.;
� Damage caused by animals, e.g. undermining by
musk-rats, damage by cattle hoofs, etc.;
� Settlement processes, e.g. by drainage of the subsoil.
Urban sewer and storm water drainage systems accelerate
the rapid response to rainfall, in combination
with the extended impermeable surfaces in urban areas.
However, urbanisation has a proportionately greater
effect on smaller flooding events. The effects of urbanisation
appear less important as the size of the flood
and the interval between floods increase (Goudie &
Viles, 1998).
Large-scale modifications to vegetation are always
linked with changes in the water balance. Deforestation
and forest decline have extreme effects on runoff generation,
because the retaining capacity of large areas
is impaired and at the same time the upper soil zone
can be destroyed, which leads to erosion. Alterations
in the natural landscape for agricultural purposes such
as land consolidation, unsuitable methods of cultivation
and soil compaction by means of agricultural
machines can accelerate the runoff from farmland.
2.3 Impacts on development and societal
relevance of floods and flooding
Flood disasters, impact on development
The escalation of severe flooding events is increasingly
posing a substantive threat to both sustainable
development and poverty-reduction. The associated
increase in reconstruction costs and loss of development
assets has forced the issue of disaster reduction
and risk management on various policy agenda�s.
Building and maintaining resilient societies by developing
a culture of prevention and preparedness is an
important step in flood mitigation of least developed,
emerging as well as developed countries.
While no country in the world is entirely safe, lack
of capacity to limit the impact of floods (and other hazards)
remains a major burden for developing countries.
An estimated 97% of natural disaster related casualties
each year occur in least developed countries (World
Bank, 2000) and, although smaller in absolute figures,
the percentage of economic loss in relation to the Gross
National Product (GNP) in these countries far exceeds
the ones in emerging and developed countries.
The need to reverse trends in vulnerability to
flood disasters
The emphasis on disaster response has absorbed significant
amounts of resources, which normally would
be allocated for development efforts. If the trend of
increasing flooding damages persists, coping capacities
of societies in especially least developed and
emerging countries, are likely to be overwhelmed.
Vulnerability to floods is a function of human
action and behaviour. It describes the degree to which
22
Table 2.1. Dam failures with over 1,000 casualties
(Munich-Re, 1997).
Height Storage capacity
Year Name, country (m) (#106m3)
1868 lruhaike, Japan 28 1,633
1889 South Fork, USA 21 1,852
1917 Tigra, India 24 1,360
1960 Oros, Brazil* 54 4,000
1961 Panshet, India* 51 214
1979 Machu, India 26 101
* During construction.
Note: unconfirmed dam failure in Huai River, China (1975),
causing 230,000 casualties not included.
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
a socio-economic system or physical assets are either
susceptible or resilient to the impact of flood hazards.
It is determined by a combination of several factors,
including awareness, the condition of human settlements
and infrastructure, public policy and administration,
the wealth of a given society and organising
abilities in all fields of flood risk management. The
level of flood risk in a society is determined by the
levels of vulnerability combined with the level of
probability and intensity of occurrence. Risk reduction
includes activities to reduce both vulnerable conditions
and, when possible, the source of floods.
There is a close correlation between increasing
demographic pressure, especially in least developed
countries, escalated environmental degradation,
increased human vulnerability and the intensity of
flood impacts. Environmental degradation increases
the intensity of natural disasters and is often the factor
that transforms a flood into a disaster. For example,
river floods may be aggravated by poor catchment
management (deforestation), which causes erosion
and clogs rivers.
Poverty and flood vulnerability are integrally
linked and mutually reinforcing. The poor are compiled
to exploit environmental resources for survival,
therefore increasing both the risk and exposure to
floods. Moreover, poor people (particularly in least
developed countries) are more vulnerable to floods, as
they are often forced to settle in flood prone areas such
as floodplains, unstable hillsides and deforested lands,
because there is no other land available at reasonable
cost, sufficiently close to employment opportunities.
Flood disasters contribute to, and exacerbate, factors
that make (poor) people vulnerable like unemployment,
political instability, poor economic conditions
and unequal distribution of wealth. Repeated exposure
to flooding disasters can lead into a downward
spiral of chronic poverty, due to the limited options
and means to cope and recover from their impacts.
Benefits of floods
Floods also provide benefits and some ecosystems
depend strongly on them. Moreover, many farming
communities rely on floods for water supply and fertilisation
(Cosgrove & Rijsberman, 2000). On the long
term, benefits of natural floods almost certainly outweigh
the negative aspects for these areas (Chatterjee,
1996). Basically, the benefits of floods include the
following (United States Department of Agriculture,
1976):
� When a river overflows its banks it deposits sediments
into the floodplains, thereby fertilising the
soil with organic matter and minerals, making the
area suitable for agriculture;
� Floods provide much of the critical habitat for
many biotas such as fish, wildlife and waterfowl.
