discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293332693
READS
154
2 authors, including:
Niculita Mihai
Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza
42 PUBLICATIONS 0 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, Available from: Niculita Mihai
letting you access and read them immediately. Retrieved on: 31 May 2016
12 Landslide type and pattern in Moldavian Plateau, NE
Romania
Mihai Ciprian Mărgărint1* and Mihai Niculiţă1
1
Geography Department, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iași, Carol I Av 20A, 700505,
Iași, Romania, Mihai Niculiță, email: mihai.niculita@uaic.ro
*
Corresponding author: margarint.ciprian@yahoo.com
Abstract This study proposes a regional scale approach of landslide typology and patterns for the
Moldavian Plateau, one of the Romanian regions most affected by mass movement processes. A re‐
gional historical landslide inventory was carried out, using remote sensing imagery, resulting a num‐
ber of 24,263 polygons, which cover 18.3 % of the whole study area (24,803 km2). Preconditioning,
preparatory and triggering factors were revised and the following types of landslides were identified
and attributed in the inventory: rotational, translational, lateral spread, flows and complex land‐
slides. The statistic interpretations of the geomorphometric variables of the polygons that define the
areas affected by landslides, reveal a strong relation between the landslide phenomenon and the li‐
thology, the morphostructure and the topography. The general pattern of landslide distribution em‐
phasizes a repetitive model along cuesta scarp slopes; this is mainly related to the lithology domi‐
nated by limestones, sandstones and volcanic consolidated tuffs at the upper part of the slopes, with
friable clayey and sandy strata intercalations. The landslide inventory and the revealed types and
patterns of landslides are an essential step for a better understanding of landslide phenomenon,
landslide risk assessment and landslide management in the Moldavian Plateau.
12.1 Introduction
Landslides are widespread geomorphologic processes which nowadays, and also in the past,
shape the earth surface in any climatic zone. The occurrence and the spatial distribution of
the landslides are linked to a large range of triggering factors, in a general geographical set‐
ting given by certain preconditioning and preparatory factors. The spatial distribution and
the types of landslide mechanism over a certain area are unique to every land surface, from
local to regional extent, and constitute a specific pattern. The interpretation of these pat‐
terns refers to the study and the analysis of the distribution, conditions and morphology of
the past, present and future landslides.
One of the most important tools in the analysis of the spatial and temporal patterns of
mass movement processes and their consequences on environmental or social systems are
landslide inventories (McKean and Roering 2004; Van Westen et al. 2008; Guzzetti et al.
2012; Conforti et al. 2014; Komac and Hribernik 2015). Currently, we can see a continuous
increase of new remote sensing data and techniques and consequently a general increase in
the accuracy of the landslides inventories, which allow a better use in the management of
risk induced by these processes (Şandric and Chiţu 2009; Guzzetti et al. 2012; Kavzoglu et al.
2015). The high quality of remote sensing data is also essential for the interpretation of the
relation between the morphology of the landslides, the local setting and consequently, their
typology (Tarolli et al. 2012; Lin et al. 2013; Mondini et al. 2014).
The international literature provides several studies regarding the spatial patterns of
landslides controlled by geologic structure and lithology (Guzzetti et al. 1996; Jäger et al.
2013), as response to land use changes (Glade 2003), induced by earthquakes (Yin et al.
2009; Meunier et al. 2013; Tonini et al. 2014), extreme meteorological events (Hovius et al.
2000; Bucknam et al. 2001; Ardizzone et al. 2007; Mondini et al. 2014), and also for a gen‐
eral distribution of these processes (Korup 2005a; Korup 2005b; Van den Eeckhaut et
al.2007; Guzzetti et al. 2008).
A landslide inventory for the Moldavian Plateau (24,803 km2) was created, with a total
of 24,263 polygons. In this study, the inventory was used as the base for deciphering the
spatial patterns of the landslides, and it is seen as a milestone for the further regional haz‐
ard and risk assessment (Guzzetti et al. 1999; Micu 2011; Pourghasemi et al. 2014; Talaei
2014; Zhao et al. 2015; Ciampalini et al. 2015).
12.2 Study Area
12.2.1 The General Framework
The Moldavian Plateau is situated in the north‐eastern part of Romania, as a part of a larger
unit that continues over the country borders, to the North and East. The study area is bor‐
dered by the Prut Valley to the East and North and by Siret and Moldova valleys to the West
(Fig. 12.1). To the north‐west, the study area was delineated using the Subcarpathians
nappe limit with the undeformed foredeep deposits of the Moldavian Platform (Mațenco et
al. 2000), according to the Geologic Map of Romania at scale 1:200,000. The south‐west ex‐
treme part, dominated by fluvial terraces and Holocene alluvial deposits, known as Tecuci
Plain, was not included in the studied area, being considered a part of the Romanian Plain
(Posea 2005). The study area has a surface of 24,803 km2, with an altitudinal range of 3 to
794 m above sea level (a.s.l.) (Fig. 12.2). The landforms overlay on a monoclinic sedimentary
structure, which leans with 4‐12 m/km from north‐west to south‐east, while the crystalline
basement of the East–European Platform sinks toward west, under the Carpathian Orogene
(Ionesi et al. 2005).
The monoclinic structure influenced the development of a repetitive pattern of valleys
and ridges (Niculiţă 2011), and it was reflected in many other geographic features (the cli‐
mate, the land use patterns, the main transport corridors, the settlement network etc.).
The outcropping geologic formations have newer ages from north (Cretaceous rocks in
Prut valley side) to south (quaternary gravel, sands and loess from lower Bârlad and Siret
valleys) (Fig. 12.3) (Ionesi et al. 2005). The lithology of the sedimentary outcropping layers is
constituted from an alternation of sandstones, limestones, tuffs and microconglomerates,
appearing on the ridges and at the upper part of the hillslopes, and an alternation of clays,
silts and sands, occurring beneath at the median and basal part of the hillslopes. At the con‐
tact of these two main alternations of rocks, morphologic alignments have been individual‐
ized trough erosion. These alignments which generally constitute the limits between the ge‐
ographic subunits (the Bârlad Plateau, the Suceava Plateau and the Jijia Hills – Fig. 12.1), are
dominated by old and extensive landslide complexes (Grozavu et al. 2012; Mărgărint and
Niculiţă 2014).
Fig. 12.1 Geographic location, physiographic subdivisions, and elevation of the Moldavian Plateau,
based on SRTM data; the letters indicate the geomorphologic regions: a – the Jijia Hills, the Bârlad
Plateau with the subunits: b – Central Moldavian Plateau, c – Tutova Hills, d – Fălciu Hills, e –
Covurlui Plateau, f – Huşi–Sărata–Elan–Horincea Hills, and the Suceava Plateau composed of: g – Si‐
ret Hills, h – Fălticeni Plateau, i – Dragomirnei Plateau
Fig. 12.2 The distributions of altitude (a), slope height (b) slope angle (c), and slope aspect (d for the
Moldavian Plateau and for the landslide areas
12.2.2 Landslide Causal Factors
A large range of the environmental settings and human activities can produce optimum
conditions for the occurrence of landslides which combine either the displacement itself
and/or the reduction of the shear resistance of the slope. The large variety of slope move‐
ments reflects the diversity of factors that may disturb the slope stability (Popescu 1994).
Also, it is well known that seldom, if ever, a landslide can be attributed to a single causal fac‐
tor, this issue emphasizing the complex behavior of mass movement processes.
According to the scale of analysis, the knowledge of landslide causal factors (as in the
general case of landslide investigation) has two main scalar approaches: (i) local scale analy‐
sis, focused on the investigation of particular sites and computation of safety factor ratio;
this type of approach divides the following main classes of causal factors: ground conditions,
geomorphological processes, physical processes and man‐made processes (Popescu 2002),
and (ii) regional (medium to small scale) analysis, approach that uses geographical criterion,
and a consequent terminology for the control factors: geology, geomorphology, climate, hy‐
drology (considered as static factors, Capecchi et al. 2015), hydrogeology and land cov‐
er/use (Fell et al. 2008; Guzzetti et al. 2008). Due to the scopes of the present study, the
second approach will be followed. The actual distribution of landslides in the Moldavian
Plateau is a natural consequence of the spatiotemporal combinations of these causal fac‐
tors. This essential aspect of landslides occurrence in this region is proved by the large ex‐
tension of complex landslides that spread for many kilometers, especially along the cuesta
fronts (Fig. 12.3).
According to their influence in the timing and the development of slope displacements,
and subsequently by their spatial coverage, these factors can be divided in: (i) precondition‐
ing, (ii) preparatory, and (iii) triggering factors (Schmidt and Dikau 2005; Broothaers et al.
2012).
Preconditioning Factors
The preconditioning factors are those that generally increase the degree of the instability of
slopes. Their spatial distribution mainly influences the general patterns of landslide distribu‐
tion at a regional scale. Among these, for the Moldavian Plateau we can also include the fol‐
lowing factors: the morphostructural features, the topography (viewed as the geomorpho‐
metric variables), the lithology, the climate and the land use.
