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Charles Hage – Modern Europe

Charles Hazen - Modern European History

David Thompson

JL Nehru – Glimpses into Modern History

Glimpses of World History: Napoleon Chapters

 RENAISSANCE (14TH – 17TH CENTURY)
Meaning – rebirth/reawakening. It was the period of awakening which pulled out Europe
from a dungeon. It turned Medieval Europe into Modern Europe.

This period was followed by the period of enlightenment. It led to:

 Intellectual expansion
 Geographical expansion
 Commercial expansion
 Artistic expansion
 Social expansion

WHY THE RENAISSANCE BEGAN IN ITALY

1. Patrons of art, literature and other fields of learning were present in Italy.
Many great leaders were patrons. Henry the Navigator encouraged geographical expansion,
funded Columbus’ voyage. Frederick the IIND was another prominent name.

2. Fall of Constantinople in 1453.

It was a great center of art and learning. Constantinople fell to the barbaric Ottomans who
attacked the city for its wealth. Under the duress and stress of the Ottomans, the work of the
artists could not have flourished. Thus, they fled to Italy.

3. Italian cities were wealthy.

Since, poverty was not an issue, spending on arts and learning could take place. Thus,
administrators in Italy welcomed the artists.

REASONS BEHIND THE RENAISSANCE

1. Fall of the Papacy.
The Catholic Church had earlier had a hegemony over the entire field of learning. The power
of the Church was greater even that that of Kings. However, the authority of the Pope and the
Catholic Church diminished in this period, due to scandals and corruption. The Pope was
supposed to be celibate. However, Martin Luther exposed that the Pope had many concubines
and dozens of children. Similarly, the Papal authority used to sell a Letter of Indulgence. If
anyone bought this, he would be absolved of the sins committed. This fraudulent policy was
also exposed.
Dissent, which was easily suppressed earlier, now began to rise. People like Martin Luther
and John Calvin, led the struggle against the Church. Faith in and the dominance of the
Church declined. With this, the ideas of independent artists and scholars started finding their
place.

2. Decline of feudalism.
The economic system of feudalism declined as Europe experienced the rise of mercantilism.
This allowed for progress, innovation and the development of a scientific temperament.

3. Invention of the printing press by Gutenberg.

This allowed for the publishing and circulation of ideas on a larger scale and at greater speed.
Earlier, only handwritten documents were present.

4. Development of European universities.

Universities like Oxford (established in the 11th Century), Cambridge (established in 13th
Century), the University of Paris and the University of Heidelberg provided the platform for
students and thinkers to discuss and share ideas. They emerged as centers of enlightenment.

5. Geographical discoveries.
New trade routes were developed. This allowed aggregation of ideas and knowledge, which
challenged the existing faith based knowledge in Europe.

6. Fall of Constantinople in 1453.

Constantinople was a great center of art and learning. It fell to the barbaric Ottoman Turks
who attacked the city for its wealth. Under the duress and stress of the Ottomans, the work of
the artists could not have flourished. Thus, they fled to Italy.

ART AND SCULPTURE DURING THE RENAISSANCE

1. Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa.
Da Vinci was an accomplished engineer, architect, anatomist, scientist, mechanic,
painter, sculptor etc. It was considered as the costliest painting for a long time. 6-7
layers in the painting.
2. Leonardo da Vinci’s Last Supper.
3. Michelangelo’s The Last Judgement.
4. Michelangelo’s David.
 5. Raphael’s Sistine Madonna.
The first painting of Madonna (Meaning: Mother Mary holding Baby Jesus).
6. St Peter’s Cathedral.

SCIENCE DURING THE RENAISSANCE

1. Copernicus’ developed the heliocentric theory which attacked the geocentric theory.
2. Galileo invented the telescope which allowed astronomical exploration. He also
developed the idea of gravitation and the laws of the pendulum.
3. William Harvey discovered blood circulation.
4. Vesalius, known as the father of anatomy, contributed significantly.
5. Gunpowder was discovered.

LITERATURE DURING THE RENAISSANCE

1. William Shakespeare.
Depicted human nature and behavior.
2. Machiavelli’s Prince
Machiavelli was a classical realist.
3. Machiavelli’s Florentine Histories.
4. Thomas Moore’s Utopia.
5. Servando’s’ Don Quixote.
6. Bodin’s political philosophy.
7. Rene Descartes
Skepticism, rationalism, cogito ergo sum (I think; therefore, I am).
8. Bacon
9. John Locke

DOCTRINES DEVELOPED DURING THE RENAISSANCE

1. Classicism
People’s interest in classical works increased. A craze for them developed when they
were made popular by scholars. This led to further writings.
2. Humanism
Depiction of humans and human qualities. Three important elements: natural
(depicting everything as it existed), human, sensual (nude/semi-nude).
a. Self-gratification was an important feature. Satisfying your own wants, as
opposed to sacrifice. This was the birth of Western materialism.
b. Emphasis was given on the principle that God is not above self. Therefore,
personal satisfaction is important.
c. Glorification of human achievement.
 GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES DURING THE RENEAISSANCE
The Age of Discovery or the Age of Exploration from the end of the 15th century to the 18th
century, was an informal and loosely defined period in European historical marking the time
period in which extensive overseas exploration emerged as a powerful factor in European
culture and the beginning of globalization. It also marked the rise of the period of widespread
adoption of colonialism and mercantilism in Europe. Lands previously unknown to
Europeans were discovered during this period, though most were already inhabited. From the
perspective of many non-Europeans, the Age of Discovery marked the arrival of invaders
from previously unknown continents.

European overseas exploration led to the rise of global trade and the European colonial
empires, with the contact between the Old World (Europe, Asia and Africa) and the New
World (the Americas and Australia) producing the Columbian Exchange; a wide transfer of
plants, animals, food, human populations (including slaves), communicable diseases and
culture between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. This represented one of the most-
significant global events concerning ecology, agriculture, and culture in history. The Age of
Discovery and later European exploration allowed the global mapping of the world, resulting
in a new world-view and distant civilizations coming into contact, but also led to the
propagation of diseases that decimated populations not previously in contact with Eurasia and
Africa, and to the enslavement, exploitation, military conquest, and economic dominance of
Europe and its colonies over native populations. It also allowed for the expansion
of Christianity throughout the world with the spread of missionary activity, making it the
largest religion in the world.

The lead in geographical explorations was taken by Spain (in North and Latin America) and
Portugal (in the East). The first important discovery was that of Cape Verde in 1445, the
westernmost point of Africa. This led to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1486 by
Diaz. This provided an alternate route for trade between Europe and Asia. It was so named
because it brought good hope for trade. In 1492, Columbus reached the Caribbean. He
predicted the existence of a large land mass ahead. This was called the New World. Later,
Americus landed on the mainland of the continent, after whom it has been named. Columbus
wanted to reach India. Spanish rulers Ferdinand and Isabella financed Columbus’ voyage.
In 1498, Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut.
There were many risks and uncertainties in voyage: No compass, no warning systems,
pirates. However, if successful, voyages would be very rewarding. For example, Vasco de
Gama earned 60 times the amount he spent in his exploration.

CAUSES
A number of factors contributed to the development of the spirit of exploration among the
European powers.

1. Commercial motives
The commercial motives played a significant a role in encouraging geographical discoveries.
At the beginning of the 15th Century the trade with the East was mostly in the hands of the
Italians, who were keen to maintain their monopoly at all costs. On the other hand, other
European powers were equally keen to develop trade links with the countries of the East. The
emergence of mercantilism made the discovery of new trade routes important.

