Chapter 13

Flow in Closed Conduits

Many of the theoretical relations that have been developed in the previous chapters
apply to special situations such as inviscid flow, incompressible flow, and the like.
Some experimental correlations were introduced in Chapter 12 for turbulent flow in or
past surfaces of simple geometry. In this chapter, an application of the material that has
been developed thus far will be considered with respect to a situation of considerable
engineering importance, namely fluid flow, both laminar and turbulent, through closed
conduits.

13.1 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF CONDUIT FLOW

As an initial approach to conduit flow, we shall utilize dimensional analysis to obtain the
significant parameters for the flow of an incompressible fluid in a straight, horizontal,
circular pipe of constant cross section.
The significant variables and their dimensional expressions are as represented in the
following table:

Variable Symbol Dimension

Pressure drop DP M/Lt2
Velocity v L/t
Pipe diameter D L
Pipe length L L
Pipe roughness e L
Fluid viscosity m M/Lt
Fluid density r M/L3

Each of the variables is familiar, with the exception of the pipe roughness, symbolized e. The
roughness is included to represent the condition of the pipe surface and may be thought of as
the characteristic height of projections from the pipe wall, hence the dimension of length.
According to the Buckingham p theorem, the number of independent dimensionless
groups to be formed with these variables is four. If the core group consists of the variables v,
D, and r, then the groups to be formed are as follows:

p1 ¼ v a Db rc DP
p2 ¼ v d De r f L
p3 ¼ v g Dh ri e
p4 ¼ v j Dk rl m

168
 13.1 Dimensional Analysis of Conduit Flow 169

Carrying out the procedure outlined in Chapter 11 to solve for the unknown exponents in
each group, we see that the dimensionless parameters become
DP
p1 ¼
rv 2
L
p2 ¼
D
e
p3 ¼
D
and
vDr
p4 ¼
m
The first p group is the Euler number. As the pressure drop is due to fluid friction, this
parameter is often written with DP/r replaced by ghL where hL is the ‘‘head loss’’; thus p1
becomes
hL
v 2 /g
The third p group, the ratio of pipe roughness to diameter, is the so-called relative roughness.
The fourth p group is the Reynolds number, Re.
A functional expression resulting from dimensional analysis may be written as
 
hL L e
¼ f 1 ; ; Re (13-1)
v 2 /g D D
Experimental data have shown that the head loss in fully developed flow is directly
proportional to the ratio L/D. This ratio may, then, be removed from the functional
expression, giving

hL L e 
¼ f 2 ; Re (13-2)
v 2 /g D D
The function f2, which varies with the relative roughness and Reynolds number, is
designated f, the friction factor. Expressing the head loss from equation (13-2) in terms of
f, we have
L v2
hL ¼ 2 f f (13-3)
D g

With the factor 2 inserted in the right-hand side, equation (13-3) is the defining relation for
ff, the Fanning friction factor. Another friction factor in common use is the Darcy friction
factor, fD, defined by equation 13-4.
L v2
hL ¼ f D (13-4)
D 2g
Quite obviously, fD ¼ 4 ff . The student should be careful to note which friction factor he
is using to properly calculate frictional head loss by either equation (13-3) or (13-4). The
Fanning friction factor, ff, will be used exclusively in this text. The student may easily
verify that the Fanning friction factor is the same as the skin friction coefficient Cf.
Our task now becomes that of determining suitable relations for ff from that theory and
experimental data.
170 Chapter 13 Flow in Closed Conduits

13.2 FRICTION FACTORS FOR FULLY DEVELOPED

LAMINAR, TURBULENT, AND TRANSITION
FLOW IN CIRCULAR CONDUITS
Laminar Flow
Some analysis has been performed already for incompressible laminar flow. As fluid
behavior can be described quite well in this regime according to Newton’s viscosity relation,
we should expect no difficulty in obtaining a functional relationship for ff in the case of
laminar flow. Recall that, for closed conduits, the flow may be considered laminar for values
of the Reynolds number less than 2300.
From Chapter 8, the Hagen–Poiseuille equation was derived for incompressible,
laminar, conduit flow
dP mv avg
 ¼ 32 2 (8-9)
dx D
Separating variables and integrating this expression along a length, L, of the passage, we get
Z P Z
mv avg L
 dP ¼ 32 2 dx
P0 D 0

and
mv avg L
DP ¼ 32 (13-5)
D2
Recall that equation (8-9) held for the case of fully developed flow; thus v avg does not
vary along the length of the passage.
Forming an expression for frictional head loss from equation (13-5), we have
DP mv avg L
hL ¼ ¼ 32 (13-6)
rg grD2
Combining this equation with equation (13-3), the defining relation for ff
mv avg L L v2
hL ¼ 32 2
¼ 2 ff
grD D g
and solving for ff, we obtain
m 16
ff ¼ 16 ¼ (13-7)
Dv avg r Re
This very simple result indicates that ff is inversely proportional to Re in the laminar
flow range; the friction factor is not a function of pipe roughness for values of Re < 2300, but
varies only with the Reynolds number.
This result has been experimentally verified and is the manifestation of the viscous
effects in the fluid, damping out any irregularities in the flow caused by protrusions from a
rough surface.