Morphostructure. The geologic structure has influenced landform morphology and river
network structure. The geologic structure of strata is monoclinic, ranging from 2 to 12 m/km
dip and WWS–EEN strike (Jeanreanud 1971; Ionesi 1994; Ionesi et al. 2005). The incision of
river network has created the following structural valleys and cuestas: (i) the NW–SE orient‐
ed valleys that are consequent, with cuesta scarps (steep hillslopes, corresponding to the
up‐dip of the strata) on the left side, and cuesta dip slopes (gentle hillslopes corresponding
to the dip of the strata) on the right side; (ii) the SW–NE oriented valleys that are subse‐
quent, with cuesta scarps on the right side and cuesta dip slopes on the left side; (iii) SE–NW
oriented valleys that are obsequent, and developed on cuesta scarp slopes (Ioniţă 2000;
Niculiţă 2011).
These landforms are characterized by homoclinal shifting (Selby 1985), with a general
tendency of the river network to migrate towards south and east. Thus, this migration main‐
tains the steep slope of the cuesta scarp by fluvial erosion of slope toe. A strong evidence of
post‐depositional faults, generated by the Pliocene to Pleistocene subsidence of the Focşani
basin has been revealed in the southern part of the Moldavian Plateau (Maţenco et al. 2007;
Pohrib et al. 2012). Three types of faults have been identified in this region: (i) the normal
faults, oriented from NW to SE, and from NNW to SSE, (ii) W–E transfer faults, and (iii)
strike‐slip faults, sinistral, linked to the New Trotuş Fault (Maţenco et al. 2007). Usually, the
vertical displacement is below 20 m, and the horizontal offset is comprised between 20 to
200 m (Maţenco et al. 2007).
Lithology. Overall, the surface lithology of the Moldavian Plateau is dominated by clays,
and subsequently by sands (mainly in the Tutovei and the Fălciu Hills), and by thin loess cov‐
er spread all over the area (Haase et al. 2007), with higher depths in the Covurlui Hills and Ji‐
jia Hills. Sandstones and limestones occur especially in the Suceava Plateau (with thickness
less than 100 m) and the Central Moldavian Plateau (with thickness comprised between 5
and 30 m), meanwhile tuffs and sandstones outcrop as thick strata (under 20 m) in the Cen‐
tral Moldavian Plateau, the Tutova and the Fălciu Hills. The relations between the lithology
and the geochronologic units scale, as well as their spatial distribution can be followed in
Fig. 12.3.
The surficial deposits have similar textural characteristics as the predominantly clayey
and sandy surface lithology. On the ridges, the depth of surficial deposits is less than 20 m.
On the hillslopes, the depth is comprised between 3 to 5 m (Minea 2012; Stângă 2012), but
in certain situations it can go up to 20 m (the cases of rotational deep seated landslides).
The loess deposits cover the ridges and plateaus and have depths less than 5 m, with excep‐
tion of the southern part of the Tutova Hills, the Covurlui Hills and Jijia Hills, in which case
the depths could exceed 20 m (Institutul Geologic al României 1968; Haesaerts et al. 2003).
The alluvial deposits depth ranges generally from 10 to 30 m, and presents two clear distin‐
guished layers: a first gravel‐sandy layer, right over the geologic strata, and a second one,
clayey‐silty above (Minea 2012; Stângă 2012).
Soils are represented by chernozems under 200 m a.s.l., luvisols over 200 m a.s.l., on
ridges, plateaus and cuesta dip slopes, with variations to phaeozems (especially in the
Suceava Plateau) (Băcăuanu et al. 1980). The regosols occur along the cuesta scarp slopes,
while the floodplains are characterized by alluvial soils and chernozems.
Topography (geomorphometric variables). This factor is controlled by the large exten‐
sion of the asymmetric hills (cuestas) and the wide floodplains. The altitude ranges from 3 m
a.s.l. (in the south part of the plateau, along the Prut floodplain) to 794 m a.s.l., in the north‐
west part of the Moldavian Plateau, along the contact with the Carpathian mountainous ar‐
ea. The mean altitude of the Moldavian Plateau is 199 m. At subunit level, the altitudes are
comprised as follows: Suceava Plateau – 200 to 794 m a.s.l., Jijia Hills – 30 to 250 m a.s.l.,
Central Moldavian Plateau, Tutovei Hills and Fălciu Hills – 70 to 550 m a.s.l., and Covurlui
Plateau – 6 to 250 m a.s.l.
For the hilly units, the elevation amplitude between neighbor valleys is usually lower
than 100 m (Fig. 12.1). For the hills sustained by consolidated lithological layers (limestones
and sandstones), the plateau‐like ridges are well developed. Usually, because of the mono‐
clinic structure with WWS–EEN strike, the north and west exposed hillslopes are cuesta
scarp slopes, with slope angle ranging between 5o and 32o, while the south and east exposed
hillslopes are cuesta dip slopes, with slope angle ranging between 1o and 5o. The mean slope
of the entire area of the Moldavian Plateau is 4.7o.
Cuesta scarp slopes are characterized by lengths less than 1 km, while cuesta dip slopes
have lengths between 1 and 5 km. Hillslopes have usually planar curvature for cuesta dip
slopes and mixed (concave‐convex) curvature for cuesta scarps.
Climate. The climate of the Moldavian Plateau is temperate continental, with hot‐dry
summers, and cold‐dry winters. The values of the annual mean precipitations are decreasing
from north (640 mm), to south (480 mm) (Croitoru and Minea 2014). These quantities are
recorded especially in the summer and spring seasons (20 to 45 % from the annual quantity
for each season). Snowfall occurs every year, from November till March.
Land cover/land use. Forests cover 14 % of the area (Corine Land Cover 2006), being lo‐
cated either on the ridges and plateaus (natural forests) or on steep cuesta scarp hillslopes
(most of them, are reforested areas). The agricultural terrains cover 50 % from the entire
area of the Moldavian Plateau; these are spread especially on cuesta dip slopes and drained
floodplains, but small patches of agricultural terrains appear also on the cuesta scarp slopes.
The pastures cover 12 % (mainly along cuesta scarp slopes and floodplains). Build‐up areas
(urban and rural) cover approx. 10 % of the studied area; cities are situated on floodplains
and surrounding hills, while rural settlements are located either on the hillslopes, or on the
floodplains.
Preparatory Factors
The preparatory factors act both at regional and local scale and influence the landslide pat‐
tern. They have the role to induce an unstable equilibrium through modifications in slope
geometry or creating hotspots of moisture by modifications of subsurface drainage. Among
these factors, the most important are represented by successions of rainy years, the chang‐
es of land use and the existing landslides themselves. By analyzing the historical documents
of the last 170 years, Pujină and Ioniţă (1996) have concluded that new landslides generally
occur once in 40 years, the reactivations of existing landslides having a 15 years interval of
recurrence. This periodization is closely linked with series of at least two years with higher
precipitations during the entire year, like 1969‐1973 time period (Pujină 2008). Land use
changes influence on mass movement processes is given by: lack of slope stabilization and
erosion control measures, deforestation of slopes and especially of dormant landslides,
without other major interventions (Mihai et al. 2014), poor forest management (Rotaru et
al. 2007), vegetation removal, excavation of slope at its toe.
Other factors with local influence in preparation of slope displacements are the follow‐
ing: the modifications of slope geometry due to anthropic interventions, the occurrence of
moisture hotspots due to phreatic nappes discontinuities, and the distribution of springs and
lakes.
Triggering Factors
The triggering factors are represented by events with a very short duration (minutes or
days) or by the exceeding of certain physical thresholds of slope stability. These thresholds
are linked both to the events themselves but also to the cumulative effects of the prepara‐
tory factors.
Fig. 12.3 Geological setting of Moldavian Plateau: a) Geological map, compiled from Romanian Geo‐
logical Institute, 1968 1:200,000 scale geological maps, Jeanrenaud 1971, and reshaped to match the
surface shape of SRTM data; the geo‐chronological scale is taken from Maţenco et al. 2007, with the
Sarmatian taken from Ionesi 1994 and updated with the latest information from International
Chronostratigraphic Chart v. 2014/02; Cross sections directions are figured on the main map and are
reproduced after: b) Pătruţ and Dăneţ 1987; c) Băcăuanu 1968; d) and e) Jeanreanud 1971
For the study area, the meteorological (short‐time) events with effects in landslide trig‐
gering are: intense rainstorms, heavy rainfall and rapid melt of thick snow. For the 1969‐
2000 interval the reactivation of landsliding processes was recorded mainly for the spring
season, when a threshold of 50 mm in 24 hours was reached, and coupled with pre‐existent
moisture conditions. For the summer season, under conditions of a deficit of moisture, this
threshold was estimated to be of approx. 100 mm in 24 hours (Pujină 2008). The effects of
the heavy rainfalls are significant at the lower parts of the slopes (Densmore and Hovius
2000), being amplified by the existence of old displaced masses, gully activity and fluvial
erosion of slope toe. Associated with these rainy events, and also with rapid melting of deep
snow, are rivers’ and lakes’ level fluctuations that cause hotspots of moisture, responsible
for initiation or reactivating of slope processes.