2. Fall of Constantinople
Europe had enjoyed a flourishing trade and commerce with Asia through Constantinople, the
capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, for many years. In 1453, Constantinople fell into the
hands of the Ottoman Turks and Europe's trade with the East was disrupted.

As the Europeans were very keen to have trade with the East they embarked upon the task of
discovering new sea routes. Prof. Webster has rightly observed, “The deed of commerce
largely accounts for early exploring voyages. Eastern spices-cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and
ginger-were used more freely in medieval times than now”.

3. Temptation for eastern luxuries

The rich and well to do people of Europe had great fascination of Asian goods like Chinese
silk, Indian cotton and precious stones, perfumes and other items like gums, dyes, fragrant
wood, etc.

The ever increasing and insatiable demand for these goods amongst the affluent sections of
the European society encouraged the European merchants to find new sea routes to the East
so that they could bring these luxury items and make enormous profits.
 4. Growth of geographical knowledge
Growth of geographical knowledge also provided an impetus to geographical explorations
and discoveries. A number of books were published in the 15th Century which provided useful
information about the trade routes between the Far East and the West and improved the
geographical knowledge of the Europeans.

Some of the prominent works produced during this period were A Merchants Handbook by
Florentine, The Secrets of the Faithful Crusades by a Venetian writer, and books on travels
such as The Holy Lands and Africa.

The repeated assertion of the clergy that the Earth was flat, as against the assertion of the
geographers that the Earth was round, also inspired the eager explorers to test it for
themselves.

5. Discovery of the Mariner’s Compass and Improvement in Shipping Techniques

The invention of the Mariner’s Compass provided the navigator an idea about the direction in
which they were sailing, also providing an impetus to geographical explorations.
Additionally, improvements in the ship-building techniques and map-making art encouraged
explorers to undertake voyages.

6. Desire to Expand
States in Europe encouraged exploratory voyages because they were on the lookout of new
lands. For example, Portugal, which had built a small empire through successful warfare
against the Moors, found its expansion blocked due to the presence of a strong state of Spain.
The rulers of Portugal, therefore, encouraged their sailors to acquire new lands beyond the
sea.

7. Desire to spread Christianity

Christianity is a highly missionary religion. In the 15th Century, a powerful Christian
missionary movement emerged and a large number of Christian missionaries showed their
keenness to spread the message of Christ to every nook and corner of the world even at the
cost of their lives.

These missionaries were often supported by the European traders and merchants who were
also keen to exploit the unexplored lands.
 8. Impact of the Renaissance
The Renaissance also greatly contributed to new discoveries by liberating men's minds from
medieval ideas and inculcating a spirit of bold adventure among the people.

9. Spirit of Adventure
Apart from the desire to gain wealth and luxurious articles from East, some young men were
also inspired by the spirit of adventure to undertake voyages to unknown lands and discover
the undiscovered lands.

DISCOVERIES
1. China (13th Century)
Marco Polo was a Venetian merchant traveler. His travels are recorded in Livres des
Merveilles du Monde, a book that described to Europeans, the wealth and the great size of
China, its capital Peking, and other Asian cities and countries.

2. South America
Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer, navigator and colonizer. He completed four
voyages across the Atlantic Ocean and established settlements on the island of Hispaniola
which initiated the permanent European Colonization of the New World. Believing to have
reached the eastern coast of Asia, he in reality discovered the West Indies and South America.

3. North America
Amerigo Vespucci was an Italian explorer who, in 1502, figured out that Columbus was
wrong, and word of a New World had spread throughout Europe. This 2 nd super continent
came to be termed “Americas” deriving its name from the term Americus which was Latin
for Vespucci’s first name.

4. Brazil
Europeans arrived in Brazil at the opening of the 16th Century. The first European to
colonize Brazil was Pedro Alvarez Cabral on April 22, 1500 under the sponsorship of the
Kingdom of Portugal. From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony and a part
of the Portuguese Empire.
 5. India
Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer and the first European to reach India by sea. His
initial voyage to India (1497–1499) was the first to link Europe and Asia by an ocean route,
connecting the Atlantic and the Indian oceans and therefore, the West and the Orient.

6. Australia
In 1770, Captain James Cook discovered the south-east coast of Australia, landing in
Botany Bay. On 22 August 1770, he claimed the whole of the east coast of Australia at
Possession Island, naming eastern Australia New South Wales.

7. South Pole
The first expedition to reach the geographic South Pole was led by the Norwegian
explorer Roald Amundson. He and four others arrived at the pole on 14 December 1911, five
weeks ahead of a British party led by Robert Falcon Scott as part of the Terra Nova
Expedition. Amundsen and his team returned safely to their base, and later learned that Scott
and his four companions had died on their return journey.

8. North Pole
Rear Admiral Robert Edwin Peary Sr. was an American explorer and United States
Navy officer who made several expeditions to the Arctic in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. He is best known for claiming to have reached the geographic North Pole with his
expedition on April 6, 1909.

TREATY OF TORDESILLAS (1494)

Shortly after Columbus' return from what would later be called the "West Indies", a division
of influence became necessary to avoid conflict between the Spanish and Portuguese.

An agreement was reached in 1494, with the Treaty of Tordesillas that divided the world
between the two powers. In this treaty, the Portuguese received everything outside Europe
east of a line that ran 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (already Portuguese), and
the islands discovered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile),
named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia (Cuba and Hispaniola). This gave them control
over Africa, Asia and eastern South America (Brazil). The Spanish (Castile) received
everything west of this line. At the time of negotiation, the treaty split the known world of
Atlantic islands roughly in half, with the dividing line about halfway between Portuguese
Cape Verde and the Spanish.

King John II of Portugal then negotiated directly with King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella of Spain to move the line west, and allowing him to claim newly discovered
lands east of it.

Later, the Spanish territory would prove to include huge areas of the continental mainland of
North and South America, though Portuguese-controlled Brazil would expand across the line.
Settlements by other European powers ignored the treaty.

DA GAMA’S ROUTE TO INDIA

Twice, in 1485 and 1488, Portugal officially rejected Christopher Columbus's idea of
reaching India by sailing westwards. Experts under King John II of Portugal rejected it, for
they held the opinion that Columbus's estimation of a travel distance of 2,400 miles
(3,860 km) was undervalued, and in part because Dias departed in 1487 trying the rounding
of the southern tip of Africa, therefore they believed that sailing east would require a far
shorter journey. Dias's return from the Cape of Good Hope in 1488, and Pêro da Covilhã's
travel to Ethiopia overland indicated that the richness of the Indian Sea was accessible from
the Atlantic. A long-overdue expedition was prepared.

Under the new King, Manuel I of Portugal, on July 1497 a small exploratory fleet of four
ships and about 170 men left Lisbon under the command of Vasco da Gama. By December
the fleet passed the Great Fish River—where Dias had turned back—and sailed into unknown
waters. On 20 May 1498, they arrived at Calicut. The efforts of Vasco da Gama to get
favourable trading conditions were hampered by the low value of their goods, compared with
the valuable goods traded there. Two years and two days after departure, Gama and a survivor
crew of 55 men returned in glory to Portugal as the first ships to sail directly from Europe to
India.

FIRST CIRCUMNAVIGATION
Ferdinand Magellan, in 1519, in order to prove that the Earth was round and not flat,
circumnavigated the globe. His ships went from Spain to Eastern South America, to the South
of South America, to Philippines (where he died in a fight with the local tribals), to Cape of
Good Hope, and back to Spain.
By 1516 several Portuguese navigators, conflicting with King Manuel I of Portugal, had
gathered in Seville to serve the newly crowned Charles I of Spain. Among them were
explorers Diogo, Barbosa, Gomes, Serrão and Ferdinand Magellan,
cartographers Reinel and Ribeiro, cosmographers Francisco and Faleiro and the Flemish
merchant Christopher de Haro. Ferdinand Magellan—who had sailed in India for Portugal
up to 1513, when the Maluku Islands were reached, and had kept contact with Francisco
Serrão living there—developed the theory that the islands were in the Tordesillas Spanish
area, supported on studies by Faleiro brothers.