Turbulent Flow
In the case of turbulent flow in closed conduits or pipes, the relation for ff is not so simply
obtained or expressed as in the laminar case. No easily derived relation such as the Hagen–
Poiseuille law applies; however, some use can be made of the velocity profiles expressed in
Chapter 12 for turbulent flow. All development will be based on circular conduits; thus we
 13.2 Friction Factors for Fully Developed Laminar, Turbulent 171

are primarily concerned with pipes or tubes. In turbulent flow a distinction must be made
between smooth- and rough-surfaced tubes.

Smooth Tubes. The velocity profile in the turbulent core has been expressed as
v þ ¼ 5:5 þ 2:5 ln yþ (12-63)
where the variables v þ and yþ are defined according to the relations
v
v þ  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (12-58)
t 0 /r
and
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
þ t0 /r
y  y (12-60)
v
The average velocity in the turbulent core for flow in a tube of radius R can be evaluated
from equation (12-63) as follows:
RA
v dA
v avg ¼ 0
A
 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi Z R t0 /ry
t0 /r 2:5 ln þ 5:5 2pr dr
v
¼ 0
pR2
Letting y ¼ R  r, we obtain
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi t 0 /rR pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi

v avg ¼ 2:5 t 0 /r ln þ 1:75 t 0 /r (13-8)
v
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
The functions t0 /r and Cf are related according to equation (12-2). As Cf and ff are
equivalent, we may write
v avg 1
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi (13-9)
t0 /r ff /2
The substitution of equation (13-9) into equation (13-8) yields

1 R pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 2:5 ln v avg ff /2 þ 1:75 (13-10)
ff /2 v
Rearranging the argument of the logarithm into Reynolds number form, and changing to
log10, we see that equation (13-10) reduces to
1  pffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 4:06 log10 Re ff  0:60 (13-11)
ff
This expression gives the relation for the friction factor as a function of Reynolds number
for turbulent flow in smooth circular tubes. The preceding development was first
performed by von Kármán.1 Nikuradse,2 from experimental data, obtained the equation
1  pffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 4:0 log10 Re ff  0:40 (13-12)
ff
which is very similar to equation (13-11).

1
T. von Kármán, NACA TM 611, 1931.
2
J. Nikuradse, VDI-Forschungsheft, 356, 1932.
172 Chapter 13 Flow in Closed Conduits

Rough Tubes. By an analysis similar to that used for smooth tubes, von Kármán
developed equation (13-13) for turbulent flow in rough tubes
1 D
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 4:06 log10 þ 2:16 (13-13)
ff e
which compares very well with the equation obtained by Nikuradse from experimental data
1 D
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 4:0 log10 þ 2:28 (13-14)
ff e
Nikuradse’s results for fully developed pipe flow indicated that the surface condition, that
is, roughness, had nothing to do with the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. Once
the Reynolds number becomes large enough so that flow is fully turbulent, then either
equation (13-12) or (13-14) must be used to obtain the proper value for ff. These two
equations are quite different in that equation (13-12) expresses ff as a function of Re only
and equation (13-14) gives ff as a function only of the relative roughness. The difference
is, of course, that the former equation is for smooth tubes and the latter for rough tubes.
The question that naturally arises at this point is ‘‘what is ‘rough’?’’
It has been observed from experiment that equation (13-12) describes the variation in ff
for a range in Re, even for rough tubes. Beyond some value of Re, this variation deviates
from the smooth-tube equation and achieves a constant value dictated by the tube roughness
as expressed by equation (13-14). The region wherein ff varies both with Re and e/D is called
the transition region. An empirical equation describing the variation of ff in the transition
region has been proposed by Colebrook.3
 
1 D D/e
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 4 log10 þ 2:28  4 log10 4:67 pffiffiffiffiffi þ 1 (13-15)
ff e Re ff

pEquation
ffiffiffiffiffi (13-15) is applicable to the transition region above a value of (D/e)/
(Re ff ) ¼ 0:01. Below this value, the friction factor is independent of the Reynolds
number, and the flow is said to be fully turbulent.
To summarize the development of this section, the following equations express the
friction-factor variation for the surface and flow conditions specified:
For laminar flow (Re < 2300)
16
ff ¼ (13-7)
Re
For turbulent flow (smooth pipe, Re > 3000)
1  pffiffiffiffiffi
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 4:0 log10 Re ff  0:40 (13-12)
ff
pffiffiffiffiffi
For turbulent flow (rough pipe, (Re > 3000; D/e)/(Re ff ) < 0:01)