Due to the vicinity of the Moldavian Plateau with the seismic Vrancea region, shocks in‐
duced by strong earthquakes (magnitude over 7 M on the Richter scale and return period of
35‐40 years) have represented an important triggering factor (Bălteanu et al. 2010; Bălteanu
et al. 2012). Because of the lack of multi‐temporal analysis of landslides, it is difficult to con‐
sider a spatial pattern of landslides linked with this factor, as in other seismic active regions
cited by the international literature (Yin et al. 2009; Meunier et al. 2013; Tonini et al. 2014).
12.3 Materials and Methods
12.3.1 Data Acquisition and Preparation
For the identification and the delineation of landslides, the optical satellite imagery and high
resolution DEMs available in the Google Earth® and Bing Maps archives (SPOT, Formosat,
WorldView, GeoEye, Pleiades, QuickBird, KOMPSAT, IKONOS), and national ortorectified im‐
agery were used. The digitization was performed in Google Earth® and Quantum GIS soft‐
ware. The altitude data used for the geomorphometric analysis is SRTM3 resampled to 30 m
(SRTM 2014). Slope angle and aspect were computed with the maximum gradient method
(Travis et al. 1975).
The geometric characteristics of the areas affected by landslides (like width and length)
were computed by method of Niculiță (2015), using the direction of the mass flow, because
there are many situations where the landslide bounding box width is longer than the land‐
slide bounding box length. These situations appear mainly on cuesta scarp slopes, which can
be extended on several kilometers along valleys. Landslides with width longer than the
length of the bounding box can be seen in Figs. 12.5a, 12.5g, while those with a length long‐
er than the width are shown in Figs. 12.5e, 12.5f. The landslide height has been obtained by
the subtraction of the maximum and the minimum slope height. For each pixel, the slope
height is computed as difference in altitude between the pixel and the local channel (Böhner
and Selige 2006). Slope and aspect angles of landslides were estimated by considering the
mean value of all the pixels inside the landslide polygon. The general slope was computed as
the ratio between the landslide height and length. For the assessment of the relation be‐
tween structural landforms (cuesta scarp and dip slopes) and landslides, we have used the
cuesta extents delineated by Niculiţă (2011).
12.3.2 Landslide Inventory
Using remote sensing imagery and field work, a geomorphological historical landslide inven‐
tory (Malamud et al. 2004b; Guzzetti et al. 2012) was created for the Moldavian Plateau
(Niculiţă and Mărgărint 2014). Five elements of landslides morphology (the crown, the
scarp, the rough displaced mass, the flanks, and the toe) have been used to identify the oc‐
currence and to delineate the extension of landslides. The areas situated in between these
landslide elements were digitized as polygons, and some mapping generalization methods
have been applied: simplification, amalgamation and refinement (Slocum et al. 2009).
Fig. 12.4 The spatial distribution of landslide in the Moldavian Plateau: 1 – rotational slides; 2 –
translational slides; 3 – earth flows; 4 – lateral spreads; 41 and 42 – complex landslides
The landslide inventory presented in this study can be classified as a geomorphologic
and historic one. The inventory is geomorphologic because the remote sensing data sources
and the field reality, does not always allow the precise delineation and identification of the
event based landslides. The landslides are recognized by their morphologic signatures and
usually larger landslides contain also event based landslides. In this way, the inventory is a
historical one, because we consider different generations of landslides, with different ages.
The used methodology is consistent with methodologies cited in the literature (Ardizzone et
al. 2007; Van den Eeckhaut et al. 2005).
For every landslide polygon, using field experience, the geomorphometric analysis and
the geomorphologic and the environmental setting, the type according to Varnes (1978) and
Cruden and Varnes (1996) classifications was assigned. A statistical synthesis of geomor‐
phometric descriptors of landslide types is presented in Table 12.1, and the spatial distribu‐
tion of the landslides, is displayed in Fig. 12.4.
Table 12.1 Descriptive statistics of the landslides geomorphometry
Variables Total 1* 2* 3* 41* 42*
Number of landslides 24263 520 16030 1057 4947 1709
Total landslide area [km2] 4535.4 115.3 551.7 10.21 2845.7 1012.5
Proportion from study area [%] 18.3 0.45 2.2 0.05 11.5 4.1
Smallest landslide area [m2] 123 100200 123.2 625.9 121100 62720
Largest landslide [km2] 13.3 0.6 0.9 0.02 13.3 12.0
Mean landslide area [km2] 0.19 0.22 0.034 0.01 0.57 0.59
Median landslide area [km2] 0.04 0.18 0.02 0.01 0.29 0.36
Std. dev. of landslide area [km2] 0.51 0.12 0.03 0.005 0.89 0.75
Area of most freq. landslide [km2] 0.0025 0.10 0.005 0.049 0.15 0.25
Smallest landslide length [m] 23.1 296.3 23.1 30.6 154.5 294.7
Largest landslide length [m] 13690 1029 1445 567.3 13690 4921
Mean landslide length [m] 455.2 526.6 239.3 152.5 1055 909.1
Median landslide length [m] 272.8 489.0 191 133.5 734.7 810.1
Std. dev. of landslide length [m] 615.7 148.9 169.9 81.3 1041.9 462.0
Length of most freq. landslide [m] 95.0 445.0 90.0 92.5 350 475.0
Smallest landslide width [m] 8.2 308.1 8.2 20.1 144.3 203.0
Largest landslide width [m] 14750 991.0 1303.0 472.5 14750 6225
Mean landslide width [m] 395.9 526.9 198.1 102.3 917.5 883.4
Median landslide width [m] 225.7 487.8 156.0 86.8 656.3 777.6
Std. dev. of landslide width [m] 548.3 150.9 149.8 56.6 889.1 557.2
Width of most freq. landslide [m] 55 402.5 55 57.5 300 475
Smallest landslide height [m] 0 15.1 0 0 13.2 24.2
Largest landslide height [m] 326 197.3 176.1 58.0 326 317.3
Mean landslide height [m] 41.1 72.6 24.0 10.3 82.0 92.6
Median landslide height [m] 29.1 66.9 20.2 8.5 70.8 82.3
Std. dev. of landslide height [m] 39.1 28.2 18 7.9 43 42.8
Height of most freq. landslide [m] 7.5 57 7 4.8 47.5 62.5
Smallest mean landslide slope [] 0.0 2.3 0.0 0.0 2.0 2.6
Largest mean landslide slope [] 24.9 16.3 24.9 19.1 20.6 16.6
Mean of mean landslide slope [] 7.7 8.5 7.8 5.1 8.1 7.8
Median mean landslide slope[] 7.5 8.1 7.5 4.7 7.8 7.8
Std. dev. of mean landslide slope [] 2.7 2.3 2.9 2.7 2.2 1.9
Most freq. mean slope of landslides
7.3 7.6 7.3 3.7 7.5 8.15
[]
Smallest general landslide slope [%] 0 2.1 0 0 0.1 1.3
Largest general landslide slope [%] 140.7 32.9 140.7 55.2 42.1 38.1
Mean of general landslide slope [%] 7.6 10.5 7.8 3.7 7.4 7.5
Median general landslide slope[%] 6.4 9.6 6.4 2.5 6.7 7.1
Std. dev. of general landslide slope
6.3 4.8 6.9 4.3 4.9 3.7
[%]
Most freq. general slope of landslides
3 7.8 3 0.8 2.3 4.3
[%]
* the columns 3 to 7 represent the landslide type code according to the section 12.4.1
12.3.3 Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis was performed with R software and its base packages (R Develop‐
ment Core Team 2008). Circular statistics were computed with circular package (Agostinelli
and Lund 2013). For fitting Inverse Gamma, Pareto and Weibull distributions MASS, (Vena‐
bles and Ripley 2002), stats, and actuar packages were used (Dutang et al. 2008). All the
plots were realized in R software.
The landslide frequency density, magnitude and magnitude curves were obtained by ap‐
plying in R the methodology described by Malamud et al. 2004a. The Weibull distributions
were computed in R following the methodology explained in Donnarumma et al. 2013.
12.4 Results and Discussions
12.4.1 Landslide Types
A landslide is the movement of a mass of rock, debris or earth down a slope (Cruden 1991).
In this study the landslides will be discussed following the widespread typology created by
Varnes (1978), completed by Cruden and Varnes (1996) and recently updated and discussed
by Hungr et al. (2014). These classification systems are mainly based on the dominant type
of movement and the types of material before displacement and they have the qualities to
be simple and flexible, being applicable at global scale. In Romania, for the Moldavian Plat‐
eau, based especially on the shape of the deformed slopes, which can often reveal the com‐
plexity of the causal factors of these gravitational processes, Băcăuanu et al. (1980) have
distinguished a wide range of landslides: mound, step‐like, wave‐like, flows and complex
landslides. These types appear in a wide range of spatial combinations, often with a remark‐
able continuity, especially along the cuesta scarp slopes.
The landslide inventory has 24,263 polygons, the density of landslides in the study area
being 1.02 landslides per km2. The surface covered by landslides is 18.3 % from the study
area (4,534.7 km2, without adding the area of overlapping landslides), the density of land‐
slide area per km2 being 0.19.