Aware of the efforts of the Spanish to find a route to India by sailing west, Magellan
presented his plan to Charles I of Spain. The king and Christopher de Haro financed
Magellan's expedition. A fleet was put together, and Spanish navigators such as Juan
Sebastián Elcano joined the enterprise. On August 10, 1519, they departed from Seville with
a fleet of five ships—the flagship Trinidad under Magellan's command, San
Antonio, Concepcion, Santiago and Victoria, with a crew of about 237 men from several
nations, with the goal of reaching the Maluku Islands by travelling west, trying to reclaim it
under Spain's economic and political sphere.

The fleet sailed further and further south, avoiding the Portuguese territories in Brazil, and
become the first to reach Tierra del Fuegoat, the tip of the Americas. On October 21,
starting in Cape Virgenes, they began an arduous trip through a 373-mile (600 km) long
strait that Magellan named Estrecho de Todos los Santos, the modern Strait of Magellan.
On November 28, three ships entered the Pacific Ocean—then named Mar Pacífico because
of its apparent stillness. The expedition managed to cross the Pacific. Magellan died in
the battle of Mactan in the Philippines, leaving the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano with the
task of completing the voyage. On September 6, 1522 Victoria returned to Spain, thus
completing the first circumnavigation of the globe. Of the men who set out on five ships, only
18 completed the circumnavigation and managed to return to Spain in this single vessel led
by Elcano. Seventeen others arrived later in Spain: twelve captured by the Portuguese in
Cape Verde some weeks earlier, and between 1525 and 1527, and five survivors of
the Trinidad. Antonio Pigafetta, a Venetian scholar and traveler who had asked to be on
board and become a strict assistant of Magellan, kept an accurate journal that become the
main source for much of what we know about this voyage.
This round-the-world voyage gave Spain valuable knowledge of the world and its oceans
which later helped in the exploration and settlement of the Philippines. Although this was not
a realistic alternative to the Portuguese route around Africa (the Strait of Magellan was too
far south, and the Pacific Ocean too vast to cover in a single trip from Spain) successive
Spanish expeditions used this information to explore the Pacific Ocean and discovered routes
that opened up trade between Acapulco, New Spain (present-day Mexico) and Manila in the
Philippines.

IMPACTS AND CONSEQUENCES

The geographical discoveries made by the explorers from various countries of Europe left a
deep impact on the future course of history.

1. Expansion of Trade
It encouraged maritime activities between Europe, the East and America, and enhanced the
potentialities of trade between Europe and the rest of the world. The Europeans began to
import spices and numerous luxury items like Indian textiles, Persian carpets etc. from the
East in large quantities. Similarly, they began to ship huge quantities of fish, fur and timber
from America.

On the other hand, they began to export a number of European manufactured goods to Asia,
Africa and America where they had set up their colonies.

2. Rise of Mercantilism
It led to the rise of mercantile system. Almost all the European powers tried to increase their
overseas trade at the cost of other powers. They tried to accumulate as much bullion as
possible by increasing exports and restricting imports.

To attain this objective, they subsidized home industries and erected high tariff walls.
Navigation Acts were passed to boost the shipping industry and every effort was made to
extract maximum trade concessions from the defeated enemy.

3. The Commercial Revolution

In the 18th Century, when the industrial revolution began in England and spread across
Europe, the boost in maritime trade and colonization helped the mother country accumulate
resources and gain access to markets. The Industrial Revolution of Europe was a result of the
Agricultural Revolution which preceded it.
 4. Emergence of Credit, Banking and Insurance Systems
This enormous growth in commercial activities led to the creation of credit institutions,
commercial banks and other instruments. Carrying large amounts of wealth during voyages
was extremely risky. This led to the need for banks. The travelers would deposit money at one
branch, procure a traveler’s cheque, and receive the amount at another branch, upon its
production. Similarly, due to the risk in transport and trade, a need for insurance arose. The
rates were usually very high, dure to the high risk. This led to a flourishing insurance
industry.

5. Rise of Joint Stock Companies

As a result of these discoveries large scale trade and commerce took place. As these
commercial and trading activities could not be financed by individual traders out of their
limited resources, or through finance from the small money-lenders, it led to the rise of Joint
Stock Companies. These became famous because the returns on investments were generally
high.

6. Race Towards Maritime Supremacy

The importance of maritime trade lead to a desire for maritime supremacy. Countries made
endeavors to establish maritime dominance. Portugal and Spain were the leaders in the
beginning. Later however, Britain became the unquestionable maritime superpower until
WWII.

7. Rise of Colonialism and Imperialism

Geographical discoveries paved the way for the rise of colonialism and imperialism. After the
discovery of new territories, a large number of Europeans emigrated to these territories and
carved out their colonies. They established their control over these territories and began to
rule over the natives.

Such colonies were established by the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French and the English in
different parts of Asia, Africa and America. These colonial powers resorted to systematic
exploitation of the local natives and their colonies. Often the colonial powers imposed
restrictions on these colonies not to trade with other foreign countries and tried to exploit
their economies to promote the interests of the mother country.
Often these colonies were asked not to manufacture goods which were produced by the
mother country so that they could not offer any competition to the manufactures of the
mother country.

8. Colonial Wars
Geographical discoveries accentuated commercial rivalry amongst the European powers and
led to numerous colonial wars among these powers. Such wars were fought by the Portuguese
and the Dutch; the Spaniards and the French; and the French and the English in various parts
of Asia, Africa and America.

It has rightly been observed that the conflicting interests and mutual rivalries of the European
powers supply the key to the many of the European wars of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries.

9. Slave Trade
The discovery of new lands and their colonization gave rise to the nefarious practice of slave
trade. For the development of new lands, the colonial powers needed cheap labour which led
to the rise of slave trade.

Africa became the hub of the slave market. The salves provided the manpower and the much
required labour for clearing spaces and establishing living areas in places like America, which
had experienced a rush from Europe, right after its discovery.

It has been rightly observed, “The trade in African negroes was fathered by the English
captain Hawkins and fostered alike by the Dutch and the English”.

10. Accumulation of Knowledge

Geographical discoveries widened the mental outlook of the Europeans which greatly
contributed to the enrichment of art and sciences and contributed to the all-round progress of
man. With greater accessibility to different parts of the world, new observations, perceptions
and understanding took place. This broadened the outlook of the people.

11. Enrichment of Western Civilizations

As a result of these discoveries the Europeans came in contact with the people of Asia, Africa
and America and began to import numerous luxury items, metals, and precious stones etc
which greatly contributed to the enrichment of the western civilization.
 12. Establishment of Western Superiority
European discoveries established the superiority of the West over East. The Western powers
asserted superiority of their culture and civilization and tried to impose the same after
uprooting the indigenous civilization.

13. Europeanisation and Spread of Christianity

While accumulation of wealth, was the primary objective of mercantilism, Christianization of
various parts of the world also took place. (The 3 Gs: God, Gold and Glory.) Spread of
religion and culture lead to the spread of the European way of life across the world. This
expansion of European culture is referred to as Europeanisation. For example, tea was
introduced in India.

