Pacific Ocean - Wikipedia

1/16/2018 Pacific Ocean - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 0°N 160°W
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's oceanic divisions.
Pacific Ocean
It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or,
depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south and is bounded by
Asia and Australia in the west and the Americas in the east.
At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square miles) in area (as

defined with an Antarctic southern border), this largest division of the
World Ocean—and, in turn, the hydrosphere—covers about 86% of Earth's
water surface and about one-third of its total surface area, making it larger
than all of Earth's land area combined.[1] Both the center of the Water
Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean. The
equator subdivides it into the North Pacific Ocean and South Pacific
Ocean, with two exceptions: the Galápagos and Gilbert Islands, while
straddling the equator, are deemed wholly within the South Pacific.[2] Its
mean depth is 4,280 meters (14,040 feet). The Mariana Trench in the
Coordinates 0°N 160°W
western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of
10,911 meters (35,797 feet).[3] The western Pacific has many peripheral Surface 165,000,000 km2
seas. area (64,000,000 sq mi)
Average 4,280 m (14,040 ft)
Though the peoples of Asia and Oceania have traveled the Pacific Ocean
depth
since prehistoric times, the eastern Pacific was first sighted by Europeans
in the early 16th century when Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Max. depth 10,911 m (35,797 ft)
crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and discovered the great "southern Water 710,000,000 km3
sea" which he named Mar del Sur (in Spanish). The ocean's current name volume (170,000,000 cu mi)
was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the
Islands List of islands
Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered
favorable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means "peaceful
sea".[4]
Contents
History
Early migrations
European exploration
New Imperialism
Geography
Bordering countries and territories
Sovereign nations
Territories
Landmasses and islands
Water characteristics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean 1/16
Climate
Geology
Geological history
Seamount chains
Economy
Fishing
Environmental issues
Major ports and harbors
See also
References
Further reading
Historiography
External links
History
Early migrations
Important human migrations
occurred in the Pacific in
prehistoric times. About 3000 BC,
the Austronesian peoples on the
island of Taiwan mastered the art
Made in 1529, the Diogo Ribeiro of long-distance canoe travel and
map was the first to show the Pacific spread themselves and their Universalis Cosmographia, the
at about its proper size
languages south to the Philippines, Waldseemüller map dated 1507,
Indonesia, and maritime Southeast from a time when the nature of the
Asia; west towards Madagascar; southeast towards New Guinea and Melanesia Americas was ambiguous,
particularly North America, as a
(intermarrying with native Papuans); and east to the islands of Micronesia,
possible part of Asia, was the first
Oceania and Polynesia.[6]
map to show the Americas
separating two distinct oceans.
Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan.
South America was generally
Trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but considered a "new world" and
apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic shows the name "America" for the
settlement in Canton much of this trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. first time, after Amerigo Vespucci
In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of
immortality. From 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian
Ocean.
European exploration
The first contact of European navigators with the western edge of the Pacific Ocean was made by the Portuguese
expeditions of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão, via the Lesser Sunda Islands, to the Maluku Islands, in 1512,[7][8]
and with Jorge Álvares's expedition to southern China in 1513,[9] both ordered by Afonso de Albuquerque from Malacca.
The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de
Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached
a new ocean.[10] He named it Mar del Sur (literally, "Sea of the South" or
"South Sea") because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus
where he first observed the Pacific.
Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West
on a Castilian (Spanish) expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519.
Magellan called the ocean Pacífico (or "Pacific" meaning, "peaceful") because, Maris Pacifici by Ortelius (1589).
after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm One of the first printed maps to
waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the show the Pacific Ocean[5]
eighteenth century.[11] Although Magellan himself died in the Philippines in
1521, Spanish Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano led the expedition back
to Spain across the Indian Ocean and round the Cape of Good Hope,
completing the first world circumnavigation in a single expedition in 1522.[12]
Sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese
expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands,[13] the Aru Islands,[14] and Papua
New Guinea.[15] In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan.[16]
In 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from
Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and
Mariana Islands.[17] For the remainder of the 16th century, Spanish influence Map of the Pacific Ocean during
was paramount, with ships sailing from Mexico and Peru across the Pacific European Exploration, circa 1702–
Ocean to the Philippines, via Guam, and establishing the Spanish East Indies. 1707.
The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and
Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history. Spanish expeditions also
discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and
the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.[18]
Later, in the quest for Terra Australis (i.e., "the [great] Southern Land"),
Spanish explorations in the 17th century, such as the expedition led by the
Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, discovered the Pitcairn and
Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New
Guinea, named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Dutch explorers, sailing
around southern Africa, also engaged in discovery and trade; Willem Janszoon,
Map of the Pacific Ocean during
made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606),
European Exploration, circa 1754.
in Cape York Peninsula,[19] and Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and
landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered Tasmania
and New Zealand in 1642.[20]
In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers. As
the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance
of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines.[21]
The 18th century marked the beginning of major exploration by the Russians in Alaska and the Aleutian Islands, such as
the First Kamchatka expedition and the Great Northern Expedition, led by the Danish Russian navy officer Vitus Bering.
Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The
French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and
Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest. In 1768, Pierre-Antoine Véron, a young astronomer
accompanying Louis Antoine de Bougainville on his voyage of exploration, established the width of the Pacific with
precision for the first time in history.[22] One of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the
Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the
Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific.[18]
New Imperialism
Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of
much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan and the United
States. Significant contributions to oceanographic knowledge were made by the
voyages of HMS Beagle in the 1830s, with Charles Darwin aboard; HMS
Challenger during the 1870s; the USS Tuscarora (1873–76); and the German
Gazelle (1874–76).
In Oceania, France got a leading