In the study area we have identified the following types of landslides: 1 – rotational, 2 –
translational, 3 – lateral spread, 4.1 – rotational‐translational complexes, and 4.2 – rotation‐
al‐translational‐flow complexes. The absolute frequency of these types for the physiograph‐
ic regions of the Moldavian Plateau (Fig. 12.1) is presented in Table 12.2.
Table 12.2 The absolute frequency of landslide types from the physiographic units of Moldavian
Plateau
physiographic
units 1* 2* 3* 41* 42* Total**
Fig. 12.5 Representative types of landslides from Moldavian Plateau: a, e – rotational, f – lateral
spread, c – translational, d – translational and flow like, b – flow, g – succession of translational
slides affected by a recent rotational one
In this region, the rotational slides occur chiefly at the upper part of the slopes with co‐
hesive rocks like sandstones, limestones and volcanic tuffs placed above clayey, silty or
sandy formations. This is the classic case of the Iaşi Cuesta Scarp, where the Bessarabian
succession begins with clays, which have more than 300 m in thickness, followed by marls
with sands intercalations, and two sandstone‐limestone hard horizons at the upper part.
This lithological succession, with a slow inclination to the south‐east, has led to one of the
most impressive morphological alignment of the study region (Figs. 12.1, 12.7).
Rotational slides are almost linearly aligned for dozens of kilometers, and the succession
of old, stabilized, circular main scarps, constitute a real pattern of these gravitational pro‐
cesses (Fig. 12.7). The evolution of these rotational slides seems to be controlled by a re‐
gional generalized event (prolonged rainy periods and/or earthquakes), preceded and fol‐
lowed by long term shallow translational slides. This is the reason why these landslides are
found as complex landslide polygons in the inventory, as presented above. This kind of al‐
ternation in the slopes affected by rotational slides was reported in many other geological
and geographical settings (Petley et al. 2002; Poiraud and Defive 2011; Van den Eeckhaut et
al. 2009; Van den Eeckhaut et al. 2010; Massey et al. 2013). The permanent reactivations of
these landslides are related with a wide range of preparatory and triggering factors, like me‐
teorological events, land cover/use changes, and fluctuation of hydrogeological level. The
multitemporal successions of translational movements in the bottom part of the slopes are
clearly expressed in Fig. 12.7.
A similar situation to Iaşi Cuesta Scarp occurs along outcrops of sandstones in the east‐
ern part of the Suceava Plateau – the well‐known “Moldavian Scarp” (Ungureanu 1993), and
along the outcrops of the volcanic tuffs, in the southern part of the Central Moldavian Plat‐
eau and the northern parts of the Fălciu and Tutova Hills (Mărgărint et al. 2013b). In the lat‐
ter case, rotational behavior is present mainly at the upper part of the slopes but also at
medium and lower levels (Figs. 12.5a, 12.6a).
Fig. 12.6 3D perspectives of LIDAR shading for typical landslides (the photos of the same landslides
are shown in Fig. 12.5, and the notation is consistent with the photos)
Translational Slides
Translational slides are defined as a displacement of a mass of rocks, debris or earth along a
planar or undulating surface of rupture, sliding out over the original ground surface (Cruden
and Varnes 1996). Their occurrence is linked to the large extension of sensitive clays and
silts in the Moldavian Plateau. They are generally spread all over the study area. Their area
isgenerally reduced, with values comprised between 123.2 m2 and 0.98 km2, with a mean
value of 0.034 km2. It is noteworthy that individual translational bodies have small areas
(see mean and median in Table 12.1), with an obvious exception represented by a large
number of slides prepared by the consistent number of anthropic lakes and pounds, espe‐
cially in the north‐east part of the region – the Jijia Hills (Figs. 12.5c, 12.6c). Individual trans‐
lational slides are spread all over the length of the hillslopes.
An important factor for the decreasing of cohesiveness of the materials along the slope
is represented by the continuous sliding of the complex landslides throughout the time. The
great thickness of the rotational landslide deposits from the upper levels of the slopes, per‐
manently eroded and cut by the incipient hydrographic network, has constituted o major
preparatory factor for these reactivations, classified as complex slides. This important issue
was well emphasized by other landslide regional approaches (Klimeš 2008), and recently
discussed in geomorphometric terms (Goetz et al. 2014).The occurrence of sands and sandy
silts intercalations in the Bessarabian to Romanian formations (Fig. 12.3) constitutes favora‐
ble condition for mixing the translational movement with flows.
Earth Flows
A flow is a spatially continuous movement in which surfaces of shear are short‐lived, closely
spaced and not usually preserved (Cruden 2011). In the Moldavian Plateau the occurrence
of individual flows is very low compared with the other types, that is why we did not create
a distinct class. As a mechanism, the flows do occur, but in mixture with other types of
movements (rotational and translational), so we will find this genetic type included in the
rotational‐translational‐flow complexes (Figs. 12.5f, 12.6f, Table 12.1).
Lateral Spreads
Cruden (2011) defines a spread as an extension of a cohesive soil or rock mass combined
with a general subsidence of the fractured mass of cohesive material into softer underlying
material. For the Moldavian Plateau, such similar features occur, but have some differences,
being linked with the river and gully dissection of hillslope toe or channel heads. We have
called this type of spreads, lateral spreads, because the spread mechanism is controlled by
the incision, which does not allow a typical rotational movement, but also limits the materi‐
al subsidence at the base (Figs. 12.5f, 12.6f).
Complex Landslides
In many cases a single type of movement is impossible to be assigned to a slope mass delim‐
ited and mapped in a polygonal manner. For these situations, Varnes (1978) introduced the
term of complex landslides, which can be detailed by using a composite terminology (Hungr
et al. 2014).
Remarkable for the Moldavian Plateau is the large extension of landslides which cannot
be attributed to a single genetic mechanism. The different types of movements can be rec‐
ognized through the abundance of a large variety of micro‐morphologic details of landslides
(secondary scarps, lateral cracks, various roughness, micro‐depressions, mounds). This mor‐
phological complexity is related to a long term evolution of cuesta scarps. Generally, a fresh
morphology is associated with the translational slides and flows and this issue emphasizes a
clear differentiation between present and past processes and created landforms (Dikau and
Schmidt 2001; Damm and Terhorst 2010).
A large part of these complex landslides, but also some event based landslides are more
wide than long, and this is due to the structural landforms, respectively elongated cuesta
scarps, which can be followed on tens of kilometers (Figs. 12.4, 12.7). The development of
landslides along the fronts of cuesta diminishes the possibilities for an individual treatment
of landslides at this scale of analysis, being probably one of the major limitations of the in‐
ventory.
Two sub‐classes have been differentiated for the complex landslides: (i) polygons with
obvious rotational and translational movements, and (ii) polygons with rotational, transla‐
tional and clearly distinguished parts with flows. In the first subclass a particular type of
slope morphology was included, regionally known as “hârtoape”. These are large mono‐ or
poly‐amphitheater like basins, associated with old, dormant landslides which have thick‐
nesses of 10‐20 m, and are affected by recent processes, such as shallow landslides, slumps
and surface erosion (Mărgărint et al. 2013a). These areas also can present a very dense in‐
cipient drainage network, which directly controls the permanent evolution of landslide pro‐
cesses (Figs. 12.5d, 12.6d, 12.7).
The regional grouping of polygons with complex landslides which include flows, especial‐
ly in the Bârlad Plateau, can be a reason to individualize a distinctive subclass, related to im‐
portant occurrence of sandy formations (Fig. 12.7).
Fig. 12.7 LIDAR DEM image of Iaşi Cuesta Scarp Slope, dominated by continuous complex landslides
12.4.2 Spatial and Morphometric Patterns of the Landslides
Analyzing the distributions of the geomorphometric variables of the landslide polygons, we
can summarize that the most frequent landslide area interval is 2,500‐3,500 m2, totalizing
1,044 counts. This shows the prevalence of small landslides, but these landslides represents
only a small part of the total area covered by landslides (0.6 %) and of the total number of
landslides (landslides with areas lower than 10,000 m2 are only 22.2 % from the total num‐
ber of landslides). Although representing 44.5 % from the total number of landslides, medi‐
um sized landslides (area between 10,000 and 100,000 m2) cover only 9.5 % from the total
landslide area. Big landslides, with area between 100,000 m2 and 1 km2 cover 49.4 %, while
numbering 29.8 % from the total number of landslides. The very big landslides (with area
bigger than 1 km2) represent 3.5 % from the total number of landslides.
The distribution of landslide area is consistent with the results from other regions over
the Globe (Korup 2005b; Van den Eeckhaut et al. 2007; Guzzetti et al. 2008). The probability
density function of landslide areas is studied, because there is a strong support of the idea
that landslide areas have a double pareto/inverse gamma like distribution, with small land‐
slides very frequent, showing a gradual increase of the density, and as the big landslides are
not quite frequent, the density decreases rapidly along a power law tail. Because our inven‐
tory is historical, and consequently not complete, we could not fit an inverse gamma or pa‐
reto distribution to our data, we only simulated inverse gamma distributions with different
order of magnitude (Fig. 12.8). Also, frequency density was estimated, and not probability
density function (Korup 2005b; Van den Eckhaut et al. 2007; Trigila et al. 2010).