Geographical discoveries paved the way for the spread of Christianity in the new lands. The
Christian missionaries followed the traders and flag in various colonies and began to convert
people to Christianity by all types of temptations and threats.

14. Emergence of Atlantic Trade and Development of Coastal Cities

The discovery of Atlantic Sea, as a result of the geographical explorations provided a new sea
route to the East and soon it became the chief highway of commerce. With this the Baltic Sea
and Mediterranean Sea, which had served as the chief sea-routes for commerce, suffered in
importance. With the discovery of Atlantic Sea, new ports like Lisbon, London, Amsterdam
gained in prominence at the cost of old ports of Mediterranean and Baltic Seas.

With the expansion of maritime trade, economies started flourishing along the coast, and
development of these cities took place.

15. Decline of Italy’s Commercial Power

It led to the decline of Italy as a commercial power. Before the geographical discoveries,
“Rome was the hub of the universe, Venice and Genoa the emporium of its trade, and
Florence the home of its arts letters.

All men's eyes looked toward Italy, but now there came an aversion of gaze.” Mediterranean
lost its importance, trade and commerce began to be carried on through other oceans. The
importance of countries open to the Atlantic, such as Spain and Portugal, greatly increased
and their ports became the outlets towards a vast New World.
 16. Establishment of Absolute Monarchies
Geographical explorations paved the way of the emergence of absolute monarchies in
Europe. The middle classes which gained in importance due to expansion of commerce, made
huge finances available to the kings and thereby enable them to free themselves of the control
of feudal lords. As a result, the monarchs in most parts of Europe succeeded in establishing
their absolute rule.
 THE ERA OF ENLIGHTENMENT (17TH, 18TH AND 19TH CENTURY)
Europe experienced expansion of science and learning.

SCIENCE
1. Isaac Newton (1640s)
Father of Physics. He developed calculus (which is an extremely important instrument
of calculation for physical sciences), the binomial theorem, mathematical physics,
hydrodynamics (which studies waves and fluids), optics (which studies light) and
mechanics, among other fields. He also gave the laws of motion. He authored the
book Principia which contained these theories.
2. Edmund Hailey, was an astronomer.
3. William Herschel discovered Uranus.
4. Robert Boyle, called the father of Chemistry.
5. Torricelli invented the barometer.
6. Fahrenheit invented the thermometer.
7. Benjamin Franklin discovered electricity.
8. Robert Boyle gave the gas law, which has had far-reaching consequences for science.
‘Alcohol’ word coined by him. Also discovered phosphorous, gave the idea of
chemical elements and predicted the atomic theory.
9. Henry Cavendish discovered Hydrogen.
10. Priestly and Corbusier discovered Oxygen.
11. Hutton developed geology.

MEDICINE
1. Thomas Sydenham discovered why fever occurs. He studied antibodies and body
temperature.
2. Morgagni developed pathological research.
3. Robert Hook discovered the cell.

FEATURES OF ENLIGHTENMENT
1. Natural Science (Naturalism)
Includes not just physical but life sciences too. Emphasis on natural science.
 2. Rationalism
In the field of philosophy, it gave emphasis on reason, knowledge and logic. This rationalistic
thinking gave root to skepticism which questioned everything and paved the way to more
learning.

3. Progress
Its ideas included control of environment. Human achievements were given importance.
Civilization was recognized as something which had to develop. Progress emphasized upon
in an optimistic way. Prosperity was given importance.

4. Humanitarianism
Humanity as a subject developed. Human rights laws were developed. Prison reforms took
place. Killing machines were put out of place. In the Indian wars during British rule, Florence
Nightingale was outspoken about the human rights abuse.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

1. History
The Renaissance model of history writing developed. During this time, history writing
and appreciation took proper shape. The idea of rationalism fueled the development of
critical thinking. Objective history was given importance. Bias was not appreciated. It
was felt that history must be based on facts and their critical analysis. The need to
base history writing on evidence and collaboration of sources of evidence was also
felt. Once the veracity of the truth was established, only then was any assertion
included.

Histography as a discipline was developed. Vico had an important role in shaping its
methods. Edward Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of Roman Empire and Voltaire’s Age of
Louis were important works.

2. Political Science
The debate on the nature of state took place. Hobbes came earlier in the 17 th Century,
while Locke and Rousseau were active in the 18th Century.

o Thomas Hobbes was a classical realist. He believed that before the existence
of society, man lived in a state of nature, just like animals. Survival of the
 individual and the formation of a state became important questions. He
concluded that society was formed on the basis of a contract between the
individual and the state. The state took responsibility for the protection of the
individual and his interests, while the individual surrendered his rights and
pledged absolute obedience. The ruler was a strong dictator and the rights of
the individual were minimal.

Hobbes developed this idea because of the circumstances in which he lived.

He lived in a period of anarchy in Europe. The anarchy that he saw could be
removed by establishing the sovereignty and the power of the state.

In his model, the church was subordinate to the state. This idea gave root to
the idea of secularism, where the church was involved only with religious
matters and could not interfere with greater power.

o John Locke, too, believed in a society based on contract. However, according

to him, the state was based on constitutional democracy. The individuals were
conferred natural rights. The rights of life, liberty and property were present.
The government’s role was not to dominate but was there in place for the
interest of the people. This paved the way for the idea of modern democracies.

He also talked about revolution. The state’s role was to govern and if this was
not done properly, the people had the right to revolt against the state to
overthrow the inefficient government. The state here, is not as strong as the
state in Hobbes’ model.

o Rousseau also believed that the society was formed from social contract. He
was a liberalist and believed in granting rights to individuals. He said that all
men have the right to be free. The natural man in his view was trustworthy,
virtuous and inherently good in nature. He also gave the notion of the common
will, that the people’s will mattered and that this needed to be considered by
the Government. This became the core of the modern democratic society. For
this reason, he is called the father of modern democracy and modern
liberalism.
3. Utilitarianism
Jeremy Bentham is called the father of utilitarianism. The idea was also developed by
JS Mill and James Mill. It was an important emerging ideology which affected the
development of many other fields.

Utilitarianism believed that men in society at no point can be equal since this was a
utopian principle. It believed in the greatest good of the greatest number. Marxism,
which came later, believed in egalitarianism, a classless society and the idea that in
order to uplift the downtrodden, it is justified even to pull down those who are at a
higher position in society. Utilitarianism was against all of these ideas.

4. Legal Studies
Montesquieu: Spirit of the Laws and Beccaria’s On Crime and Punishment were
important works.

Their emphasis was on the idea that punishment was not a solution to crime. They
believed in the reformist approach instead of the deterrent approach. In their times,
the role of harsh punishments was very dominant. Spreading awareness among the
masses was emphasized on. They condemned capital punishment and torture which
was commonplace. These were reflected in the development of humanitarianism.

5. Political Economy
This subject studied the interaction between economics and politics, how economics
affects politics and international relations. This study developed when mercantilism as
an economic doctrine emerged. Mercantilism advocated complete state regulation on
trade and commerce. (Trade follows the national flag.) This doctrine diminished in
value as the idea of laissez faire or free trade developed. Adam Smith propounded this
idea in his book, The Wealth of the Nations. It was believed that trade and commerce
have a natural tendency to flourish if the state does not interfere. An intricate division
of labour (specialization) was part of this idea. Example: Stages of production in the
textile industry. Modern economies are largely based on this idea.
 GREAT REVOLUTIONS
PARLIAMENTARY INSTITUTIONS OF ENGLAND
In British Parliamentary history, 3 events were very important:
 Magna Carta
 Petition of Rights
 Bill of Rights

THE MAGNA CARTA

The Magna Carta was a charter of liberty. It was an important document which was drafted in
England in 1215 AD. Its significance was so great, that many other documents have also been
called by this name. For example, the Bill of Education during Dalhousie’s administration in
India.