1 D
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 4:0 log10 þ 2:28 (13-14)
ff e

And for transition flow

!
1 D D/e
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 4 log10 þ 2:28  4 log10 4:67 pffiffiffiffiffi þ 1 (13-15)
ff e Re ff

3
C. F. Colebrook, J. Inst. Civil Engr. (London) II, 133 (1938–39).
 13.3 Friction Factor and Head-Loss Determination for Pipe Flow 173

13.3 FRICTION FACTOR AND HEAD-LOSS DETERMINATION

FOR PIPE FLOW
Friction Factor
A single friction-factor plot based upon equations (13-7), (13-13), (13-14), and (13-15) has been
presented by Moody.4 Figure 13.1 is a plot of the Fanning friction factor vs. the Reynolds
number for a range of values of the roughness parameter e/D.

0.025

Laminar flow
0.02 Complete turbulence rough pipe

0.05

0.04
0.015
0.03
0.025
0.02

0.015
0.01
0.01
Fanning fraction factor, ff

Relative roughness, e/D

0.009
0.008
0.008 0.006

0.007 0.004

Uncertain 0.003
0.006 region
0.002
0.0015
0.005 0.001
0.0008
0.0006
0.004 0.0004

0.0002

0.003 0.0001

5  10–5
0.0025
5  10–6 3  10–5
2  10–5
Smooth pipe (e = 0)
0.002 1  10–5
68 2 3 4 68 2 3 4 68 2 3 4 68 2 3 4 68 2 3 4 68
3 4 5 6 7 8
10 10 10 10 10 10
Reynolds number = Dvavg /n

Figure 13.1 The Fanning friction factor as a function of Re and D/e.

4
L. F. Moody, Trans. ASME, 66, 671 (1944).
174 Chapter 13 Flow in Closed Conduits

When using the friction-factor plot, Figure 13.1, it is necessary to know the value
of the roughness parameter that applies to a pipe of given size and material. After a pipe
or tube has been in service for some time, its roughness may change considerably,
making the determination of e/D quite difficult. Moody has presented a chart, reproduced
in Figure 13.2, by which a value of e/D can be determined for a given size tube or pipe
constructed of a particular material.

0.05 0.07
0.04
0.06
0.03

0.02 0.05
Riveted
steel 0.04
0.01
0.008 0.035
0.006 Wood
0.005 stave 0.03
0.004
C

e
on

4f for complete turbulence, rough pipes

0.003

0.
cr

03
et
0.025
C

e
as
G

0.002

e
al

ti

=
va

ro

0.
Relative roughness, e/D

n
ni

01
ze

0.02
d

0.001
iro

0.0008
n

0.018
e

0.0006 e
=

=
C

0.

0.0005 0.
om

As

00

0.0004 00 0.016
ph

08
m

3
er

al

0.0003
ci

te
al

d
ca
st

0.0002
ee

0.014
st

e
lo

iro

=
0.
rw

e
n

00

=
ro

0.
06
ug

0.0001 0.012
00

e
ht

0.000,08 =
iro

0.
00
n

0.000,06
D

0.000,05 05
ra
w

0.000,04
e
n

0.01
=
tu

0.

0.000,03
bi

00

e
ng

=
01

0.

0.000,02 0.009
5

00
04
e
=
0.

0.000,01 0.008
00

0.000,008
0,
00

0.000,006
5

0.000,005
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200 300
Pipe diameter, D, in in.
Figure 13.2 Roughness parameters for pipes and tubes. (From L. F. Moody, Trans. ASME,
(1944).) Values of e are given in feet.

The combination of these two plots enables the frictional head loss for a length, L, of
pipe having diameter D to be evaluated, using the relation
L v2
hL ¼ 2 f f (13-3)
D g
 13.3 Friction Factor and Head-Loss Determination for Pipe Flow 175

Recently Haaland5 has shown that over the range 108  Re  4  104 , 0:05  e/D  0, the
friction factor may be expressed (within 1.5%) as


1 6:9  e 10/9
pffiffiffiffiffi ¼ 3:6 log10 þ (13-15a)
ff Re 3:7D
This expression allows explicit calculation of the friction factor.