position as imperial power after
making Tahiti and New Caledonia The Bathyscaphe Trieste, before her
protectorates in 1842 and 1853 record dive to the bottom of the
respectively.[23] After navy visits to Mariana Trench, 23 January 1960
Easter Island in 1875 and 1887,

Dupetit Thouars taking over Tahiti Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro
on 9 September 1842 managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native
Rapanui in 1888. By occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial
nations.[24](p53) By 1900 nearly all Pacific islands were in control of Britain,
France, United States, Germany, Japan, and Chile.[23]
Although the United States gained control of Guam and the Philippines from Spain in 1898,[25] Japan controlled most of
the western Pacific by 1914 and occupied many other islands during World War II. However, by the end of that war, Japan
was defeated and the U.S. Pacific Fleet was the virtual master of the ocean. Since the end of World War II, many former
colonies in the Pacific have become independent states.
Geography
The Pacific separates Asia and Australia from the Americas. It may be further
subdivided by the equator into northern (North Pacific) and southern (South
Pacific) portions. It extends from the Antarctic region in the South to the Arctic
in the north.[1] The Pacific Ocean encompasses approximately one-third of the
Earth's surface, having an area of 165,200,000 km2 (63,800,000 sq mi)—
significantly larger than Earth's entire landmass of some 150,000,000 km2
(58,000,000 sq mi).[26]
Sunset over the Pacific Ocean as
Extending approximately 15,500 km (9,600 mi) from the Bering Sea in the seen from the International Space
Arctic to the northern extent of the circumpolar Southern Ocean at 60°S (older Station. Anvil tops of thunderclouds
definitions extend it to Antarctica's Ross Sea), the Pacific reaches its greatest are also visible.
east-west width at about 5°N latitude, where it stretches approximately
19,800 km (12,300 mi) from Indonesia to the coast of Colombia—halfway
around the world, and more than five times the diameter of the Moon.[27] The lowest known point on Earth—the Mariana
Trench—lies 10,911 m (35,797 ft; 5,966 fathoms) below sea level. Its average depth is 4,280 m (14,040 ft; 2,340 fathoms),
putting the total water volume at roughly 710,000,000 km3 (170,000,000 cu mi).[1]
Due to the effects of plate tectonics, the Pacific Ocean is currently shrinking by roughly 2.5 cm (1 in) per year on three
sides, roughly averaging 0.52 km2 (0.20 sq mi) a year. By contrast, the Atlantic Ocean is increasing in size.[28][29]
Along the Pacific Ocean's irregular western margins lie many seas, the largest of which are the Celebes Sea, Coral Sea, East
China Sea (East Sea), Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan (East Sea), South China Sea (South Sea), Sulu Sea, Tasman Sea, and
Yellow Sea (West Sea of Korea). The Indonesian Seaway (including the Strait of Malacca and Torres Strait) joins the
Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the west, and Drake Passage and the Strait of Magellan link the Pacific with the Atlantic
Ocean on the east. To the north, the Bering Strait connects the Pacific with the Arctic Ocean.[30]
As the Pacific straddles the 180th meridian, the West Pacific (or western Pacific, near Asia) is in the Eastern Hemisphere,
while the East Pacific (or eastern Pacific, near the Americas) is in the Western Hemisphere.[31]
The Southern Pacific Ocean harbors the Southeast Indian Ridge crossing from south of Australia turning into the Pacific-
Antarctic Ridge (north of the South Pole) and merges with another ridge (south of South America) to form the East Pacific
Rise which also connects with another ridge (south of North America) which overlooks the Juan de Fuca Ridge.
For most of Magellan's voyage from the Strait of Magellan to the Philippines, the explorer indeed found the ocean
peaceful. However, the Pacific is not always peaceful. Many tropical storms batter the islands of the Pacific.[32] The lands
around the Pacific Rim are full of volcanoes and often affected by earthquakes.[33] Tsunamis, caused by underwater
earthquakes, have devastated many islands and in some cases destroyed entire towns.[34]
The Martin Waldseemüller map of 1507 was the first to show the Americas separating two distinct oceans.[35] Later, the
Diogo Ribeiro map of 1529 was the first to show the Pacific at about its proper size.[36]
Bordering countries and territories
Sovereign nations
Australia
Brunei
Cambodia
Canada
Chile
China1
Colombia
Costa Rica
Ecuador The island geography of the Pacific Ocean
El Salvador Basin
Federated States of Micronesia
Fiji
Guatemala
Honduras
Indonesia
Japan
Kiribati
North Korea
South Korea
Malaysia
Marshall Islands
Mexico
Nauru
Nicaragua
New Zealand
Palau
Regions, island nations and territories of
Panama
Oceania
Papua New Guinea
Peru
Philippines
Russia
Samoa
Singapore
Solomon Islands
Taiwan1
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Tonga