King John was the ruler at the time. The system was autocratic and the powers were
concentrated with him. The elite class ignited a revolution against this system. The Magna
Carta was not about the people’s rights, but about the King surrendering some rights to the
nobles.

Barons, Burgesses and Knights were the landed elites who had large tracts of lands.
Burgesses were the caste-heads. The movement was led by the Barons, who demanded rights.
The King subsequently understood the problems and agreed to surrender some rights. Two
important groups, the clergy and the barons were conferred rights.

The Great Council was comprised of the representatives of the landed elites. The King
promised not to impose any extraordinary taxes on these groups without the consent of the
Great Council. This was the most important agreement. The elites usually transferred the
burden of these taxes on to the general masses. One of the reasons behind the revolt of the
elites against the King was a fear of a revolution from the masses. It was also granted, that no
person would be denied the right to justice. It was held that every person had the right to
approach the head of the justice system, i.e., the King. Delay in justice was seriously
considered and speedy resolution of disputes was emphasized upon.

Subsequently, the Great Council developed into the Parliament. The King wanted the GC not
to rebel against his power. Thus, he assented to the creation of this body. A bicameral
parliamentary structure emerged in England in the 14th Century, with the two houses being the
House of Lords and the House of Commons. The HOL was comprised of the lords and the
nobles, while the HOC was comprised of the Knights, Barons and Burgesses, who were the
representatives of the people.

FUNCTIONING OF THE PARLIAMENT

It had to give information to the King regarding the taxation structure. The King would send
requests for imposition of new taxes, which could be levied only when the Parliament
approved them. Usually, the Parliament would accept the King’s suggestions. The Parliament
had little control over financial matters. However, the Parliament acted as a check on the
arbitrary power of the King. It essentially acted as a pressure group.

During the reign of Henry VIII, the Parliament got more powers. It got the right to debate
bills. Any bill which the King wanted to pass, could be debated upon by the Parliament.
However, the Parliament rarely differed from the Crown. The Parliament also got the power
to punish its members for use of un-parliamentary language. Parliamentary decorum started
taking shape. Until this point, the relation between the Parliament and the Crown was largely
harmonious.

The conflict between the Parliament and the Crown began in 1603. James I took the throne
after Queen Elizabeth. He was extravagant, and refused to humour the Parliament. He wanted
to impose his own will, and proposed arbitrary taxes. The Parliament, for the first time,
refused the proposal of the King. The King then went for illegal taxation. The Parliament
protested, which angered the King further. Many parliamentarians were arrested by the King
and in 1621, the Parliament was dissolved.

Charles I, son of James I, took the throne after him. Under his rule, the conditions worsened.
He believed in the divine right theory, that the King is the representative of God, and could
not be questioned. He did not want any encroachment upon his authority and thus, began
curtailing the rights of the people. He restored the Parliament, but he summoned and
dissolved it several times. One of the reasons for the conflict was that he wanted to wage a
war with Spain. He needed funds for this, which were denied by the Parliament, following
which he dissolved the body. Charles I was involved in 3 wrongs. He imposed illegal or
unparliamentary taxes, he imprisoned people arbitrarily and he imposed Martial law.

A number of important resolutions were passed during this time.

PETITION OF RIGHTS, 1628
This was passed by the Parliament (By the HOC. The HOL was not a party to this resolution).
The issue during this time were the extraordinary prerogative powers of the King. The
resolution declared that no one, including the King, could go against the law. It made a
distinction between what is prerogative and what is law. The idea was to curb his prerogative
powers.

It placed emphasis on laying down the Rule of Law, countering the prerogative power of the
King and countering arbitrariness. In the 17th Century, this was a great achievement. This led
to the restriction of the Crown’s power and authority by statute for the first time.

It also laid down some important provisions, showing how the Rule of Law was to be
established.
 “No man hereafter be compelled to take gift, loan, benevolence, tax or such charge
without consent of the Parliament.”
 “No free man will be detained in prison without show cause.” This curbed the
arbitrary arrests which were prevalent during the time.

The POR was probably the first step of transferring sovereignty from the King to the
Parliament. It was a victory for the House of Commons.

From 1629-1640, Charles I ran a personal Govt. The POR did not have any immediate effect,
as the King refused to accept the resolution. He was functioning without any involvement of
the Parliament. All decisions were taken by him alone. His reign was marked by anarchy and
confusion. During this time, the people had many grievances and there was fear of a
rebellion. The people did not question the monarchical structure itself, but the King’s rule
was oppressive. In order to pacify the people and gain legitimacy, Charles I reinstated the
Parliament.

LONG PARLIAMENT
The period of Long Parliament spanned from 1640-1660. The Parliament existed in right.
However, the King would not take it into consideration in the decision-making process. The
two bodies ran parallelly. During this time, the Parliament passed a number of resolutions
which curtailed the powers of the Crown further. It targeted the King directly. The
Parliament’s resolutions, however, did not have any immediate impact.
Enactments passed during this period.
 The Crown was deprived of its extraordinary powers.
 The King will not get any finances without the consent of the HOC.
 The King cannot punish his opponents arbitrarily. In a genuine case, a jury should be
present.

By 1640-1645, the Parliament emerged as an indispensable organ of the State.

CIVIL WAR
The conflict between the Parliament and the King intensified, and laid the foundation for the
civil war. It was bound to take place. The spark came in the form of the arrest of a number of
Parliamentarians who were involved in the resolutions by the King. This act acted as a
trigger, and the HOC passed a resolution to raise an army without the seal of the Crown. This
led to the emergence of an army of the Parliament against the King’s army. These armies
clashed. But this war is called a civil war because the masses who had grievances under the
King’s rule, sided with the Parliament.

The balance was in the favour of the Parliament. Its army soon overpowered that of the King,
and Charles I was immediately beheaded. Oliver Cromwell, who was the leader of the
Parliament ordered the death of the King, since he did not want to risk keeping him alive.

THE PURITAN REVOLUTION

With the defeat of the army, a new political structure emerged. People in the ruling class, led
by Cromwell, were called the Puritans. The revolution lasted for a period of five years. The
first four years were turbulent because of the debate on the kind of political structure that was
to exist. Cromwell wanted monarchy to be done away with. In the end, the Puritan structure
emerged.

The Commonwealth
Cromwell declared England as a Commonwealth. The three nations: England, Scotland and
Ireland were to be part of it, having a common executive and legislature.

The Executive
It was comprised of the Lord Protector (the highest executive authority) and the Council of
State. Cromwell became the LP. Provisions were made to prevent both the LP and the COS
from accumulating arbitrary power. There were checks and balances, which allowed the LP
and the COS to act as checks on each other. Though appointed by the LP, the COS had certain
independent powers.

The Legislature
The Parliament was designed to be controlled by the LP. This was done in order to prevent
accumulation of power by the Parliament. The composition of the Parliament did not contain
the HOC and the HOL, since they were dissolved after the revolution. The dissenters of
Cromwell were removed from the HOC and it was filled with Puritans. Thus, the Parliament
was comprised of absolute supporters of Cromwell. It was no longer a representative body.
The bicameral nature of the Parliament was removed.

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE PURITAN REVOLUTION

1. Execution of the King
People didn’t have a problem with monarchy as an institution. They had a problem with
Charles I as a person. So, when the Puritans failed to provide proper governance, there was
unrest.