The tail for the frequency density (Fig. 12.8) has a slope of ‐1.4, which is smoother than
the values given in the literature (‐2 to ‐2.4) by Malamud et al. 2004a; Malamud et al.
2004b. The reasons for this smoothness is the fact that by delineating complex landslides
and event generated landslides, certain event based landslides of the population which are
comprised by the complex landslides, are not present in the distribution of our inventory.
Our tail distribution slope values are close to those obtained by Korup 2005b. This does not
imply that the inventory is not usable, but rather incomplete, by not taking into account cer‐
tain landslides as individuals of the distribution. In the same time, the complex landslides
are usable because it represents areas where instability and reactivations can occur.
The majority of the missing individual landslides, usually appear clustered on top of the
delineated surfaces affected by landslides (Ardizzone et. al. 2007). Because of this clustering
we believe that the total surface affected by landslides, which we obtained, is close to the
real total projected surface, and the future inclusion of the event based landslides will not
modify significantly the total landslide area. Because the landslide inventory is not event
based, and thus incomplete, the magnitude cannot be assessed properly, but applying the
formula given by Malamud et al. 2004b, the magnitude of the power‐law tails is 4.38. About
the magnitude, we can only remark that, as others mention (Korup 2005b; Van Den Eeck‐
haut et al. 2007; Guzzetti et al. 2008) the frequency density spans across 2 orders of magni‐
tude, showing again the incompleteness state of the inventory, and the fact that is a geo‐
morphologic one, containing landslides with different ages and magnitudes. The theoretical
number of real landslides, from which the ones with small area are lost due to erosion, can
be estimated to 40,415; the corresponding theoretical total area is 8,154 km2. These values
were obtained applying the methodology of Malamud et al. 2004b, by considering the count
of landslides with areas bigger than 0.1 km2, which represent 44.5 % of the total number of
landslides, their cumulative area, and extrapolating to 100 %. We expect the real projected
surface to be bigger, but close to the actual surface, because the 8,154 km2 is the cumula‐
tive surface, including the overlapping of small landslides.
A good way to analyze the landslide distribution in a spatial way is to compute the land‐
slide index, as the proportion of surface of 1x1 km rectangles covered by landslides (Trigila
et al. 2010). This index is represented in Fig. 12.9 and shows the areas where landslides have
a higher density: Central Moldavian Plateau, the north part of Tutovei Hills, the northern
part of Jijia Hills, the Siret Hills and the contact between Fălciului Hills and Covurlui Plateau.
Landslides have an altitudinal distribution which has a different shape than the general
distribution of altitude in the study area (Fig. 12.2), but the tendency of the distributions are
similar, with an abrupt increase of the frequency of altitudes affected by landslides, and
general altitudes toward 170‐180 m a.s.l., when a maximum is reached, and then a gradual
decrease with a flattening after 420 m a.s.l. for landslides, and 540 m a.s.l. for the entire
study area (Fig. 12.10). The slope of the terrain affected by landslides show a Weibull distri‐
bution, asymmetric to the left, the maximum frequency being centered on 7 degrees (Fig.
12.2).
Fig. 12.8 The frequency density distribution of landslide area in log‐log scales
This value is close to the modal value of slope, 8.6 degrees, which has been shown to be
the characteristic slope angle at failure (Ohmori and Sugai 1995; Iwahashi et al. 2003, Korup
2005b; Guzzetti et al. 2008; Donnarumma et al. 2013).
Comparing the results with the conclusions of Korup (2005b) and Guzzetti et al. (2008),
who point out that in their study area (mountainous areas) landslides have modified the
slope modal value of topography with up to 3 degrees, the data for Moldavian Plateau show
an insignificant difference in slope modal value, between landslides and undisplaced areas.
Considering the fact that landslides do not change the slope distribution we can state that
this pattern is related to the general evolution of hillslopes, mass movement processes and
river incision of the toe, which sustain the slope of cuesta scarp slopes. For the cuesta dip
slopes, landslides change the slope distribution, by creating steep portions, which reduce
the general asymmetry of cuestas. Only lateral spreads do not follow this pattern, because
these landslides appear in specific conditions of landform‐channel network relations.
The general slope (slope height/length), which can be seen as the slope of the original
hillslope (before the landslide) shows an exponential distribution, mainly because of the in‐
fluence of the landslide height. Also, the descriptive statistics of the landslide types show
the presence of a similar slope threshold for the hillslopes affected by landslides (Table
12.1). According to their typology, only rotational and lateral spread types have different
general slope characteristics, compared with the general slope of translational and complex
types, which show similar characteristics with the general slope of the overall landslides.
Thus, the mean general slope of the landslides is 6 %, with the spread of majority of the val‐
ues between 4 and 10 % (Fig. 12.11).
Fig. 12.9 Landslide area patterns in Moldavian Plateau: the landslide index for 1x1 km (1 km2) grid
Slope height (Figs. 12.2, 12.10) shows the large variety of landslide locations on
hillslopes. The typology of landslides shows distinctive features of hillslope locations, trans‐
lational and complex landslides being distributed all over the length of the hillslopes with
great amplitudes; the translational and lateral spread landslides have a smaller amplitude,
and are located in the lower half of the slopes.
Fig. 12.10 Descriptive statistics graphics for landslide inventory geomorphometry: altitude and
height shown in boxplots and histogram, the boxplots representing the totals (T) and landslide types
(1, 2, 3, 41, and 42), according to the section 12.4.1. The colors are the same with those used in Fig.
12.4
Landslide length and width are correlated, since the landslides from the Moldavian Plat‐
eau show complementary length‐width relations (Fig. 12.12). The rotational landslides are
either circular or elongated, with length bigger than width. Translational landslides and
flows have clearly elongated shape, with length several times bigger than width. Complex
landslides, especially those situated on cuesta scarp slope, and lateral spreads have the
width bigger than the length.
Slope aspect (Fig. 12.2) of the terrain of both all the areas and of the areas affected by
landslides show that the most frequent pixels are those with NE, E, SW, W, related to the
general pattern of cuesta landforms, cuesta dip slopes having the largest surfaces. If the
number of landslides is compared with the cuesta landforms delineated by Niculiţă (2011),
the same pattern is well emphasized (Fig. 12.13a). In reality, the pattern introduced by the
large complexes, which occurred mainly on cuesta scarp slopes, can be shown only if we an‐
alyze the surface of landslides on each cuesta hillslope type (Fig. 12.13b). Generally north
and west oriented hillslopes represent cuesta scarp slopes while east and south hillslopes
represent cuesta dip slopes. Although cuesta scarp slopes cover a smaller proportion of the
study area than the dips slopes (as it can be seen in Fig. 12.2), the first have a larger surface
of landslides than the latter ones.
Fig. 12.11 Descriptive statistics graphics for landslide inventory geomorphometry: mean slope and
general slope shown in boxplots and histogram, the boxplots representing the totals (T) and land‐
slide types (1, 2, 3, 41, and 42), according to the section 12.4.1. The colors are the same with those
used in Fig. 12.4
By landslide type, the most frequent are rotational‐translational complexes (62.8 %), fol‐
lowed by rotational‐translational‐flow complexes (22.3 %), translational (12.2 %), rotational
landslides (2.5 %) and river induced (0.2 %).
The physiogeographic regions with the biggest areas occupied by landslides (as propor‐
tion from the total landslide area) are the Central Moldavian Plateau with 30.4 %, Jijia Plat‐
eau with 26.5 %, Tutovei Hills with 20.3 %, the others having smaller proportions: Siret Hills
(7 %), Suceava Plateau (6.2 %), Fălciu Hills (4.1 %), Covurlui Plateau (2.3 %), Huşi–Sărata–
Elan–Horincea Hills (2.3 %).
Considering the proportion of the landslide area from the total area of the physiogeo‐
graphic regions, the situation is close to that of the whole study area, the Central Moldavian
Plateau having 38.2 %, Sucevei Plateau 33.6 %, Tutovei Hills 29.1 %, Huşi–Sărata–Elan–
Horincea Hills 26.5 %, Fălciu Hills 21.8 %, Jijia Plateau 19.3 %, Siret Hills 17.9 %, only Covurlui
Plateau having 4.5 %.
The rotational landslides are the most frequent in Tutova Hills (24.8 % from the total ro‐
tational population), Central Moldavian Plateau (23.8), Jijia Hills (17.7 %), Suceava Plateau
(17.1 %) and Siret Hills (11.7 %), in relation with the occurrence of consolidated geological
formations (Fig. 12.3). The translational landslides are the most frequent in Jijia Hills (26.7
%), Tutova Hills (26.1 %), Central Moldavian Plateau (18.3 %), in relation with the clayey de‐
posits extension. The lateral spread are the most frequent in Suceava Plateau (28.7 %),
Tutova Hills (27.5 %), Covurlui Plateau (13.3 %), being related to the channel network and
gully density. The rotational‐translational complexes are the most frequent in Jijia Plateau
(34.9 %), Tutova Hills (30.6 %), Siret Hills (11.7 %) and Suceava Plateau (11.3 %). The rota‐
tional‐translational‐flow complexes are the most frequent in Central Moldavian Plateau
(47.5 %), Jijia Hills (38.6 %), Fălciu Hills (6.2 %), Tutova Hills (4.2 %). These complex catego‐
ries distribution is consistent with the mentioned patterns of lithology, incipient drainage
network and main characteristics of landslide type discussed above.