Tuvalu
United States
Vanuatu
Vietnam
1 The status of Taiwan and China is disputed. For more information, see political status of Taiwan.
Territories
American Samoa (US) Kingman Reef (US)
Baker Island (US) Macau (China)
Cook Islands (New Zealand) Midway Atoll (US)
Coral Sea Islands (Australia) New Caledonia (France)
Easter Island (Chile) Niue (New Zealand)
French Polynesia (France) Norfolk Island (Australia)
Guam (US) Northern Mariana Islands (US)
Hong Kong (China) Palmyra Atoll (US)
Howland Island (US) Pitcairn Islands (UK)
Jarvis Island (US) Tokelau (New Zealand)
Johnston Island (US) Wallis and Futuna (France)
Wake Island (US)
Landmasses and islands
This ocean has most of the islands in the world. There are about 25,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean.[37][38][39] The islands
entirely within the Pacific Ocean can be divided into three main groups known as Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesia.
Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in the
northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Islands to the west and the islands of Kiribati in the
southeast.[40][41]
Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and by far the largest
of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon
Islands, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia.[42]
The largest area, Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses Tuvalu,
Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands, Society Islands and Austral Islands in the
center, and the Marquesas Islands, Tuamotu, Mangareva Islands, and Easter Island to the east.[43]
Islands in the Pacific Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and uplifted coral
platforms. Continental islands lie outside the andesite line and include New Guinea, the islands of New Zealand, and the
Philippines. Some of these islands are structurally associated with nearby continents. High islands are of volcanic origin,
and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands.[44]
The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's
surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second
island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands.
Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia.[45][46]
Pacific Ocean up sun from the rocks Point Reyes headlands, Point Reyes
National Seashore, California
Tahuna maru islet, French Polynesia Los Molinos on the coast of Southern
Chile
Water characteristics
The volume of the Pacific Ocean, representing about 50.1 percent of the world's
oceanic water, has been estimated at some 714 million cubic kilometers
(171 million cubic miles).[47] Surface water temperatures in the Pacific can vary
from −1.4 °C (29.5 °F), the freezing point of sea water, in the poleward areas to
about 30 °C (86 °F) near the equator.[48] Salinity also varies latitudinally,
reaching a maximum of 37 parts per thousand in the southeastern area. The
water near the equator, which can have a salinity as low as 34 parts per
thousand, is less salty than that found in the mid-latitudes because of
abundant equatorial precipitation throughout the year. The lowest counts of
Sunset in Monterey County,
less than 32 parts per thousand are found in the far north as less evaporation
California, U.S.
of seawater takes place in these frigid areas.[49] The motion of Pacific waters is
generally clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere (the North Pacific gyre) and
counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The North Equatorial Current, driven westward along latitude 15°N by the
trade winds, turns north near the Philippines to become the warm Japan or Kuroshio Current.[50]
Turning eastward at about 45°N, the Kuroshio forks and some water moves northward as the Aleutian Current, while the
rest turns southward to rejoin the North Equatorial Current.[51] The Aleutian Current branches as it approaches North
America and forms the base of a counter-clockwise circulation in the Bering Sea. Its southern arm becomes the chilled
slow, south-flowing California Current.[52] The South Equatorial Current, flowing west along the equator, swings
southward east of New Guinea, turns east at about 50°S, and joins the main westerly circulation of the South Pacific,
which includes the Earth-circling Antarctic Circumpolar Current. As it approaches the Chilean coast, the South Equatorial
Current divides; one branch flows around Cape Horn and the other turns north to form the Peru or Humboldt Current.[53]
Climate
The climate patterns of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
generally mirror each other. The trade winds in the southern and eastern
Pacific are remarkably steady while conditions in the North Pacific are far
more varied with, for example, cold winter temperatures on the east coast
of Russia contrasting with the milder weather off British Columbia during
the winter months due to the preferred flow of ocean currents.[54]
In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation

