Ammeter:

An ammeter is a device for measuring the electric current through a wire or a circuit element.
Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is a device for measuring potential difference between two wires, usually across a circuit
element or a group of elements.
Ohmmeter:
An ohmmeter is a device for measuring electric resistance of an isolated circuit element or of a simple
circuit without any active power sources.

The construction and working principle of a galvanometer with a neat diagram.

Construction
 It contains two magnetic North and South Magnetic Poles.
 A pointer (needle) is fixed between the two magnetic poles
 The pointer is the one which is use to point the scale readings of the galvanometer.
 A coil is fixed with the magnetic fields and with the positive and negative terminals of the
galvanometer.

Function of Galvanometer

 A galvanometer is a very sensitive ammeter: typically, it takes only 100 μA to make the
galvanometer arrow move all the way across the scale.
 The electric current flows through a wire coil placed in a magnetic field of a permanent
magnet.
 The magnetic forces on the current-carrying wires create a net torque on the coil.
 When the coil turns, the torsion spring attached to the coil cancels the torque.
 The arrow attached to the coil indicates the angle through which they turn.
 In a properly made galvanometer, this angle is proportional to the current through the
coil, so the scale behind the arrow may be labeled in units of the current the arrow may be
labeled in units of the current.
Measuring the values of resistance when the values are considerably very smal

 For small resistances RX ≤ 1 ohm, simple ohmmeters have poor accuracy since they do not
separate the RX from the resistance of the wires, or the internal resistance of the battery, or
an error in the safety resistance Rs.
 To avoid these problems, one may use a Wheatstone bridge to compare the RX to a precisely
calibrated variable resistor RV.
Beside the RX and the RV, the Wheatstone bridge involves two fixed well-calibrated resistors R1
and R2, a sensitive ammeter, and a battery, connected as follows:

The four resistances in the circuit are related to each other as

When the current through the ammeter happens to be zero, the whole circuit acts as two independent
voltage dividers, ABD and ACD. Solving each divider for the voltage on its lower element, we have

At the same time, zero current through the ammeter also implies zero voltage across the
ammeter, thus

Plugging in the voltages (2) into this equation gives us

And hence

Regardless of the battery’s voltage VAD. After a little algebra, this equation becomes
 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides

accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies.
Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general purpose laboratory
instrument.

Deflecting Plates used

o Horizontal Deflecting Plate.

o Vertical Deflecting Plate

The Purpose of vertical (deflection) plates is to deflect the beam vertically and at the same
time a voltage that increases linearly with time is applied to the horizontal (deflection)
plates thus causing the beam to be deflected horizontally at a uniform.

Functions of CRO with the aid of a neat diagram

 The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which are emitted by the heated cathode (negative
electrode) and accelerated toward the fluorescent screen.
 The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus grid, and accelerating anode (positive
electrode) is called an electron gun.
 Its purpose is to generate the electron beam and control its intensity and focus.
  Between the electron gun and the fluorescent screen is two pair of metal plates - one
oriented to provide horizontal deflection of the beam and one pair oriented to give vertical
deflection to the beam.
 These plates are thus referred to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates.
 The combination of these two deflections allows the beam to reach any portion of the
fluorescent screen.
 Wherever the electron beam hits the screen, the phosphor is excited and light is emitted
from that point.
 This conversion of electron energy into light allows us to write with points or lines of light
on an otherwise darkened screen.

controlling knobs used in CRO.

a. INTENSITY - This is the intensity control connected to the grid G to control the beam intensity
and hence the brightness of the screen spots.
b. FOCUS – allows obtaining a clearly defined line on the screen.
c. POSITION – allows adjusting the vertical position of the waveform on the screen. (There is
one of these for each channel).
d. AC/DC switch - This should be left in the DC position unless you cannot get a signal on-screen
otherwise. (There is one of these for each channel).
e. Channel A - input
f. Channel B -input
g. AMPL/DIV - is a control of the Y (ie. vertical) amplitude of the signal on the screen. (There is
one of these for each channel).
h. +/- Switch - This allows you to invert the B channel on the display.
i. Time/Div - This selector controls the frequency at which the beam Sweeps horizontally across
the screen in time base mode, as well as whether the oscilloscope is in time base mode or xy.

Alternating Current

Alternating current (AC) occurs when charge carriers in a conductor or semiconductor periodically
reverse their direction of movement.

 Household utility current in most countries is AC with a frequency of 60 hertz (60 complete cycles
per second), although in some countries it is 50 Hz.
 The radio-frequency (RF) current in antennas and transmission lines is another example of AC.
 An AC waveform can be sinusoidal, square, or sawtooth-shaped. Some AC waveforms are irregular
or complicated.
 An example of sine-wave AC is common household utility current (in the ideal case). Square or
sawtooth waves are produced by certain types of electronic oscillators, and by a low-end
uninterruptible power supply (UPS) when it is operating from its battery.
  The voltage of an AC power source can be easily changed by means of a power transformer.
 This allows the voltage to be stepped up (increased) for transmission and distribution.
 High-voltage transmission is more efficient than low-voltage transmission over long distances,
because the loss caused by conductor resistance decreases as the voltage increases.

Direct Current

DC (direct current) is the unidirectional flow or movement of electric charge carriers (which are
usually electrons).

 The intensity of the current can vary with time, but the general direction of movement stays
the same at all times. As an adjective, the term DC is used in reference to voltage whose polarity
never reverses.
 In a DC circuit, electrons emerge from the negative, or minus, pole and move towards the
positive, or plus, pole. Nevertheless, physicists define DC as traveling from plus to minus.
 Direct current is produced by electrochemical and photovoltaic cells and batteries.
 In contrast, the electricity available from utility mains in most countries is AC (alternating
current).
 Utility AC can be converted to DC by means of a power supply consisting of a transformer, a
rectifier (which prevents the flow of current from reversing), and a filter (which eliminates
current pulsations in the output of the rectifier).

Current divider rule

In parallel circuits of two resistance, current through one branch is equal to the l;ine current
multiplied by the ratio of resistance of other branch divided by the total resistance.

Consider the voltage at the terminal A and B to be

VAB = I1R1=I2R (1)

The total Current in this circuit can be written as

𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 (2)

𝐼1 = 𝐼 − 𝐼2 (3)

𝐼2 = 𝐼 − 𝐼1 (4)

From equation (1)

𝐼1𝑅1 = (I − I1). R2
 I1R1 = I. R2 − I1. R2

𝐼1. 𝑅1 + 𝐼1. 𝑅2 = 𝐼. 𝑅2

I1 (R1+R2) = I.R2

𝑅2
𝐼1 = 𝐼 (5)
(𝑅1+𝑅2)

From Equation (4)

𝑅2
I2 = I - 𝐼
(𝑅1+𝑅2)

𝑅2
I2 = I[1 − (𝑅1+𝑅2)]

𝑅1+𝑅2−𝑅2
I2 = I.[ (𝑅1+𝑅2)
]

𝑅1
I2 = I. (𝑅1+𝑅2)] (6)

𝑅2 𝑅1
The currents are 𝐼1 = 𝐼 & I2 = I. (𝑅1+𝑅2)]
(𝑅1+𝑅2)