Fig. 12.12 Descriptive statistics graphics for landslide inventory geomorphometry: mean length and
width shown in boxplots and histogram, the boxplots representing the totals (T) and landslide types
(1, 2, 3, 41, and 42), according to the section 12.4.1. The colors are the same with those used in Fig.
12.4
Regarding the surface lithology, 25.1 % of landslide area is present on Bessarabian rocks,
with 17.1 % on clay member (bs1 – abbreviations according to the legend of Fig. 12.3) and
8.3% on the limestone‐sand‐sandstone member (bs3), 17.2 % on Meotian rocks, with 10.4 %
on the sand‐clay (me1) and 6.8 % on the cineritic member (me2), 16.5 % on the Kersonian
rocks, with 14.5 % on the deltaic facies (ksa) and 2 % on the brackish facies (ksb), 13.3 % on
Holocene deposits, 12.4 % on Volhynian rocks, 4.1 % on Pontian and Dacian rocks, 3.4 % on
Upper Pleistocene rocks (qp3) and 2.9 % on Romanian rocks (ro). The other geologic for‐
mations have all landslide areas lower than 2 % of landslide total area.
Fig. 2.13 Descriptive statistics graphics for landslide inventory geomorphometry a – mosaic plot of
landslide types and cuesta hillslopes class (Niculiţă 2011), b – barplot for absolute values of areas of
landslides for cuesta hillslopes class (Niculiţă 2011). The numbers of landslide types (a) are the same
with those used in Fig. 12.4. The colors are the same with those used in Fig. 12.4
12.4.3 General Remarks
The large complexity of landslides from Moldavian Plateau can determine us to affirm that
nature of triggering factors has recorded a real historical variability. The largest scarps of
complex landslides are now smoothed, and in many cases covered by well‐developed forest
vegetation. Therefore, for the assessment of current and future activity of landslides, an im‐
portant issue is represented by the interaction of landslides history with current and future
triggering factors (Schmidt and Dikau 2005).
The knowledge of landslide types and patterns is an important issue of the assessment
of their spatial probability of occurrence. A special characteristic of landslides in the Molda‐
vian Plateau are some patterns which link the landslides with human concentrations and ac‐
tivities. Many settlements are spread along cuesta scarp slopes or “hârtoape” complex am‐
phitheaters, due to their microclimatic, hydrogeologic and historic conditions (Mărgărint et
al. 2010). But regarding vulnerability and risk assessment perspective, these locations play
an important role, leveraging these issues. In the recent decades (especially the ‘70 and ‘80)
the terrains affected by landslides have constituted the object for many local projects in or‐
der to mitigate the negative effects of landslides for settlements, along roads or in diminish‐
ing agricultural potential of the terrain (Pujină 2008). After the social changes of 1989, unu‐
sual patterns of the agricultural lands were extended as a consequence of serious legislative
lacks, as we can see in Fig. 12.14. The fragmentation of new agricultural parcels resulted
from recent appropriation (Popovici et al. 2013) makes possible the delineation of the land‐
slides. A similar pattern, but much older, is given by integral extension of settlements on the
stabilized landslides along cuesta scarp fronts (Fig. 12.14b).
The alignment of large complex of landslides which border almost the entire Jijia Hills
constantly have put serious problems along railways and roads that cross neighboring units
(Bârlad and Suceava Plateaus). Every year slope displacements are reported and sometimes
affect with severe damages these important lifelines. More than that, the design of future
ways of communication must take into consideration the new maps of the spatial distribu‐
tion of mass movements achieved through new mapping techniques, like LIDAR DEM and
high resolution satellite remote sensing imagery, which were not available until now
(Mărgărint et al. 2013b). The future steps of regional scale approaches of landslides, like
susceptibility, hazard and risk assessments, will benefit successfully from statistical outputs
of relations between landslide occurrence and lithology, morphostructure, geomorphomet‐
ric variables, land use, etc.
Fig. 12.14 Specific patterns of land use associated with landslides: a – the fragmentation of new agri‐
cultural parcels (after 1989) delineating a landslide induced by lakes, b – extension of Hlipiceni vil‐
lage (Northern Jijia Hills) amazingly fits an elongated cuesta scarp landslide
12.5 Conclusions
The present paper has analyzed the causal factors, landslide patterns distributions and types
in the Moldavian Plateau, using as a base a landslide inventory, containing 24,263 landslide
polygons and created from the interpretation of remote sensing images. The inventory is
geomorphologic and incomplete, as shown by the low frequencies of the small landslides,
but its validity is given by the shape of the distribution tail, which fits the literature infor‐
mation. Further expansions of this inventory will require the introduction of age, the separa‐
tion of more event based landslides and the delineation of the scarp from the landslide
body.
The landslide spatial distribution indicate the hotspots inside the study area, and alt‐
hough only 18.3 % is covered by landslides and despite a relative lifelessness is recorded in
the rates of mass movement processes in the last decades, landslides are a chronic phe‐
nomenon, able to reactivate if the causal factors allow it.
Considering the data from the landslide inventory and field experience we have general‐
ized the following types of landslides: rotational, translational, lateral spread, flow and
complex landslides.
In the present analysis we conclude that the geological conditions (the monoclinic struc‐
ture with a succession of clays and silts with limestone and sandstone intercalation) and
morphostructure create a strong control in the spatial distribution of landslides. While land‐
slides occur on all lithological classes and occupy the entire range of slope positions (upper,
middle, lower), there are differences depending on their type. Using spatial and geomor‐
phometric analysis of the landslides we argued a link between mass movement processes
and the geologic, morphostructural and topographic setting. The general presented pattern
is completed by local situations, which are generated by a large range of local preparatory
factors.
The landslide inventory needs to be further extended by the inclusion of age, event
based landslides and multi‐temporal attributes to complete the general image of landslide
types and patterns in the Moldavian Plateau. This will contribute to a better understanding
of landslide phenomenon, ability to estimate the associated risk and the assessment and
sustainable management of landscape resources in the Moldavian Plateau.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge partial support of Mihai Niculiţă by the European Social
Fund in Romania, under the responsibility of the Managing Authority for the Sectoral Opera‐
tional Program for Human Resources Development 2007‐2013 [grant
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/133391]. We are grateful to Prut–Bârlad Water Administration who
provided us with the LIDAR data. We have used the computational facilities given by the in‐
frastructure provided through the POSCCE‐O 2.2.1, SMIS‐CSNR 13984‐901, No.
257/28.09.2010 Project, CERNESIM (L4).
References
Abbott PL (2004) Natural disasters. New York, McGraw‐Hill Companies Inc.
Agostinelli C, Lund U (2013) R package 'circular': Circular Statistics (version 0.4‐7). https://r‐forge.r‐
project.org/projects/circular/
Ardizzone F, Cardinali M, Galli M, Guzzetti F, Reichenbach P (2007) Identification and mapping of re‐
cent rainfall‐induced landslides using elevation data. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 7:637–650
Băcăuanu V (1968) Câmpia Moldovei. Studiu geomorfologic. Editura Academiei Republicii Socialiste
România, București (in Romanian)
Băcăuanu V, Barbu N, Pantazică M, Ungureanu A, Chiriac D (1980) Podișul Moldovei. Natură, om,
economie. Editura științifică și enciclopedică, București (in Romanian)
Bălteanu D, Chendeş V, Sima M, Enciu P (2010) A country‐wide spatial assessment of landslide sus‐
ceptibility in Romania. Geomorphol 124:102–112
Bălteanu D, Jurchescu M, Surdeanu V, Ioniţă I, Goran C, Urdea P, Rădoane M, Rădoane N, Sima M
(2012) Recent Landform Evolution in the Romanian Carpathians and Pericarpathian Region. In:
Loczy D, Stankoviansky M, Kotarba A (eds) Recent Landform Evolution, p 249–286
BöhnerJ, Selige T (2006) Spatial prediction of soil attributes using terrain analysis and climate region‐
alisation. In: Böhner J, McCloy KR, Strobl J (eds) SAGA – Analysis and Modelling Applications.
Göttinger Geographische Abhandlungen, 115
Broothaerts N, Kissi E, Poesen J, Van Rompaey A, Getahun K, Van Ranst E, Diels J (2012) Spatial pat‐
terns, causes and consequences of landslides in the Gilgel Gibe catchment, SW Ethiopia. Catena
97:127–136
Bucknam RC, Coe JA, Chavarria MM, Godt JW, Tarr AC, Bradley L‐A, Rafferty S, Hancock D, Dart RL,
Johnson ML (2001) Landslides Triggered by Hurricane Mitch in Guatemala – Inventory and Dis‐
cussion. US Geological Survey Open File Report 01–443
Capecchi V, Perna M, Crisci A (2015) Statistical modeling of rainfall‐induced shallow landsliding using
static predictors and numerical weather predictions: preliminary results. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst.