Spring pools that remain after flooding support
insects and small animals, which in turn, feed larger
creatures. Many species show a very strong response
to floods due to the additional habitat provided by
downed trees for instance (Kolber, 1999). Floods
also benefit (commercial) fisheries, as is the case
for instance in Cambodia (Mekong River);
� Floods carry food to ocean estuaries, which are
breeding grounds for marine life;
� An improvement of livelihood and health services
of communities after a flooding event, as a result
of sustainable relief and recovery practices, is
regarded an important indirect benefit, especially
in least developed countries (Bangladesh Centre
for Advanced Studies, 2000);
� In many areas, the deposition of sediment keeps
the elevation of deltas and estuaries above sea level.
Nowadays floodwaters are often no longer able to
reach these lands as a result of large scheme river
engineering works. Without the continued replenishment
of sediment from river floods, many of
these areas have subsided to elevations below the
mean sea level;
� Percolating floodwater in floodplains recharges
groundwater reserves, commonly used as sources
of drinking water and often considered as an important
drought mitigation strategy.
3 CHARACTERISTIC DATA ON
RIVER FLOODS
3.1 A regional approach of river floods and
flooding
Out of a total of 207 countries, the minority (less than
30%) is categorised as developed, 40% as emerging
and 33% as least developed (Table 3.1). Nearly all
least developed counties are situated in Africa (62%),
Asia (19%) and Oceania (18%). Europe on the other
hand accounts for over half of all developed countries.
With regard to the total geographic area covered,
29% is categorised as developed, 53% as emerging
23
Table 3.1. Distribution of developed, emerging and least
developed countries over the world�s continents (World Bank,
2003).
Least
Developed Emerging developed Total
Africa 2 12 42 56
Americas 9 30 1 40
Asia 12 25 13 50
Europe 31 13 0 44
Oceania 4 1 12 17
Total 58 81 68 207
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
and 18% as least developed. In total, 80% of the geographic
area covered by least developed countries is
situated in Africa and approximately half of the developed
area in North America.
The economic status of societies determines to a
large extend their capability to cope and �live� with
floods and flooding. Societies in developed countries
are relatively well prepared; most of the river systems
are heavily engineered and confined and safety standards
are basically sufficient to prevent regular flood
disasters. On the other hand, damages will be extremely
high when a levee or flood defence structure fails,
especially in urbanised areas. In many cases this level
of preparedness is based on the strong financial
resources. Formally, these societies do not really �live
with floods�, but they live with recurring peak flows.
In a variety of emerging and least developed countries
societies are used to regular flooding, which may
be even considered as beneficial. In these countries,
people may �welcome� a flood, because it brings fertile
soils and benefits (commercial) fishery. In general,
river systems are not heavily engineered, both as a result
of lacking financial resources as well as the (wise) consciousness
that controlling and maintaining those large
river systems is extremely difficult. Through the years,
people and societies have adapted their way of living
to recurring flooding events by flood proofing their
houses and main infrastructure. Meanwhile, flood forecasting
instruments and organisations have improved
and relief, response and recovery measures are established
or in development. Nevertheless, major floods
still have large impacts on the socio-economic structure
and on societal development. Since (fighting) poverty
is a main issue, the level of vulnerability to floods is
still very high. All the more, because the effects of
floods undermine the achievements reached in poverty
reduction significantly (Shanks et al., 1999).
In emerging and least developed countries, which
are not used to regular flooding, the awareness of
floods is rather low. Generally, a flooding event has
devastating impacts. Often there is a lack of emergency
institutions, which results in complete chaos during
and after the flooding event. Large amounts of people
become homeless for a longer period of time and
many are in need of food and medicines. The physical
devastation of (not flood proofed) houses, industries
and infrastructure is tremendous, crops may be completely
destroyed and a large amount of cattle casualties
may be counted. Diseases and illness spread easily
and clean water is hard to obtain. The reconstruction
costs are enormous, which generally means that these
societies may have to depend on international aid
(Robinson, 2000).
Population, growth and density
Asia hosts by far the majority of the world population
(over 60%). The distribution over the other continents,
with exception of Oceania, ranges between 12 and
14%. It is therefore not surprising that the emerging
countries, of which nearly one-third is situated in Asia,
host 70% of the world population.
By the year 2030 it is estimated that the world�s
population will amount approximately 8.3 billion of
which 60% will be living on the Asian continent and
18% in Africa (Population Reference Bureau, 2002).