2. Repression of the House of Lords and the House of Commons

The Puritans abolished the House of Commons, which was representative in character. This
again, was a measure which people weren’t in favor of. The authoritarian attitude of the
Puritans began to come to light clearly. Further, anyone who did not agree with the
ideas/policies of the Puritans was removed from the Parliament.

3. Absence of confidence of the nation

Puritans failed to get the confidence of the nation. For any government to survive, the opinion
of the masses is quintessential. Puritans failed to do anything which would make them worthy
of the people’s confidence. Often, their policies would alienate the masses. Though the
puritans were initially popular, this changed once they came into power.

4. Reliance on the army

Reliance on army depicted the govt. as an authoritarian one. It looked like a military state at
one point of time. Hitler was able to get the confidence of the masses. Hence, though it was
like a military state, it survived.
THE GREAT RESTORATION, 1660
By 1658, there was an increased demand for the restoration of earlier institutions. The Crown,
the Church (marginalized previously by the Puritans) and the Parliament (Bicameral
Parliament: HoC & HoL) were restored. Monarchy returned.

The system then created was one in which no single institution could emerge supreme. In law
and in form, the King was supreme and sovereign. However, in fact, the parliament was
supreme. Parliament was the de facto head of the state. The king (Charles II) was the de facto
head.

Essentially, Sovereignty lies in the King in the Parliament (WTF?).

The King till now still had a lot of powers. Wasn’t merely a puppet. Eventually, with the Bill
of Rights, the post lost most of its powers.

The King had the following powers.

 Power to appoint important officers of the state
The king still remained the apex executive authority. Hence, the power of
appointment of officers remained with him. Example: Ministers, or solicitor general.
 Power to appoint judges
 Power over armed forces
 Power to singularly declare war & peace
 Powers in diplomatic relations
Conclusion/Abrogation of any treaty was in the hands of the King.

The Parliament had the following powers.

 Complete control over finance
If the King wanted any money, even for personal expenditure, he needed the
Parliament’s assent. In essence, it overrode most of the King’s functions.
 Appointed ministers answerable to Parliament
The Parliament could pass a resolution to remove ministers. It could cross examine
the ministers. They were responsible to the Parliament.

THE HABEUS CORPUS ACT, 1669

Empowered the people, gave them more rights. It contained three important provisions.
 No one could be kept in confinement for long.
  Any person imprisoned could be released on bail.
 ‘Justice delayed is justice denied’. This principle was followed. The right to speedy
trial was recognized.

THE BILL OF RIGHTS

This was one of the most important documents of the time.

After Charles II, James II (1685-88) occupied the throne. Like some of his earlier
predecessors, he was keen on concentrating powers in his hands. Believer in the Divine Right
Theory. He wanted to weaken the Parliament and curb people’s liberties.

However, by this time, the Parliament had emerged as a strong body and he was exposed.
Parliament passed a resolution about his heinous acts, and he was forced to flee. He was
afraid of being hanged like Charles I. This was known as the glorious revolution. It was a
bloodless one which resulted in a complete change of the power structure.

At this point, the Parliament emerged as an indispensable body.

The daughter and son-in-law of James II, Mary and William occupied the throne. The Bill of
Rights was passed, which resulted in the King’s powers becoming negligible. He was treated
merely like a mayor of the palace. The concept of Limited Monarchy came up.

 Excessive & Cruel punishments were abolished.

 The Crown could not suspend the Parliament or the Constitution.
 Armed forces were no longer under the command of the Crown.

Real democracy still hadn’t come to England. Around the first decade of the 18th century, the
party system emerged in England. The Tory’s (The Conservative Party) and the Labour party
came up.
 AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE
War: 1776. Independence Day: 4th July, 1776.

JFK: America, The Land of Immigrants.

After Columbus discovered America, large-scale migration from Europe followed. Reasons.
 Europe was going through a population explosion. When it was heard that a vast
continent, rich in resources, ripe with opportunity had been discovered, the surplus
population migrated to America.
 People wanted to get away from the bubonic plague in Europe. There was no remedy
for the menace of the deathly disease.
 Large number of wars in Europe. Europe had undergone long and numerous wars
which were a continuous threat to the security and liberties of the people.

The migration, however, was not easy. Atlantic is a turbulent ocean and sea travel was unsafe.
Lots of people lost their lives on the sea. The people who reached, were the early settlers.

13 colonies emerged in America. People realized that there was a huge demand and low
supply for labour. Colonization required large amounts of labour to turn the land habitable
and cultivable. At this point, a large number of slaves were brought from African colonies.
This continued till the mid-19th century.

Britain considered America to be a colony. It was not considered to be part of the Empire.
The perception and the attitude of the British administration was relevant. The people
gradually lost the love for their mother countries, since America was not treated as a part of
the mother country. Though the Americans were allowed to govern themselves, sovereignty
law with the Crown.

CAUSES FOR THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE

1. Attitude of the American people

They were freedom loving people, since they came from Europe and were exposed to ideas of
liberty and freedom. Britain did not treat them as citizens, but as consumers and producers.
They attitude of the Empire led to increasing grievances.
 2. Restriction on production
Since America was very rich in resources, the people wanted to produce a large number of
goods. But the Empire imposed restrictions on production, since they did not want any
competition for British products. The British wanted to protect their monopoly in trade.
Britain passed the Navigation Act. Under this Act, all American goods had to be sent outside
America only in British ships and only to the British ports. Policies like this led to
resentment.

3. End of the French menace

The above described suppression took place for a long time. Meanwhile, Britain won the 7
Years’ War thwarting the American designs of the French. France earlier, was a threat and
Americans had been afraid of being attacked by the French. Earlier, they could not have
simultaneously fought both the British and the French. With their defeat, Americans become
aggressive, as opposed to defensive against the British.

4. Taxation policies and the Sugar Act, 1764

Control of the Caribbean islands was partly under the British and partly under French. The
Americans, for their consumption, used to import sugar from the French Caribbean islands.
The Sugar Act provided that import could only take place from the British Caribbean islands,
and a heavy duty was imposed on sugar from the France controlled area. This led to protests.

5. Extraction of expenses of the 7 Years’ War

The expenses for the war were imposed on the Americans through taxes, the burden of which,
was shouldered by the masses. This created a divide between the Americans and the British.

6. Stamp Act
The Stamp Act was passed by the British Parliament in 1765. The prices on couriers and
shipments were increased. This led to major protests across America. It got to such a point,
that the British had to repeal the Act. This served as the first severe warning. An important
slogan was coined by Patrick Henry - “Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I had Cromwell.
George III should make profit from these examples”. A storm was gathering.
 7. Duties imposed on paper and tea
Many duties were imposed by the British. This led to huge protests in country. The duty on
paper was withdrawn. However, the tea duty remained intact, in order to establish the idea of
British sovereignty and dominance.

8. The Boston Massacre, 1770

The people protesting against the tea duties were fired upon. This led to the Boston Tea Party.

9. Boston Tea Party, 1773

A large consignment of tea arriving at the ports in America. Many Americans disguised
themselves as native Americans, who used to work as porters. They got hold of many tea
consignments and threw them into the sea. This was the call for independence. The stage was
set.

10. Confidence within the Americans

The Americans believed that the British were not very different form them, and that the
Americans had enough know how to fight against and defeat the British.

11. Stubbornness of George III

George III was an arrogant leader. He did not understand the grievances of the people. He
handled the issues poorly. All protests simply angered him further, which led him to become
more and more suppressive. This lack of moderation worsened the situation.

The Philadelphia Congress

In 1774, the Philadelphia Congress was called by the representatives of various colonies. The
Congress comprised of representatives of all 13 colonies. They discussed what their response
to the recent events should be in light of the British policies. They decided that they would
not import British goods. This was a significant resolution.