Sci. 15:75–95
Ciampalini A, Raspini F, Bianchini S, Frodella W, Bardi F, Lagomarsino D, Di Traglia F, Moretti S,
Proietti C, Pagliara P, Onori R, Corazza A, Duro A, Basile G, Casagli N (2015) Remote sensing as
tool for development of landslide database: The case of the Messina Province (Italy) geodata‐
base. Geomorphol. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.01.029
Conforti M, Muto F, Rago V, Critelli S (2014) Landslide inventory map for north‐eastern Calabria
(South Italy). J of Maps 10:90–102
Corine Land Cover 2006 seamless vector data v. 17 (2013) http://www.eea.europa.eu/data‐and‐
maps/data/clc‐2006‐vector‐data‐version‐3
Croitoru AE, Minea I (2014) The impact of climate changes on rivers discharge in Eastern Romania.
Theor Appl Climatol. doi:10.1007/s00704‐014‐1194‐z
Cruden DM (1991) A simple definition of a landslide. Bull Internat Assoc of Eng Geol 43:27–29
Cruden DM, VarnesDJ (1996) Landslide types and processes. In: Turner AK, Schuster RL (eds) Land‐
slides investigation and mitigation. Transportation research board, US National Council, Special
Report 247, Washington, DC, Chapter 3:36–75
Cruden DM (2011) The Working Classification of Landslides: material matters. 2011 Pan‐Am CGS Ge‐
otechnical Conference
Damm B, Terhorst B (2010) A model slope formation related to landslide activity in the Eastern Pre‐
alps. Austria. Geomorphol 122:338–350
Densmore AL, Hovius N (2000) A fingerprints of bedrock landslides. Geology 28:371–374
Dikau R, Schmidt K‐H (2001) Mass movements in South, West and Central Germany – objectives and
main results of the MABIS project. Z. Geomorphol Suppl. Bd. 125:1–12
Donnarumma A, Revellino P, Guerriero L, Grelle G, Guadagno FM, (2013) Failure analysis of shallow
landslides using a three parameter Weibull distribution of slope angle. Rend Online Soc Geol It
24:110–112
Dutang C, Goulet V, Pigeon M (2008) Actuar: An R Package for Actuarial Science. J of Stat Softw
25:1–37
Fell R, Corominas J, Bonnard C, Cascini L, Leroi E, Savage WY (2008) Guidelines for landslide suscep‐
tibility, hazard and risk zoning for land‐use planning. Eng Geol 102:99–111
Glade T (2003) Landslide occurrence as a response to land use change: a review of evidence from
New Zealand. Catena 51:297–314
Goetz JN, Bell R, Brenning A (2014) Could surface roughness be a poor proxy for landslide age? Re‐
sults from the Swabian Alb, Germany. Earth Surf Proc and Landforms. doi:10.1002/esp.3630
Grozavu A, Mărgărint MC, Patriche CV (2012) Landslide susceptibility assessment in the Brăieşti‐
Sineşti sector of Iaşi cuesta. Carpath Journ Earth Env Sci 7:39–46
Guzzetti F, Cardinali M, Reichenbach P (1996) The influence of structural setting and lithology on
landslide type and pattern. Env Eng Geosci 2:531–555
Guzzetti F, Carrara A, Cardinali M, Reichenbach P (1999) Landslide hazard evaluation: a review of
current techniques and their application in a multi‐scale study, Central Italy. Geomorphol
31:181–216
Guzzetti F, Ardizzone F, Cardinali M, Galli M, Reichenbach P, Rossi M (2008) Distribution of landslides
in the Upper Tiber River basin, central Italy. Geomorphol 96:105–122
Guzzetti F, Mondini AC, Cardinali M, Fiorucci F, Santangelo M, Chang K‐T (2012) Landslide inventory
map: New tools for an old problem. Earth‐Science Reviews 112:42–66
Haase D, Fink J, Haase G, Ruske R, Pécsi M, Richter H, Altermann M, Jäger K‐D (2007) Loess in Europe
– its spatial distribution based on a European Loess Map, scale 1:2,500,000. Quaternary Science
Reviews 26:1301–1312.
Haesaerts P, Borziak I, Chirica V, Damblon F, Koulakovska L, van der Plicht J (2003) The East Carpathi‐
an loess record: a reference for the middle and late pleniglacial stratigraphy in Central Europe.
Quaternaire 14(3):163–188.
Hovius N, Stark CP, Hao‐Tsu C, Jiun‐Chuan L (2000) Supply and removal of sediment in a landslide‐
dominated mountain belt: Central Range, Taiwan. J of Geol 108:73–89
Hungr O, Leroueil S, Picarelli L (2014) The Varnes classification of landslide types, an update. Land‐
slides 11:167–194
International Commission on Stratigraphy (2014) International Chronostratigraphic Chart v. 2014/02,
http://www.stratigraphy.org/index.php/ics‐chart‐timescale
Ionesi L (1994) Geologia unităților de platformă și a Orogenului Nord‐Dobrogean. Editura Tehnică,
București (in Romanian)
Ionesi L, Ionesi B, Roşca V, Lungu A, Ionesi V (2005) Sarmațianul mediu și superior de pe Platforma
Moldovenească, Editura Academiei Române, București (in Romanian)
Ioniţă I (2000) Relieful de cueste din Podișul Moldovei. Corson, Iaşi (in Romanian)
Iwahashi J, Watanabe S, Furuya T (2003) Mean slope‐angle frequency distribution and size frequency
distribution of landslide masses in Higashikubiki area. Jap Geomorphol 50:349–364
Jäger D, Sandmeier C, Schwindt D, Terhorst B (2013) Geomorphological and geophysical analyses in a
landslide area near Ebermannstadt, Northern Bavaria. Quatern Sci J 62:150–161
Jeanreanud P (1971) Harta geologică a Moldovei Centrale dintre Siret și Prut. Analele Științifice ale
Universității “Alex. I. Cuza” din Iaşi, sec. II, XVII:65–78 (in Romanian)
Kavzoglu T, Sahin EK, Colkesen I (2015) Selecting optimal conditioning factors in shallow translational
landslide susceptibility mapping using genetic algorithm. Eng Geol 192:101–112
Klimeš J (2008) Analysis of preparatory factors of landslides, VsetǐnskéVrchy Highland, Czech Repub‐
lic. Acta Research Reports 17:47–53
Komac M, Hribernik K (2015) Slovenian national landslide database as a basis for statistical assess‐
ment of landslide phenomena in Slovenia. Geomorphol. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph. 2015.02.005
Korup O (2005a) Distribution of landslides in south‐west New Zeeland. Landslides 2:43–51
Korup O (2005b) Geomorphic imprint of landslides on alpine rivers system, southwest New Zeeland.
Earth Surf Proc and Landforms 30:783–800
Lin CW, Tseng CM, Tseng YH, Fei LY, Hsieh YC, Tarolli P (2013) Recognition of large scale deep‐seated
landslides in forest areas of Taiwan using high resolution topography. Journ of Asian Earth Sci‐
ences 62:389–400
Malamud BD, Turcotte DL, Guzzetti F, Reichenbach P (2004a) Landslides, earthquake, and erosion.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 229:45–59
Malamud BD, Turcotte DL, Guzzetti F, Reichenbach P (2004b) Landslide inventories and their statisti‐
cal properties. Earth Surf Proc and Landforms 29:687–711
Massey CI, Petley DN, McSaveney M (2013) Patterns of movement in reactivated landslides. Eng
Geol 159:1–19
Mațenco L, Bertotti G (2000) Tertiary tectonic evolution of the external East Carpathians (Romania).
Tectonophysics 316:255–286
Maţenco L, Bertotti G, Leever K, Cloetingh S, Schmid SM, Tărăpoancă M, Dinu C (2007) Large‐scale
deformation in a locked collisional boundary: interplay between subsidence and uplift, intraplate
stress, and inherited lithospheric structure in the late stage of the SE Carphatian evolution. Tec‐
tonics 26, TC4011. doi: 10.1029/2006TC001951
Mărgărint MC, Grozavu A, Condorachi D, Pleşcan S, Boamfă I (2010) Geomorphometric features of
the built areas of the localities along Iaşi cuesta. Geographia Technica 2:79–89
Mărgărint MC, Grozavu A, Patriche CV (2013a) Assessing the spatial variability of coefficients of land‐
slide predictors in different regions of Romania using logistic regression. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst.