Head Losses Due to Fittings

The frictional head loss calculated from equation (13-3) is only a part of the total head loss
that must be overcome in pipe lines and other fluid-flow circuits. Other losses may occur due
to the presence of valves, elbows, and any other fittings that involve a change in the direction
of flow or in the size of the flow passage. The head losses resulting from such fittings are
functions of the geometry of the fitting, the Reynolds number, and the roughness. As the
losses in fittings, to a first approximation, have been found to be independent of the Reynolds
number, the head loss may be evaluated as
DP v2
hL ¼ ¼K (13-16)
r 2g
where K is a coefficient depending upon the fitting.
An equivalent method of determining the head loss in fittings is to introduce an
equivalent length, Leq, such that
Leq v 2
hL ¼ 2 f f (13-17)
D g
where Leq is the length of pipe that produces a head loss equivalent to the head loss in a
particular fitting. Equation (13-17) is seen to be in the same form as equation (13-3), and thus
the total head loss for a piping system may be determined by adding the equivalent lengths
for the fittings to the pipe length to obtain the total effective length of the pipe.

Table 13.1 Friction loss factors for various pipe fittings

Fitting K Leq /D
Globe valve, wide open 7.5 350
Angle valve, wide open 3.8 170
Gate valve, wide open 0.15 7
Gate valve, 34 open 0.85 40
Gate valve, 1 open 4.4 200
2
1
Gate valve, open 20 900
4
Standard 908 elbow 0.7 32
Short-radius 908 elbow 0.9 41
Long-radius 908 elbow 0.4 20
Standard 458 elbow 0.35 15
Tee, through side outlet 1.5 67
Tee, straight through 0.4 20
1808 Bend 1.6 75

5
S. E. Haaland, Trans. ASME, JFE, 105, 89 (1983).
176 Chapter 13 Flow in Closed Conduits

Comparison of equations (13-16) and (13-17) shows that the constant K must be equal to
4 ff Leq /D. Although equation (13-17) appears to be dependent upon the Reynolds number
because of the appearance of the Fanning friction factor, it is not. The assumption made in both
equations (13-16) and (13-17) is that the Reynolds number is large enough so that the flow is
fully turbulent. The friction coefficient for a given fitting, then, is dependent only upon the
roughness of the fitting. Typical values for K and Leq /D are given in Table 13.1.
Recall that the head loss due to a sudden expansion is calculated in Chapter 6, with the
result given in equation (6-13).

Equivalent Diameter
Equations (13-16) and (13-17) are based upon a circular flow passage. These equations may be
used to estimate the head loss in a closed conduit of any configuration if an ‘‘equivalent diameter’’
for a noncircular flow passage is used. An equivalent diameter is calculated according to
cross-sectional area of flow
Deq ¼ 4 (13-18)
wetted perimeter
The ratio of the cross-sectional area of flow to the wetted perimeter is called the hydraulic
radius.
The reader may verify that Deq corresponds to D for a circular flow passage. One type of
noncircular flow passage often encountered in transfer processes is the annular area between
two concentric pipes. The equivalent diameter for this configuration is determined as follows:
p 2
Cross-sectional area ¼ D0  D2i
4
Wetted perimeter ¼ pðD0 þ Di Þ
yielding
p/4 ðD20  D2i Þ
Deq ¼ 4 ¼ D0  Di (13-19)
p ðD0 þ Di Þ
This value of Deq may now be used to evaluate the Reynolds number, the friction factor,
and the frictional head loss, using the relations and methods developed previously for
circular conduits.

13.4 PIPE-FLOW ANALYSIS

Application of the equations and methods developed in the previous sections is common in
engineering systems involving pipe networks. Such analyses are always straightforward but
may vary as to the complexity of calculation. The following three example problems are
typical, but by no means all-inclusive, of the types of problems found in engineering practice.

EXAMPLE 1 Water at 598F flows through a straight section of a 6-in.-ID cast-iron pipe with an average velocity
of 4 fps. The pipe is 120 ft long, and there is an increase in elevation of 2 ft from the inlet of the pipe
to its exit.

Find the power required to produce this flow rate for the specified conditions.
The control volume in this case is the pipe and the water it encloses. Applying the energy
equation to this control volume, we obtain
ZZ   ZZZ
@
ðv : nÞ dA þ
dQ dWs dWm P
  ¼ r eþ re dV (6-10)
dt dt dt c:s: r @t c:v:
 13.4 Pipe-Flow Analysis 177

An evaluation of each term yields

dQ dWs _
¼0 ¼W
dt dt
ZZ    2 
v2
ðv: nÞ dA ¼ rAv avg 2 þ gy2 þ þ u2  1  gy1   u1
P v P2 P1
r eþ
c:s: r 2 r 2 r
ZZZ
@
re dV ¼ 0
@t c:v:

and

dWm
¼0
dt
The applicable form of the energy equation written on a unit mass basis is now

_ m_ ¼ v 1  v 2 þ gðy1  y2 Þ þ P1  P2 þ u1  u2
2 2
W/
2 r

and with the internal energy change written as ghL , the frictional head loss, the expression for w
becomes