The world�s highest populated areas are located in
Asia, resulting in large and numerous concentrations
of dense population, such as 832 persons per km2 in
Bangladesh and in deltaic areas of China (Figure 3.2).
Exceptional high population densities are found in
emerging countries, while developed and least developed
nations have more or less equal values. However,
the population density ratio between Asia and emerging
countries is not similar as observed with absolute
population numbers, due to a relative large geographic
area covered by emerging countries in Europe and North
America, with relatively low amounts of population.
24
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Developed
Emerging
Least
developed
Population (million)
Estimated population 2025
2002 Population Estimated population 2050
Figure 3.1. Population (2002) and estimated population
(2025 and 2050; Population Reference Bureau, 2002).
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Developed
Emerging
Least
developed
Population density (persons/km2)
Figure 3.2. Worldwide population densities in 2002
(Population Reference Bureau, 2002).
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is a measure for
the total value of production of a country (or region)
in a specific period, before deducting allowances for
consumption of fixed capitals. The GDP is an important
indicator for economic growth and size of the
economy. The GDP per unit area (Figure 3.3) shows
the average production power of a continent or category
of countries with reference to the total geographic
area concerned. Compared with Africa and Oceania,
the values for the GDP/km2 are relatively high in
Europe, the Americas and Asia. These high values are
also reflected in the GDP/km2 for the developed
countries, which claim approximately 65% of the
total earnings worldwide. The low values for Africa
and Oceania are mainly caused by the fact that relatively
large areas of lands are not used for production.
Irrigated and drained area
The percentage of irrigated area is a measure for the
use of water. On a global scale nearly 70% of all natural
water resources are used for irrigation purposes
(Schultz, 2001). However, the local and regional climate,
farming practices and technologies applied
have a significant influence on the percentage of irrigated
land. By continents, Asia claims the largest percentage
of irrigated area out of its total geographic
area (Figure 3.4). Vast areas of land are used for agriculture
and the tropical climate demands a large volume
of water to maintain a sufficient crop yield. Asia
is also responsible for the relative high percentage of
irrigated land in emerging countries, where agriculture
is the main source of income. The percentage of
irrigated area in Africa and Oceania is very low, especially
when the population density ratio is considered,
which equals approximately 6.5. The percentages in
developed countries are relatively low compared to
emerging countries as a result of relatively favourable
climatic conditions.
Generally, climatic factors determine the relevance
and importance of drainage facilities. The percentage
of drained area can be considered as a measure for the
venerability of land and water development. As most
areas have their own natural drainage system, manmade
drainage systems are implemented to develop
(reclaimed) areas for specific use or for water logging
and salinity control in irrigated areas. Reliable and
well-maintained drainage systems reduce the probability
of inundation as a result of floods caused by
intense precipitation.
In nearly all the planned and cultivated lands, natural
or artificial drainage systems are implemented
and/or modified somehow. Hence, an interrelation
between the percentages of irrigated and drained area
could be assumed. However, when comparing these
percentages (Figure 3.4), this only applies for Oceania
and Africa. The percentage of drained areas in the
developed countries (Europe and Americas) is approximately
twice as large as the irrigated areas. This is
mainly due to the prevailing climatic conditions. In
the emerging and least developed countries this ratio
changes oppositely towards two to three times larger
irrigated areas. This implies that the existing irrigation
and drainage systems for mostly agricultural purposes
have not been optimised yet.
Food production
On a global scale, Asia produces the largest amount
of cereals such as wheat, coarse grains and milled rice
(Food and Agricultural Organisation, 2004). Although
the ratio between irrigated and drained area is not
yet fully optimised, the productivity of agricultural
land, as far as the cereal production is concerned, is
much higher in comparison with the other continents
(Figure 3.5). The cereal production in emerging and
least developed countries amounts approximately
25
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Developed
Emerging
Least
developed
GDP/unit area (103 US$/km2)
Figure 3.3 Worldwide distribution of Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) per unit area (World Bank, 2003).
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Developed
Emerging
Least
developed
Irrigated and drained area (%)
Irrigated Drained
Figure 3.4 Percentage of irrigated and drained area worldwide
(International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage,
2004).
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
55% of the world�s total. However, the efficiency of
food production in the developed countries is higher,
when taking the percentage of irrigated area into
account.