Sci. 13:3339–3355
Mărgărint MC, Juravle DT, Grozavu A, Patriche CV, Pohrib M, Stângă IC (2013b) Large landslide risk
assessment in hilly areas. A case study of Huşi town region. It Journ Eng Geol Env, Book Series
(6):275–286
Mărgărint MC, Niculiţă M (2014) Comparison and validation of Logistic Regression and Analytic Hier‐
archy Process models of landslide susceptibility assessment in monoclinic regions. A case study
in Moldavian Plateau, N‐E Romania. Geophys Research Abstracts 16, EGU 2014–6371
McKean J, Roering J (2004) Objective landslide detection and surface morphology mapping using
high‐resolution airborne laser altimetry. Geomorphol 57:331–351
Meunier P, Uchida T, Hovius N (2013) Landslide patterns reveal the sources of large earthquakes.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 363:27–33
Micu M (2011) Landslide assessment: from field mapping to risk management. A case‐study in the
Buzău Subcarpathians. Forum Geografic 10:70–77
Mihai B, Săvulescu I, Şandric I, Chiţu Z (2014) Integration of landslide susceptibility assessment in ur‐
ban development: a case study in Predeal town, Romanian Carpathians. Area.
doi:10.1111/area.12123
Minea I (2012) Bazinul hidrografic Bahlui. Studiu hidrologic. Editura Universității “Alex. I. Cuza” din
Iaşi (in Romanian)
Mondini AC, Viero A, Cavalli M, Marchi L, Herrera G, Guzzetti F (2014) Comparison of event landslide
inventories: the Poliaschina catchment test case, Italy. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 14:1749–
1759
Niculiţă M (2011) A landform classification schema for structural landforms of the Moldavian plat‐
form (Romania). In: Hengl T, Evans IS, Wilson JP, Gould M (eds) Geomorphometry 2011. Red‐
lands, CA, p 129–132
Niculiță M (2015) Automatic extraction of landslide flow direction using geometric processing and
DEMs. In: Jasiewicz J, Zwoliński Z, Mitasova H, Hengl T (eds) Geomorphometry for Geosciences.
Poznań, Poland: Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań ‐ Insti‐
tute of Geoecology and Geoinformation, p 201–203
Niculiţă M, Mărgărint MC (2014) Landslide inventory for the Moldavian Plateau. Proc of Intern Conf
Analysis and Management of Changing Risks for Natural Hazards, 18‐19 November 2014, Padua,
Italy, http://www.changes‐itn.eu/Portals/0/Content/2014/Final%20conference/ ab‐
stracts/AP3_Abstract_Niculita.pdf
Ohmori H, Sugai T (1995) Toward geomorphometric models for estimating landslide dynamics and
forecasting landslide occurrence in Japanese mountains. Z Geomorphol Suppl.‐Bd. 101:149–164
Pătruţ I, Dăneţ T (1987) Le Pre‐cambrien (Vendien) et le Cambrien dans la Plate‐forme Moldave, An‐
alele Științifice ale Universității “Alex. I. Cuza” din Iaşi (Serie Nouă), s. II‐b, XXXIII:26–30
Petley DN, Bulmer MH, Murphy W (2002) Patterns of movement in rotational and translational land‐
slides. Geology 30:719–722
Pohrib MD, Juravle DT, Niacşu L, Ursu A, Stanciu A, Plătică D (2012) Paleogeography of the chersoni‐
an to meotian in the north of Fălciu Hills (Moldavian Platform) based on sedimentological data.
Carpath Journ Earth and Env Sci 7:23–26.
Poiraud A, Defive E (2011) Morphology and geomorphological significance of relict landslides in the
Tertiary basin of Puy‐en‐Velay (Massif Central, France). Géomorphologie: relief, processus, envi‐
ronnement 3:247–260
Popescu ME (1994) A suggested method for reporting landslide causes. Bulletin IAEG 50:71–74
Popescu ME (2002) Landslide causal factors and landslide remedial options, keynote lecture. In: Pro‐
ceedings of the Third International Conference on Landslides, Slope Stability and Safety of Infra‐
Structures, Singapore 61–81
Popovici EA, Bălteanu D, Kucsicsa Gh (2013) Assessment of changes in land‐use and land‐cover pat‐
tern in Romania using Corine Land Cover database. Carpath Journ Earth Env Sci 8:195–208
Posea G (2005) Geomorfologia României: reliefuri, tipuri, geneză, evoluție, regionare. Editura Funda‐
ției “România de Mâine” (in Romanian)
Pourghasemi HR, Moradi HR, Fatemi Aghda SM, Sezer EA, Goli Jirandeh A, Pradhan B (2014) Assess‐
ment of fractal dimension and geometric characteristics of the landslides identified in North of
Tehran, Iran. Environ Earth Sci 71:3617–3626
Pujină D, Ioniţă I (1996) Present‐day variability and intensity of the sliding processes in the Bârlad
Tableland. Proc of Internat Conference on Disaster and Mitigation, Madras A4 p 35–40
Pujină D (2008) Alunecările de teren din Podișul Moldovei. Editura Performantica, Iaşi (in Romanian)
R Development Core Team (2008) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foun‐
dation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. ISBN 3‐900051‐07‐0, URL http://www.R‐
project.org
Institutul Geologic al României (1968) Harta geologică a României, scara 1:200 000, foile și notele
explicative: 1 (Dărăbani), 5 (Rădăuţi), 6 (Suceava), 7 (Ştefăneşti), 13 (Piatra Neamţ), 14 (Iaşi), 22
(Bârlad), 30 (Focşani)
Rotaru A, Oajdea D, Răileanu P (2007) Analysis of the Landslide Movements, Inter J of Geol, 1:70–79
Schmidt J, Dikau R (2005) Preparatory and triggering factors for slope failure: analyses for two land‐
slides in Bonn, Germany. Z. Geomorph, N. F. 49:121–138
Selby MJ (1985) Earth’s changing surface: An Introduction to geomorphology. Claredon Press
Slocum TA, McMaster RB, Kessler FC, Howard HH (2009) Thematic Cartography and Geovisualization.
Pearson Education Inc.
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) 1 Arc‐Second Global (2014),
https://lta.cr.usgs.gov/SRTM1Arc
Stângă IC (2012) Bazinul Tutovei. Riscurile naturale și vulnerabilitatea teritoriului, Editura Universi‐
tății “Alex. I. Cuza” din Iaşi (in Romanian)
Şandric I, Chiţu Z (2009) Landslide inventory for the administrative area of Breaza, Curvature Subcar‐
pathians, Romania. J Maps 2009/7:75–86. doi: 10.4113/jom.2009.1051
Talaei R (2014) Landslide risk assessment using a multi‐method approach in Hashtchin region (NW of
Iran). Acta Geod Geophys 49:381–401
Tarolli P, Sofia G, Dalla Fontana G (2012) Geomorphic features extraction from high‐resolution to‐
pography: landslide crowns and bank erosion. Nat Hazards 61:65–83
Tonini M, Pedrazzini A, Penna I, Jaboyedoff (2014) Spatial pattern of landslides in Swiss Rhone Val‐
ley. Nat Hazards 73:97–110
Travis MR, Elsner GH, Iverson WD, Johnson CG (1975) VIEWIT: computation of seen areas, slope and
aspect for land‐use planning. USDA F.S. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW‐11/1975, p 70, Berkeley, California,
U.S.A.
Trigila A, Iadanza C, Spizzichino D (2010) Quality assessment of the Italian Landslide Inventory using
GIS processing. Landslides 7:455–470
Ungureanu A (1993) Geografia podișurilor și câmpiilor României. Editura Universității “Alex. I. Cuza”
din Iaşi (in Romanian)
Van Den Eeckhaut M, Poesen J, Verstraeten G, Vanacker V, Moyersons J, Nyssen J, Van Beek LPH
(2005) The effectiveness of hillshade maps and expert knowledge in mapping old deep‐seated
landslides. Geomorphol 67:351–363
Van Den Eeckhaut M, Poesen J, Govers G, Verstraeten G, Demoulin A (2007) Characteristics of the
size distribution of recent and historical landslides in a populated hilly region. Earth and Plane‐
tary Science Letters 256:588–603
Van Den Eeckhaut M, Reicchenbach P, Guzzetti F, Rossi M, Poesen J (2009) Combined landslide in‐
ventory and susceptibility assessment based on different mapping units: an example from the
Flemish Ardennes, Belgium. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 9:507–521
Van Den Eeckhaut M, Marre A, Poesen J (2010) Comparison of two landslide susceptibility assess‐
ment in the Champagne–Ardenne region (France). Geomorphol 115:141–155
Van Westen CJ, Castellanos E, Kuriakose SL (2008) Spatial data for landslide susceptibility, hazard,
and vulnerability assessment: An overview. Eng Geol 102:112–131
Varnes DJ (1978) Slope movement types and processes. In: Schuster RL, Krizek RJ (eds) Landslides,
analysis and control, special report 176: Transportation research board. National Academy of
Sciences, Washington, DC p 11–33
Venables WN, Ripley BD (2002) Modern Applied Statistics with S, Fourth Edition. Springer, New York
Yin J, Chen J, Xu X, Wang X, Zheng Y (2010) The characteristics of the landslides triggered by the
Wenchuan Ms 8.0 earthquake from Anxian to Beichuan. J Asian Earth Sciences 37:452–459
Zhao C, Chen W, Wang Q, Wu Y, Yang B (2015) A comparative study of statistical index and uncer‐
tainty factor models in landslide susceptibility mapping: a case study for the Shangzhou District,
Shaanxi Province, Chin. Arab J Geosci. doi:0.1007/s12517‐015‐1891‐7
Гораздо больше, чем просто документы.
Откройте для себя все, что может предложить Scribd, включая книги и аудиокниги от крупных издательств.
Отменить можно в любой момент.