_ m_ ¼ v 1  v 2 þ gðy1  y2 Þ þ P1  P2  ghL
2 2
W/
2 r

Assuming the fluid at both ends of the control volume to be at atmospheric pressure,
_ m_
(P1  P2 )/r ¼ 0, and for a pipe of constant cross section (v 21  v 22 )/2 ¼ 0, giving for W/

_ m_ ¼ g(y1  y2 )  ghL
W/

Evaluating hL, we have

ð12Þð4Þ
Re ¼ ¼ 164; 000
1:22  105
e
¼ 0:0017 (from Figure 14:2)
D
f f ¼ 0:0059 (from equation (14-15a))

yielding
2ð0:0059Þð120 ftÞð16 ft2 /s2 Þ
hL ¼ ¼ 1:401 ft
ð0:5 ftÞð32:2 ft/s2 Þ

The power required to produce the specified flow conditions thus becomes
"    #
_ gðð2 ftÞ  1:401 ftÞ 62:3 lbm /ft3 p 1 2 ft
W¼ ft 4
550 ft lbf /hp-s 32:2 lbm ft/s2 lbf 4 2 s

¼ 0:300 hp
178 Chapter 13 Flow in Closed Conduits

EXAMPLE 2 A heat exchanger is required, which will be able to handle 0.0567 m3/s of water through a smooth
pipe with an equivalent length of 122 m. The total pressure drop is 103,000 Pa. What size pipe is
required for this application?

Once again, applying equation (6-10), we see that a term by term evaluation gives

dQ dWs dWm
¼0 ¼0 ¼0
dt dt dt
ZZ    2 
v2
ðv: nÞ dA ¼ rAv avg 2 þ gy2 þ
P v P2 P1
r eþ þ u2  1 gy1   u1
c:s: r 2 r 2 r
ZZZ
@
re dV ¼ 0
@t c:v:

and the applicable equation for the present problem is

P2  P1
0¼ þ ghL
r

The quantity desired, the diameter, is included in the head-loss term but cannot be solved for directly,
as the friction factor also depends on D. Inserting numerical values into the above equation and
solving, we obtain
 
103 000 Pa 0:0567 2 m2 122 m g
0¼ þ 2 ff 
1000 kg/m3 pD2 /4 s2 D m g

or
ff
0 ¼ 103 þ 1:27
D5
The solution to this problem must now be obtained by trial and error. A possible procedure is the
following:
1. Assume a value for ff.
2. Using this ff, solve the above equation for D.
3. Calculate Re with this D.
4. Using e/D and the calculated Re, check the assumed value of ff.
5. Repeat this procedure until the assumed and calculated friction factor values agree.

Carrying out these steps for the present problem, the required pipe diameter is 0.132 m
(5.2 in.).

EXAMPLE 3 An existing heat exchanger has a cross section as shown in Figure 13.3 with nine 1-in.-OD tubes
inside a 5-in.-ID pipe. For a 5-ft length of heat exchanger, what flow rate of water at 608F can be
achieved in the shell side of this unit for a pressure drop of 3 psi?

An energy-equation analysis using equation (6-10) will follow the same steps as in example 13.2,
yielding, as the governing equation
P2  P1
0¼ þ ghL
r
 13.5 Friction Factors for Flow in the Entrance to a Circular Conduit 179

1 in.

5 in.

5 ft

Figure 13.3 Shell-and-tube head-exchanger configuration.

The equivalent diameter for the shell is evaluated as follows:

p
Flow area ¼ ð25  9Þ ¼ 4p in:2
4
Wetted perimeter ¼ pð5 þ 9Þ ¼ 14p in:

thus
4p
Deq ¼ 4 ¼ 1:142 in:
14p
Substituting the proper numerical values into the energy equation for this problem reduces it to

3 lbf /in:2 ð144 in:2 /ft2 Þ 5 ft g

0¼ þ 2 ff v 2avg ft2 /s2
1:94 slugs/ft3 ð1:142/12Þ ft g

or
0 ¼ 223 þ 105 ff v 2avg

As ff cannot be determined without a value of Re, which is a function of v avg, a simple trial-and-error
procedure such as the following might be employed:
1. Assume a value for ff.
2. Calculate v avg from the above expression.
3. Evaluate Re from this value of v avg.
4. Check the assumed value of ff using equation (13-15a).
5. If the assumed and calculated values for ff do not agree, repeat this procedure until they do.

Employing this method, we find the velocity to be 23.6 fps, giving a flow rate for this problem of
2:06 ft3 /min ð0:058 m3 /sÞ:
Notice that in each of the last two examples in which a trial-and-error approach was used,
the assumption of ff was made initially. This was not, of course, the only way to approach these
problems; however, in both cases a value for ff could be assumed within a much closer range than
either D or v avg.