War
The very next year, in 1775, the inevitable war against the British began. There existed
independent armies in the American colonies, but the people decided to integrate under a
joint commander – George Washington.

Declaration of Independence
This came on 4th July, 1776, while the war was still going on and no conclusion had been
reached. The Constitution was signed, which was developed in part by Jefferson.

In 1777, the Americans defeated a large contingent of the British army. This was the
beginning of the decline of the British power in America. The final defeat came 1781. In the
entire war, the British forces were under Lord Cornwallis. He was compelled to surrender. In
1783, the Treaty of Versailles was signed between the leaders of the two sides. This
concluded the war, and the British recognized the independence of America.

REASONS BEHIND THE SUCCESS OF THE AMERICANS AGAINST THE BRITISH SUPERPOWER
In the 1780s, imperial forces were strong and achieving independence was a significant feat.
1. Leadership
In any war of independence, leadership is important. The American leadership was very
planned and controlled. George Washington, due to his own leadership qualities was able to
put all the dissent aside, though, there existed separate armies under various colonies. His
leadership was unquestionable. The leadership in general under Jefferson and others was also
important.

2. Common cause
A common cause was present in American. There existed various differences domestically,
but against the British, forces were combined, bringing out an unprecedented unity. Without
this unity against the common enemy, such a war could not have been waged.

3. Alliances
The British were complacent, having a superiority complex, believing that they could defeat
the Americans easily. The Americans covered all bases. The made various alliances. They
created alliances with many colonial powers who were natural enemies of the British.
Important strong powers who were on the American side were France, Spain and Dutch. This
ensured a continuous supply of men and resources in the long, protracted war.

4. Ensuring neutrality
A lot of powers of the world remained neutral. The Americans made pacts of neutrality with
many powers like Russia and Portugal, to ensure that they did not side with the British. The
Americans regularly sent representatives.
 5. Thinkers
The thinkers and intellectuals played a significant role by spreading awareness among the
masses through their ideas, speeches and writings. They exposed the British colonial reality
and the exploitation which followed. Eminent names include Patrick Henry and Robert Pine.

SIGNIFICANCE AND CONSEQUENCES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

1. Right to revolt
Locke’s and Rousseau’s models of the state talked about how the people had the right to
revolt when the government in power did not provide adequate governance. This principle
was recognized by the Americans for the first time.

2. Shift from autocratic regimes to democracy

Before the Revolution, few democracies existed. After the war, however, countries started
moving towards democracies. The American War had a significant influence. The concept of
hereditary monarchy was questioned across countries.

3. Constitutionalism
For the first time, a written constitution was developed. This led to the propagation of the
ideas of constitutionalism, limiting the arbitrary powers of the state. The ideas of separation
of powers and checks and balances between institutions was also developed. These ideas
gained strength after the American war of independence.

4. Influence on the French Revolution

The ideas of the American Revolution greatly inspired the French. The French revolution
took place only a few years later.

5. Tax
No taxation without representation was an important slogan emerging from the revolution.
This became an important idea under democracy.

6. Abolition of Slavery
The slave markets in Africa were exploited to bring about the colonization of America
initially. With the war of independence, however, the ideals of equality between whites and
blacks were given importance. Later, Abraham Lincoln fought for the abolition of slavery and
various civil rights movements took place, for example, the one under Martin Luther King Jr.
 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
CAUSES
1. Unjust Social Order
Social inequality was rampant in France. The people did not have a problem with the
monarchical structure itself, but the inequality under it caused grievances.

The society was divided into various estates. The first estate was comprised of the clergy
class. The clergy had been a dominant class throughout medieval Europe. The reason behind
the clergy being called the first estate was that the medieval influence was still present in
France, where religion was prominent. Their status was thus, higher than that of the ruling
class as well. They were exempted from all taxes. The clergy itself was divided into the
higher and the lower clergy. There existed discrimination here as well. The higher clergy was
rich and privileged, while the lower clergy was not. The hierarchy under the clergy was as
follows: Pope – Arch Bishop – Bishop – Priest (Lower Clergy).

The second estate was comprised of the nobility. The nobility or the gentry refers to the
landed elites and other forms of nobles. The feudal lords were called by many names, like
counts. They were also referred as the blue-bloods. Feudal lord used to exploit the masses.
This was represented in the long teeth and the bloodthirstiness of the Dracula. The nobility
made up only about 1% of the population, but had control over more than 40% of the landed
estates. They enjoyed many privileges. They did not have to pay any taxes. They also had a
large number of rights. For example, the exclusive rights over hunting and fishing. They
could impose taxes on the exercise over these rights on their territories. They also had the
right to impose taxes on the roads and the market-place. These taxes inflated the wealth of the
nobility. These rights allowed the nobility to heavily exploit the general masses.

The third estate was comprised of the peasants. The peasantry class made up the vast majority
of the general masses. This was the hardest hit, most discriminated against, and the most
exploited section of the society. They had to bear the burden of all the taxes. They faced triple
taxation – at the hands of the King, the clergy and the nobility. This left them with very little
for themselves.

The French Revolution was a response to this class based discrimination.

 2. Failure of the Monarchy
The failure was caused due to the belief in the divine right theory. Louis XIV, one of the
greatest French Kings, once said, “I am the state”. In this context, the King had absolute
sovereignty. Louis XV and Louis XVI were grossly incompetent as successors of this great
ruler. Louis XVI had little interest in state affairs. He cultivated personal passions like
hunting. This created a power vacuum which was filled by the Queen, Marie Antionette. The
French had a natural hatred for the Austrians. Marie was an Austrian and her presence in the
governance structure displeased the masses. Further, her qualities pissed the people off even
more. She was frivolous, extravagant and corrupt, this made her very unpopular. She thus,
became unpopular with the nobility. Gradually, her continuous interference, turned the public
sentiment against the monarchy, which led to the Revolution.

3. Inefficient Administration
There existed no decentralization of power. Thus, even for small issues, the decision had to
come from the top of the hierarchy. This led to extremely slow decision making. The fact that
the King was not inclined towards governance worsened the situation. This led to an
extremely inefficient administration.

4. Intellectuals
Thinkers in France had a very important role to play. They had an impact in the Renaissance
as well. Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau were the most eminent names. Montesquieu was
an eminent rationalist, laying emphasis on accepting only those ideas which are based on
logic. He also emphasized on the right to freedom. Further, he was an advocate of the
separation of powers. The idea of separation of powers would practically mean the end of
monarchy, since under that system, power is centralized. Voltaire was called the Prince of
Rationalists. His emphasis was on reason rather than tradition. His main attack was on the
Church. He considered it to be a barrier in the path of progress. This was an act of
commendable courage, considering the power which the Church wielded during the time.
Rousseau gave the social contract theory. He felt that the contract under the King did not
favour the people and thus, had to be declared null and void. A new contract was needed
which was fair to all classes. He emphasized on the destruction of the existing institutions of
monarchy, clergy and nobility. He wanted the will of the people to be the sovereign.
 5. Impact of the American War of Independence
This had taken place barely 10 years before the French Revolution. Its ideals, especially those
of democracy, inspired the people and impacted the French Revolution.

6. Financial Bankruptcy
France was in a state of financial bankruptcy. Its national debt and the annual fiscal deficit
was rising every year. The administration was corrupt, while the people were heavily burden
with taxes already, meaning that they could not be burdened with any more. The treasury was
empty, which did not allow any sort of governance. The State, therefore, had the powers to do
barely anything at all.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE FRENCH AND THE BRITISH REVOLUTIONS

1. Objective
The aim of the French revolution was to end inequality and discrimination. The masses had a
problem with the entire existing system. The problem in the England was not so much the
monarchical system, but the system under Charles I.