(ENSO) affects weather conditions. To determine the phase of ENSO, the
most recent three-month sea surface temperature average for the area
approximately 3,000 km (1,900 mi) to the southeast of Hawaii is
computed, and if the region is more than 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) above or below
normal for that period, then an El Niño or La Niña is considered in
progress.[55]
In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet season
during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which
Impact of El Niño and La Niña on North
blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass.[56] Worldwide, tropical
America
cyclone activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between
temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest. However,
each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide scale, May
is the least active month, while September is the most active month. November
is the only month in which all the tropical cyclone basins are active.[57] The
Pacific hosts the two most active tropical cyclone basins, which are the
northwestern Pacific and the eastern Pacific. Pacific hurricanes form south of
Mexico, sometimes striking the western Mexican coast and occasionally the
southwestern United States between June and October, while typhoons
forming in the northwestern Pacific moving into southeast and east Asia from
May to December. Tropical cyclones also form in the South Pacific basin,
where they occasionally impact island nations.
In the arctic, icing from October to May can present a hazard for shipping
Typhoon Tip at global peak intensity
while persistent fog occurs from June to December.[58] A climatological low in on 12 October 1979
the Gulf of Alaska keeps the southern coast wet and mild during the winter
months. The Westerlies and associated jet stream within the Mid-Latitudes can
be particularly strong, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, due to the temperature difference between the tropics and
Antarctica,[59] which records the coldest temperature readings on the planet. In the Southern hemisphere, because of the
stormy and cloudy conditions associated with extratropical cyclones riding the jet stream, it is usual to refer to the
Westerlies as the Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking Sixties according to the varying degrees of latitude.[60]
Geology
The ocean was first mapped by Abraham Ortelius; he called it Maris
Pacifici following Ferdinand Magellan's description of it as "a pacific
sea" during his circumnavigation from 1519 to 1522. To Magellan, it
seemed much more calm (pacific) than the Atlantic.[61]
The andesite line is the most significant regional distinction in the