13.5 FRICTION FACTORS FOR FLOW IN THE ENTRANCE

TO A CIRCULAR CONDUIT
The development and problems in the preceding section have involved flow conditions that
did not change along the axis of flow. This condition is often met, and the methods just
described will be adequate to evaluate and predict the significant flow parameters.
180 Chapter 13 Flow in Closed Conduits

In many real flow systems this condition is never realized. A boundary layer forms on
the surface of a pipe, and its thickness increases in a similar manner to that of the boundary
layer on a flat plate as described in Chapter 12. The buildup of the boundary layer in pipe
flow is depicted in Figure 13.4.

v

x
Figure 13.4 Boundary-layer buildup in a pipe.

A boundary layer forms on the inside surface and occupies a larger amount of the flow
area for increasing values of x, the distance downstream from the pipe entrance. At some
value of x, the boundary layer fills the flow area. The velocity profile will not change the
downstream from this point, and the flow is said to be fully developed. The dis-
tance downstream from the pipe entrance to where flow becomes fully developed is called
the entrance length, symbolized as Le. Observe that the fluid velocity outside the boundary
layer increases with x, as is required to satisfy continuity. The velocity at the center of the
pipe finally reaches a value of 2v 1 for fully developed laminar flow.
The entrance length required for a fully developed velocity profile to form in laminar
flow has been expressed by Langhaar6 according to
Le
¼ 0:0575 Re (13-20)
D
where D represents the inside diameter of the pipe. This relation, derived analytically, has
been found to agree well with experiment.
There is no relation available to predict the entrance length for a fully developed
turbulent velocity profile. An additional factor that affects the entrance length in turbulent
flow is the nature of the entrance itself. The reader is referred to the work of Deissler7 for
experimentally obtained turbulent velocity profiles in the entrance region of the circular
pipes. A general conclusion of the results of Deissler and others is that the turbulent velocity
profile becomes fully developed after a minimum distance of 50 diameters downstream
from the entrance.
The reader should realize that the entrance length for the velocity profile differs
considerably from the entrance length for the velocity gradient at the wall. As the friction
factor is a function of dv/dy at the pipe surface, we are also interested in this starting length.
Two conditions exist in the entrance region, which cause the friction factor to be greater
than in fully developed flow. The first of these is the extremely large wall velocity gradient
right at the entrance. The gradient decreases in the downstream direction, becoming
constant before the velocity profile becomes fully developed. The other factor is the
existence of a ‘‘core’’ of fluid outside the viscous layer whose velocity must increase as

6
H. L. Langhaar, Trans. ASME, 64, A-55 (1942).
7
R. G. Deissler, NACA TN 2138 (1950).
 13.5 Friction Factors for Flow in the Entrance to a Circular Conduit 181

Friction-factor ratio
Fully developed Figure 13.5 Velocity profile
laminar flow
1 and friction-factor variation for
laminar flow in the region near
0
x/D a pipe entrance.

dictated by continuity. The fluid in the core is thus being accelerated, thereby producing an
additional drag force whose effect is incorporated in the friction factor.
The friction factor for laminar flow in the entrance to a pipe has been studied by
Langhaar.8 His results indicated the friction factor to be highest in the vicinity of the
entrance, then to decrease smoothly to the fully developed flow value. Figure 13.5 is a
qualitative representation of this variation. Table 13.2 gives the results of Langhaar for the
average friction factor between the entrance and a location, a distance x from the entrance.
For turbulent flow in the entrance region, the friction factor as well as the velocity
profile is difficult to express. Deissler9 has analyzed this situation and presented his results
graphically.
Even for very high free-stream velocities, there will be some portion of the entrance
over which the boundary layer is laminar. The entrance configuration, as well as the
Reynolds number, affects the length of the pipe over which the laminar boundary layer exists
before becoming turbulent. A plot similar to Figure 13.5 is presented in Figure 13.6 for
turbulent-flow friction factors in the entrance region.

Table 13.2 Average friction factor for laminar

flow in the entrance to a circular pipe
x
x/D ff
Re D
0.000205 0.0530
0.000830 0.0965
0.001805 0.1413
0.003575 0.2075
0.00535 0.2605
0.00838 0.340
0.01373 0.461
0.01788 0.547
0.02368 0.659
0.0341 0.845
0.0449 1.028
0.0620 1.308
0.0760 1.538

8
Op cit.
9
R. G. Deissler, NACA TN 3016 (1953).
182 Chapter 13 Flow in Closed Conduits

Friction-factor ratio 1
Fully
Laminar Turbulent developed Figure 13.6 Velocity profile and
boundary boundary layer
layer flow (turbulent) friction-factor variation in
0
0 turbulent flow in the region near a
x /D pipe entrance.