3.2 Origin of data on river floods and flooding
The data used to describe the characteristics of floods
and flooding between 1985 and 2003 are derived from
three different sources:
� The annual overviews from the �Active Archive of
Large Floods� developed and maintained by the
Dartmouth Flood Observatory (DFO). The information
in this database is derived from a wide variety
of news, governmental, instrumental and remote
sensing sources. The listings contain any flood that
appears to be �large�, with for example, significant
damage to structures or agriculture, long (decades)
reported intervals since the last similar event,
and/or casualties (Brakenridge et al., 2004);
� The �International Disasters Database� (EM-DAT),
compiled by the Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster
Assistance (OFDA) and the Center for Research on
the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). This database
contains records of flood events, matching at
least one of the following criteria: (i) 10 or more
people killed, (ii) 100 or more people affected,
(iii) a call for international assistance and/or (iv)
issuance of a declaration of a state of emergency
(OFDA/CRED, 2005);
� Compiled data from the �M�nicher
R�ckversicherungs-Gesellshaft� (Munich-Re),
derived from the �World of Natural Hazards� CDROM
(Munich-Re, 2000), the �Flooding and
Insurance� booklet (M�nich-Re, 1997) and various
�Annual Reviews�. This database mainly contains
major flood events in terms of monetary and economic
losses.
3.3 Characteristics of river floods between
1985 and 2003
Number of floods
The world has experienced between 1,700 and 2,500
(major) flood events between 1985 and 2003 (Table
3.2). The majority of these floods, over 50%, occurred
in emerging countries. On a continental scale, Asia
accounted for approximately 45% and the Americas
for approximately 25%. The high frequency of flood
events in Asia is mainly caused by the fact that the
world�s highest amount of average rainfall and volume
of river water (13,500km3/year) is observed in
this continent (Dutta, 2003).
Figure 3.6 illustrates an (statistically significant)
increasing exponential trend in worldwide flood frequencies.
However, the reliability of data increases
with time, which means that the presented trend overestimates
the increase of flood frequencies. Loster
(1999) derived similar trends, but took different time
periods into account and Meyers (1997) found similar
trends as well, but only for data from the United States.
26
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Oceania
Developed
Emerging
Least
developed
Annual cereal production
(106*tonneskm2/year)
Figure 3.5. Worldwide food production of cereals (Food
and Agricultural Organisation, 2004).
R2 = 0.5518
R2 = 0.7358
R2 = 0.6096
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1985
1986
1987
1988
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Number of floods
1989
DFO CRED Munich-Re Expon. (CRED)
Expon. (Munich-Re) Expon. (DFO)
Figure 3.6. Global number of floods (1985�2003), based
on data from DFO (Brakenridge et al., 2004), OFDA/ CRED
(2005) and Munich-Re (1997 & 2000).
Table 3.2. Number of flood events between 1985 and 2003 (Brakenridge et al., 2004;
OFDA/CRED, 2005).
Categories of countries Continents
Worldwide Developed Emerging Least developed Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
DFO 2,493 672 1,434 387 320 649 1,186 251 87
CRED 1,734 381 956 397 339 443 668 229 55
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
Dutta (2003) reports a doubling of the frequency of
floods worldwide during the past 30 years, from about
50 flood events in the 70�s to 100 in the 90�s and a
doubling of flood frequencies in Asia between 1978
and 1999.
Flood duration
The global average flood duration varies between one
and two weeks (Table 3.3). Floods last longest in least
developed countries, especially in Asia, Africa and
South America. The relative short duration in developed
countries is possibly due to the specific meteorological
driving force that generates a flood and the
ability to fight floods more effectively. Monsoon and
tropical cyclone driven floods, which produce large volumes
of precipitation, occur far more often in emerging
and least developed countries (see also Table 3.4).
Flood causes
On a global scale floods are mainly caused by heavy
and/or long lasting rain (approximately 65%), brief
torrential rain (15%), tropical cyclones (10%) and monsoon
rains (5%). Table 3.4 gives an overview of the
percentile distribution (frequency) of flood causes for
the various categories of countries and for the continents.
The numbers in brackets indicate the percentile
distribution of the total damage for which a specific
cause is accounted for.
Globally, there is no distinct relationship between
flood causes and damages. Although heavy rain is
accounted for the majority of damages, clear regional
differences can be distinguished. In Africa and South
America the frequency of heavy rain as a cause for
floods is situated well above the global average. However,
the �flooding damage potential� (percentile distribution
of the total damage) for heavy rain is clearly
less in Oceania and least developed countries.
Brief torrential rains, which often are the cause of
flash floods, have a higher damage potential in South
America and Oceania. In the case of South America
this could be related to the high degree of urbanisation,
where 80 to 90% of the population is living in
urban areas.
Tropical cyclones are causing relative less damage in
emerging countries, specifically Asia, and have a rather
high damage potential in the Americas and Oceania.