Pacific. A petrologic boundary, it separates the deeper, mafic igneous
rock of the Central Pacific Basin from the partially submerged
continental areas of felsic igneous rock on its margins.[62] The
andesite line follows the western edge of the islands off California Ring of Fire. The Pacific is ringed by many
and passes south of the Aleutian arc, along the eastern edge of the volcanoes and oceanic trenches.
Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuril Islands, Japan, the Mariana Islands,
the Solomon Islands, and New Zealand's North Island.[63][64]
The dissimilarity continues northeastward along the western edge of the Andes
Cordillera along South America to Mexico, returning then to the islands off
California. Indonesia, the Philippines, Japan, New Guinea, and New Zealand
lie outside the andesite line.
Within the closed loop of the andesite line are most of the deep troughs,
submerged volcanic mountains, and oceanic volcanic islands that characterize
the Pacific basin. Here basaltic lavas gently flow out of rifts to build huge
Ulawun stratovolcano situated on
dome-shaped volcanic mountains whose eroded summits form island arcs,
the island of New Britain, Papua
chains, and clusters. Outside the andesite line, volcanism is of the explosive New Guinea
type, and the Pacific Ring of Fire is the world's foremost belt of explosive
volcanism.[40] The Ring of Fire is named after the several hundred active
volcanoes that sit above the various subduction zones.
The Pacific Ocean is the only ocean which is almost totally bounded by subduction zones. Only the Antarctic and
Australian coasts have no nearby subduction zones.
Geological history
The Pacific Ocean was born 750 million years ago at the breakup of Rodinia, although it is generally called the
Panthalassic Ocean until the breakup of Pangea, about 200 million years ago.[65] The oldest Pacific Ocean floor is only
around 180 Ma old, with older crust subducted by now.[66]
Seamount chains
The Pacific Ocean contains several long seamount chains, formed by hotspot volcanism. These include the Hawaiian–
Emperor seamount chain and the Louisville Ridge.
Economy
The exploitation of the Pacific's mineral wealth is hampered by the ocean's great depths. In shallow waters of the
continental shelves off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, petroleum and natural gas are extracted, and pearls are
harvested along the coasts of Australia, Japan, Papua New Guinea, Nicaragua, Panama, and the Philippines, although in
sharply declining volume in some cases.[67]
Fishing
Fish are an important economic asset in the Pacific. The shallower shoreline waters of the continents and the more
temperate islands yield herring, salmon, sardines, snapper, swordfish, and tuna, as well as shellfish.[68] Overfishing has
become a serious problem in some areas. For example, catches in the rich fishing grounds of the Okhotsk Sea off the
Russian coast have been reduced by at least half since the 1990s as a result of overfishing.[69]
Environmental issues
The quantity of small plastic fragments floating in the north-east Pacific Ocean
increased a hundredfold between 1972 and 2012.[70]
Marine pollution is a generic term for the harmful entry into the ocean of
chemicals or particles. The main culprits are those using the rivers for
disposing of their waste.[71] The rivers then empty into the ocean, often also
bringing chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture. The excess of oxygen-
depleting chemicals in the water leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead
zone.[72]
Marine debris on a Hawaiian coast
Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is human-created waste that has
ended up floating in a lake, sea, ocean, or waterway. Oceanic debris tends to
accumulate at the center of gyres and coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach litter.[71]
In addition, the Pacific Ocean has served as the crash site of satellites, including Mars 96, Fobos-Grunt, and Upper
Atmosphere Research Satellite.
Major ports and harbors
See also
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
Pacific Alliance
Pacific-Antarctic Ridge
Pacific coast
Pacific hurricane
Pacific Time Zone
Pacific War
Seven Seas
Trans-Pacific Partnership
Typhoon
War of the Pacific
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41. Lal, Brij Vilash; Fortune, Kate (2000). The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia (https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pP
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42. West, Barbara A. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania (https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiN
qFj3MQsC&pg=PA521). Infobase Publishing. pp. 521–. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7. Retrieved 14 June 2013.
43. Dunford, Betty; Ridgell, Reilly (1996). Pacific Neighbors: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia (https://
books.google.com/books?id=3n2z7E1zH3MC). Bess Press. pp. 125–. ISBN 978-1-57306-022-6. Retrieved 14 June
2013.
44. Gillespie, Rosemary G.; Clague, David A. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islands (https://books.google.com/books?id=g9Zog
Gs_fz8C&pg=PA706). University of California Press. p. 706. ISBN 978-0-520-25649-1. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
45. "Coral island" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137072/coral-island), Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved
22 June 2013.
46. "Nauru" (http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/nauru.htm), Charting the Pacific. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
47. "PWLF.org – The Pacific WildLife Foundation – The Pacific Ocean" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120421015555/htt
p://www.pwlf.org/pacific.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.pwlf.org/pacific.htm) on 21 April 2012. Retrieved