The foregoing description of the entrance region has been qualitative. For an accurate
analytical consideration of a system involving entrance-length phenomena, Deissler’s
results portrayed in Figure 13.7 may be utilized.

0.07

0.06

0.05
D (P1 – Px )

0.04
4x(r v2/2)

0.03

0.02 Reynolds number = Dvavg /n

104
3  104
0.01 6  104
105
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
x /D
Figure 13.7 Static pressure drop due to friction and momentum change in the entrance to a
smooth, horizontal, circular tube (Deissler).

It is important to realize that in many situations flow is never fully developed; thus the
friction factor will be higher than that predicted from the equations for fully developed flow
or the friction-factor plot.

13.6 CLOSURE
The information and techniques presented in this chapter have included applications of the
theory developed in earlier chapters supported by correlations of experimental data.
The chapters to follow will be devoted to heat and mass transfer. One specific type of
transfer, momentum transfer, has been considered up to this point. The student will find that
he is able to apply much of the information learned in momentum transfer to counterparts in
the areas of heat and mass transfer.

PROBLEMS
13.1 An oil with kinematic viscosity of 0:08  103 ft2 /s and a
density of 57 lbm /ft3 flows through a horizontal tube 0.24 in.
in diameter at the rate of 10 gal/h. Determine the pressure drop
in 50 ft of tube.
13.2 A lubricating line has an inside diameter of 0.1 in. and is
30 in. long. If the pressure drop is 15 psi, determine the flow rate
of the oil. Use the properties given in Problem 13.1.
13.3 The pressure drop in a section of a pipe is determined
from tests with water. A pressure drop of 13 psi is obtained at a
flow rate of 28:3 lbm /s. If the flow is fully turbulent, what will be
the pressure drop when liquid oxygen (r ¼ 70 lbm /ft3 ) flows
through the pipe at the rate of 35 lbm /s?
13.4 A 280-km-long pipeline connects two pumping stations.
If 0:56 m3 /s are to be pumped through a 0.62-m-diameter line,
the discharge station is 250 m lower in elevation than the
upstream station, and the discharge pressure is to be maintained
at 300,000 Pa, determine the power required to pump the oil. The
oil has a kinematic viscosity of 4:5  106 m2 /s and a density of
810 kg/m3 . The pipe is constructed of commercial steel. The
inlet pressure may be taken as atmospheric.
13.5 In the previous problem, a 10-km-long section of the
pipeline is replaced during a repair process with a pipe with
internal diameter of 0.42 m. Determine the total pumping power
required when using the modified pipeline. The total pipeline
length remains 280 km.
13.6 Oil having a kinematic viscosity of 6:7  106 m2 /s and
density of 801 kg/m3 is pumped through a pipe of 0.71 m
diameter at an average velocity of 1.1 m/s. The roughness of
the pipe is equivalent to that of a commercial steel pipe. If pump-
ing stations are 320 km apart, find the head loss (in meters of oil)
between the pumping stations and the power required.
13.7 The cold-water faucet in a house is fed from a water main
through the following simplified piping system:
a. A 160 ft length of 3/4-in.-ID copper pipe leading from the
main line to the base of the faucet.
b. Six 908 standard elbows.
c. One wide-open angle valve (with no obstruction).
d. The faucet. Consider the faucet to be made up of two parts:
(1) a conventional globe valve and (2) a nozzle having a
cross-sectional area of 0.10 in.2.
The pressure in the main line is 60 psig (virtually independent of
flow), and the velocity there is negligible. Find the maximum rate
of discharge from the faucet. As a first try, assume for the pipe
ff ¼ 0:007. Neglect changes in elevation throughout the system.
13.8 Water at the rate of 118 ft3/min flows through a smooth
horizontal tube 250 ft long. The pressure drop is 4.55 psi.
Determine the tube diameter.
13.9 Calculate the inlet pressure to a pump 3 ft above the level
of a sump. The pipe is 6 in. in diameter, 6 ft long, and made of
Problems 183
commercial steel. The flow rate through the pump is 500 gal/min.
Use the (incorrect) assumption that the flow is fully developed.
13.10 The pipe in Problem 6.33 is 35 m long and made of
commercial steel. Determine the flow rate.
13.11 The siphon of Problem 6.31 is made of smooth rubber
hose and is 23 ft long. Determine the flow rate and the pressure at
point B.
13.12 A galvanized rectangular duct 8 in. square is 25 ft long
and carries 600 ft3/min of standard air. Determine the pressure
drop in inches of water.
13.13 A cast-iron pipeline 2 m long is required to carry 3
million gal of water per day. The outlet is 175 ft higher than
the inlet. The costs of three sizes of pipe when in place are as
follows:
10-in. diameter $11.40 per ft
12-in. diameter $14.70 per ft
14-in. diameter $16.80 per ft
Power costs are estimated at $0.07 per kilowatt hour over the
20-year life of the pipeline. If the line can be bonded with 6.0%
annual interest, what is the most economical pipe diameter? The
pump efficiency is 80%, and the water inlet temperature is
expected to be constant at 428F.
13.14 Estimate the flow rate of water through 50 ft of garden
hose from a 40-psig source for
a. A 1/2-in.-ID hose;
b. A 3/4-in.-ID hose.
13.15 Two water reservoirs of height h1 ¼ 60 m and h2 ¼
30 m are connected by a pipe that is 0.35 m in diameter. The exit
of the pipe is submerged at distance h3 ¼ 8 m from the reservoir
surface.
a. Determine the flow rate through the pipe if the pipe is 80 m
long and the friction factor ff ¼ 0:004. The pipe inlet is set
flush with the wall.
b. If the relative roughness e/D ¼ 0:004, determine the friction
factor and flow rate.
h3
h1 L = 80 m
h2
184 Chapter 13 Flow in Closed Conduits