27
Table 3.3. Average flood duration (days) between 1985 and 2003 (Brakenridge et al.,
2004; OFDA/CRED, 2005).
Categories of countries Continents
Least
Worldwide Developed Emerging developed Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
DFO 9.1 6.3 9.6 12.7 11.7 8.4 9.5 7.1 7.2
CRED 10.9 6.4 10.9 15.1 12.9 9.3 12.1 8.6 5.5
Table 3.4. Percentile distribution of flood causes and damages accounted for
between 1985 and 2003, based on Brakenridge
et al. (2004) and OFDA/CRED (2005). The numbers in brackets indicate the percentile
distribution of the total damage for
which a specific cause is accounted for.
Categories of countries Continents
Least
Global Developed Emerging developed Africa Americas Asia Europe Oceania
Heavy rain 65 65 65 65 85 65 55 75 60
(87.5) (85) (90) (55) (90) (75) (90) (90) (42.5)
Brief torrential 15 15 15 10 10 15 15 15 10
rain (5) (2.5) (5) (2.5) (5) (2.5) (5) (5) (12.5)
Tropical 10 10 10 5 3 10 10 � 20
cyclones (5) (10) (2.5) (10) (5) (20) (2.5) (#1) (20)
Monsoon 5 � 5 10 � � 15 � 5
rain (2.5) (1) (30) (#1) (#1) (2.5) (#1) (22.5)
Dam/levee break 1 � 1 2 2 1 2 1 �
or release (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1)
Rain and 3 5 2 1 � 3 � 5 �
snowmelt (#1) (2.5) (#1) (#1) (#1) (2.5) (#1) (2.5) (#1)
Others 1 5 2 7 � 6 3 4 5
(#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1) (#1)
Copyright � 2006 Taylor & Francis Group plc, London, UK
Although the frequency of monsoon rains is high in
Asia, they cause relative less damage, which is contrary
to least developed countries and Oceania. Presumably
the level of preparedness and awareness for these types
of hazards is higher in the Asian continent.
Floods caused by rain in combination with snowmelt
are a typical phenomenon in developed countries
(Europe and North America).
Severity class and flood magnitude
The �severity class� in the DFO database represents an
indicator for flood magnitude assessment purposes
on a 1 to 3 scale (Brakenridge et al., 2004):
� Class I: large flooding events with significant
damage to structures and/or agriculture, casualties
and/or a 1 to 2 decades-long reported interval since
the last similar event;
� Class II: very large flooding events with a greater
than 20, but less than 100-year estimated recurrence
interval and/or a local recurrence interval of
around 1 to 2 decades and affecting a large geographic
region (#5,000km2);
� Class III: extreme flooding events with an estimated
recurrence interval greater than 100 years.
Class I represents 85% of the globally recorded flooding
events and class II and III represent respectively 13
and 3%. A similar distribution is observed with the
continents and categories of countries, except Oceania
and the developed countries where class I represents
approximately 75% and class II approximately 20%.
In Europe a lower percentage is found for class I (77%)
and a higher percentage for class II and III (respectively
16 and 7%) floods. This is mainly due to the relative
high flood defence standards (#20-year return
periods) and the relative large affected areas in case of
a levee or embankment breach, which cause a flooding
event to be classified in a higher ranking.
Although not statistically significant, a stronger
increase in the annual frequency of class I events can
be observed, compared with class II and III floods.
The relative annual severity class, which is a percentage
of all the recorded floods in a year, does not show
any significant trend. However, it appears that class I
floods are increasing, that class II events are slightly
decreasing and that class III remains more or less
constant. This would imply that the global increase of
flood frequencies is mainly caused by relative large
events with a recurrence interval of 10 to 20 years.
Globally and in emerging countries the increase of
flooding damages in between class II and III is larger
compared with the increase in between class I and II.
This deviation is mainly observed in Asia and to a lesser
extend in Europe. In the Americas the damages remain
more or less constant in between class II and III.
The aerial extend of directly and indirectly affected
regions, which are generally larger than the flooded
area, is also increasing with severity classes. A larger
increase is observed in between class II and III globally,
in emerging countries, Asia and Europe.
The flood magnitude indicator (FM) is another
method to assess flooding events, including parameters
such as duration (D), severity class (SV) and the
affected region (AR) (Brakenridge et al., 2004):
The �severity� of a flooding event increases with a
higher flood magnitude indicator.
A statistically significant annual trend of the flood
magnitude indicator is not determined, but a slight
increase is observed in the developed countries, Africa,
Europe and Oceania. On a global basis and in the
Americas the flood magnitude remains more or less
constant and a slight decrease appears in the emerging
and least developed countries as well as in Asia.