23 August 2013.
48. Mongillo, John F. (2000). Encyclopedia of Environmental Science (https://books.google.com/books?id=ozAN5vLbssg
C&pg=PA255). University Rochester Press. pp. 255–. ISBN 978-1-57356-147-1. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
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Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
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currents.htm), Ocean Motion. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
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June 2013.
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53. "South Equatorial Current" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437770/Pacific-South-Equatorial-Current),
54. "Pacific Ocean: Islands" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/437703/Pacific-
Ocean/36083/Islands#toc36085), Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
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Further reading
Barkley, Richard A. (1968). Oceanographic Atlas of the Pacific Ocean. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
prepared by the Special Publications Division, National Geographic Society. (1985). Blue Horizons: Paradise Isles of
the Pacific. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. ISBN 0-87044-544-8.
Cameron, Ian (1987). Lost Paradise: The Exploration of the Pacific. Topsfield, Mass.: Salem House. ISBN 0-88162-
275-3.
Couper, A. D. (ed.) (1989). Development and Social Change in the Pacific Islands. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-
00917-0.
Gilbert, John (1971). Charting the Vast Pacific. London: Aldus. ISBN 0-490-00226-9.
Lower, J. Arthur (1978). Ocean of Destiny: A Concise History of the North Pacific, 1500–1978. Vancouver: University
of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-7748-0101-8.
Napier, W.; Gilbert, J.; Holland, J. (1973). Pacific Voyages. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-04335-X.
Nunn, Patrick D. (1998). Pacific Island Landscapes: Landscape and Geological Development of Southwest Pacific
Islands, Especially Fiji, Samoa and Tonga (https://books.google.com/books?id=AN8486A8fMcC&pg=PA15).
editorips@usp.ac.fj. ISBN 978-982-02-0129-3.
Oliver, Douglas L. (1989). The Pacific Islands (3rd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1233-6.
Paine, Lincoln. The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World (2015).
Ridgell, Reilly (1988). Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia (2nd ed.).
Honolulu: Bess Press. ISBN 0-935848-50-9.
Samson, Jane. British imperial strategies in the Pacific, 1750–1900 (Ashgate Publishing, 2003).
Soule, Gardner (1970). The Greatest Depths: Probing the Seas to 20,000 feet (6,100 m) and Below. Philadelphia:
Macrae Smith. ISBN 0-8255-8350-0.
Spate, O. H. K. (1988). Paradise Found and Lost. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-1715-5.
Terrell, John (1986). Prehistory in the Pacific Islands: A Study of Variation in Language, Customs, and Human
Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-30604-3.
Historiography
Davidson, James Wightman. "Problems of Pacific history." Journal of Pacific History 1#1 (1966): 5–21.
Gulliver, Katrina. "Finding the Pacific world." Journal of World History 22#1 (2011): 83–100. online (http://www.acade
mia.edu/download/3168710/22.1.gulliver.pdf)
Igler, David (2013). The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush. New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-991495-8.
Munro, Doug. The Ivory Tower and Beyond: Participant Historians of the Pacific (Cambridge Scholars Publishing,
2009).
Routledge, David. "Pacific history as seen from the Pacific Islands." Pacific Studies 8#2 (1985): 81+ online (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20160923134705/https://journals.lib.byu.edu/spc/index.php/PacificStudies/article/viewFile/9369/90
18)
Samson, Jane. "Pacific/Oceanic History" in Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing
vol 2 (https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC&pg=PA901). Taylor & Francis. pp. 901–2.
External links
EPIC Pacific Ocean Data Collection Viewable (http://www.epic.noaa.gov/epic/ewb/) on-line collection of observational
data
NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer (https://web.archive.org/web/20060211015453/http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/)
plot and download ocean observations
NOAA PMEL Argo profiling floats Realtime Pacific Ocean data (https://web.archive.org/web/20060210183949/http://fl
oats.pmel.noaa.gov/floats/)
NOAA TAO (http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/jsdisplay/) El Niño data Realtime Pacific Ocean El Niño buoy data
NOAA Ocean Surface Current Analyses (https://web.archive.org/web/20051229005041/http://www.oscar.noaa.gov/da
tadisplay/)—Realtime (OSCAR) Near-realtime Pacific Ocean Surface Currents derived from satellite altimeter and
scatterometer data
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Coordinates: 0°N 160°W

At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square miles) in area (as

In Oceania, France got a leading

Easter Island in 1875 and 1887,

Bordering countries and territories

Landmasses and islands

In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern Oscillation

The andesite line is the most significant regional distinction in the

Major ports and harbors

1. "Pacific Ocean (http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9374340/Pacific-Ocean)". Britannica Concise. 2006.

68. "Pacific Ocean: Commerce and Shipping" (http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/pacific-ocean-commerce-sh

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific_Ocean&oldid=820390485"

This page was last edited on 14 January 2018, at 13:16.

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