13.16 An 8-km-long, 5-m-diameter headrace tunnel at the Paute 13.24 Water flows at a volumetric flow rate of 0.25 m3/s
river hydroelectric project in Ecuador supplies a power station 668 m from reservoir 1 to reservoir 2 through three concrete pipes
below the entrance of the tunnel. If the tunnel surface is concrete, connected in series. Pipe 1 is 900 m long and has a diameter
find the pressure at the end of the tunnel if the flow rate is 90 m3 /s. of 0.16 m. Pipe 2 has a length of 1500 m and a diameter of
13.17 Determine the flow rate through a 0.2-m gate valve with 0.18 m. Pipe 3 is 800 m long and the diameter is 0.20 m.
upstream pressure of 236 kPa when the valve is Neglecting minor losses, determine the difference in surface
elevations.
a. open;
13.25 A system consists of three pipes in series. The total
b. 1/4 closed;
pressure drop is 180 kPa, and the decrease in elevation is 5 m.
c. 1/2 closed; Data for the three pipes are as follows:
d. 3/4 closed.
13.18 Water at 208C flows through a cast-iron pipe at a velocity
of 34 m/s. The pipe is 400 m long and has a diameter of 0.18 m.
Determine the head loss due to friction. Pipe Length, m Diameter, cm Roughness, mm
13.19 A 2.20-m diameter pipe carries water at 158C. The head 1 125 8 0.240
loss due to friction is 0.500 m per 300 m of pipe. Determine the 2 150 6 0.120
volumetric flow rate of the water leaving the pipe. 3 100 4 0.200
13.20 Water at 208C is being drained from an open tank
through a cast-iron pipe 0.6 m diameter and 30 m long. The
surface of the water in the pipe is at atmospheric pressure and at
an elevation of 46.9 m, and the pipe discharges to the atmosphere 13.26 Two concrete pipes are connected in series. The flow rate
at an elevation 30 m. Neglecting minor losses due to configura- of water at 208C through the pipes is 0.18 m3/s, with a total head
tion, bends, valves, and fittings, determine the volumetric flow loss of 18 m for both pipes. Each pipe has a length of 312.5 m and
rate of the water leaving the pipe. a relative roughness of 0.0035 m. Neglecting minor losses, if one
pipe has a diameter of 0.30 m, determine the diameter of the
13.21 A 15-cm diameter wrought-iron pipe is to carry water at
other.
208C. Assuming a level pipe, determine the volumetric flow rate
at the discharge if the pressure loss is not permitted to exceed 13.27 A 0.2-m-diameter cast-iron pipe and a 67-mm-
30.0 kPa per 100 m. diameter commercial steel pipe are parallel, and both run
from the same pump to a reservoir. The pressure drop is
13.22 A level 10-m-long water pipe has a manometer at both
210 kPa and the lines are 150 m long. Determine the flow
the inlet and the outlet. The manometers indicate pressure head
rate of water in each line.
of 1.5 and 0.2 m, respectively. The pipe diameter is 0.2 m and the
pipe roughness is 0.0004 m. Determine the mass flow rate in the 13.28 A system consists of three pipes in parallel with a
pipe in kg/s. total head loss of 24 m. Data for the three pipes are as
follows:
13.23 Determine the depth of water behind the dam in the
figure that will provide a flow rate of 5:675  104 m3 /s through
a 20-m-long, 1.30 cm commercial steel pipe.
Pipe Length, m Diameter, cm Roughness, mm
1 100 8 0.240
2 150 6 0.120
h 3 80 4 0.200
1.30 cm

For water at 208C, neglect minor losses and determine the

L volumetric flow rate in the system.