2. Nature
The French Revolution was violent. The British Revolution, however, was largely non-
violent, barring the execution of King Charles I.

3. Involvement of the Masses

The French Revolution was the revolution of the people. The peasants played a central role.
The British Revolution, on the other hand, was centered around oligarchs. The masses were
not as involved.

4. Involvement of Women
The French Revolution saw widespread involvement of women. This was a result of the lack
of basic amenities like food, which had forced even the women to revolt. In England,
however, participation of women was very low.

5. Emerging Political Structure

The French Revolution gave way to a republic. In the British Revolution, the system
established was a parliamentary, limited monarchy system. This difference was a result of the
involvement of the masses in France, while only that of the oligarchs in England.
 6. Time Duration
The French Revolution spanned from 1789 to 1799. The British Revolution lasted for 100
years (from 1688 to 1789).

7. Impact
The French Revolution had a more widespread impact on the world. It gave legitimacy to the
idea of the right to revolt in systems of gross inadequacy in governance. The Revolution also
popularized the republic system of state. It gave birth to the cherished ideals liberty, equality
and fraternity, which became an important element of democracy.

COURSE OF THE REVOLUTION

1. Third Estate as the National Assembly
The third estate constituted over 90% of the population. They wanted to voice their will.
Thus, they constituted the National Assembly. They sent their representatives to the NA. An
important resolution passed declared that taxation could be imposed only if approved by the
NA.

2. Tennis Court Oath

When the representatives of the NA reached the NA, they found that it had been locked by
the monarch. So, they moved to the tennis court, where they took the oath. The pledge was
that there must be a constitution for France. This was the clarion call for the revolution.

3. Union of the Three Estates

These developments and the demand for a constitution were shocking for the monarchy. The
King, therefore, tried to persuade the third estate to drop this idea. But they remained
unmoved. The King then ordered the first estate and the second estate to join the third estate.
The King had realized that the third estate formed a vast majority. It was difficult to divide
them as such. By uniting it with the first and the second estate, the King was hoping for
divisions to come up, which would break the Revolution down. This move, therefore, was
aimed at being a form of the divide-and-rule policy. However, the union was a triumph for the
third estate, as the NA became truly representative and gained legitimacy. Bailey was made
the President of the NA. He ordered for the framing of the Constitution by the Constituent
Assembly.
 4. King’s Efforts
The King realized that things were getting out of hand. He then chose to suppress the
Revolution by force. So, he went for troop mobilization and tried to dissolve the NA. This
effort, however, failed as well.

5. Fall of the Bastille

Bastille was a fort in the very center of Paris, being used as a prison house. It was stormed by
the revolutionaries. The Bastille had remained standing for a long time. This was a symbol of
overthrowing the ancient regime. The storming of the Bastille is seen as the fall of the
monarchy. The fall showed that the King could no longer control Paris. The peasants, making
up the majority of the third estate made up the revolutionaries. The revolutionaries now had
real power. This was also a symbol for the fall of the feudal system, which was deeply
entrenched within French society.

Rise of popular journalism also took place. Thinkers propagated their ideas, which affected
the masses. A new flag was adopted and France was symbolized by new colours. The tricolor
with red, white and blue was adopted. The NA also formed the National Guard, which was a
security force created against the security force of the King, who, it was feared, could have
jeopardized the revolution.

6. Peasant Revolt
The peasantry class revolted. They entered the offices and homes of landed elites and feudal
lords. Many elites were killed and thousands of official documents were burned.

7. Women’s Marches
The women were deeply involved in the Revolution. The severe food crises brought the
women out of their homes, who could not see their children crying of hunger. The King at the
time, was not living in Paris, but a few miles away in Versailles. The women marched to the
Palace of Versailles. The King was pressurized to come back to Paris. The idea was that only
when the King was in Paris could he understand the situation on the ground, and resolve
issues. The King resented. But the mob was huge, and the King’s security forces gave up
eventually. The King was then forced to March back with the mob to Paris. The entire
procession was shouting the slogan – ‘We have the baker, the baker’s wife and the baker’s
child and now we shall have the bread.’ Here, ‘baker’ referred to the King.
The particular issue here, was the lack of food. Thus, the slogans. The incident is described as
the funeral march of monarchy. The King lost his legitimacy and his status was obliterated.

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY (1789-1791)

The NA constituted a constituent assembly. It had the following functions.

1. Abolition of Inequality and Injustice

This was a pressing need at the time.

The abolition of the manorial system, and the feudal system with it, took place. The serfs
faced the worst form of bonded labour. This practice was also abolished.

Tax was a huge issue. The tax exemption granted to the first two estates earlier was removed.
The removal of privileges to bring equality was effected. The privileges of the aristocratic
class were removed.

2. Declaration of the Right of Man

This was a very important charter of liberty. The bill was passed in the constituent assembly
after a lengthy debate. There existed no culture of debate in France at the time, since France
was going through a revolution. Some of the most important rights enjoyed in democracies
today came under this charter. Conferring these rights in that period was a huge feat.
 One of the most important pronouncements, the cardinal principle (coming from
Rousseau), was that man is born free and always stays free.
 Another idea was that the sovereignty lies with the people. Up till this point, the King
was the sovereign.
 The general will was pronounced to be a natural right. This idea lay down the
foundation of democratic systems. The term was coined by Rousseau.
 The right to freedom of opinion was granted.
 Abolition of arbitrary arrests took place. This was a part, also, of the Habeus Corpus
Act in England. The same principles were placed here.
 The people was given the right to control the finances of the State. Since all the
money is the taxpayer’s money, it was believed that information and control of its
uses had to lie with the people.

Defects of the Declaration.

  Since the Catholic faith was the dominant faith in France, only the Catholics were
granted the right to worship publicly. The Protestants did not get this right.
 The right to form associations was not conferred under the Declaration.
 The mention of freedom of economic enterprise or trade was not present.
 Education and social security were not covered.
 The Declaration of Right of Man was a collection of rights. No mention of the duties
of citizens were present.

This Declaration was seen as the death certificate of the old regime. Monarchy as the system
of governance came to an end. This charter also led to the downfall of monarchical regimes in
later years.

3. Solution to the Financial Problem

France was in a financial crisis. This was a pressing issue at the time. The constituent
assembly took some measures, but these were not adequate. The property of the church was
confiscated by the state and declared as state property. The Church had enormous amounts of
property at the time.

4. Reorganization of the Church

The Church was regulated as a property of the state. The clergy was turned into a salaried
class. Procedures were established for selection of people into the clergy – A voting system
was evolved. The Church protested against these radical measures leading to a conflict
between the Church and the state. This acted as a divisive factor for the public and the state.
This contributed to the weakening of the revolution at the time.

5. Development of a New Administrative System

The entire country was divided into 83 uniform autonomous divisions/departments in an
attempt to decentralize powers. Local bodies were created on the basis of popular elections.
The problem with this decision was that due to decentralization, power got distributed,
making the administration weak.

6. Development of the Judicial System

The High National Court was established to try political offenders. Jury-based trials became
essential in criminal cases. The procedure established for appointment of judges was
unconventional. Judges were elected by a popular vote for a term of 2-4 years. This procedure
was never followed earlier, and has not been followed since.

7. The Constitution of 1791

The King was made the Constitutional head of the state of France. However, his powers were
reduced drastically.
 The law-making power lay with the legislature.
 The King had no control over the legislature and did not have the power to suspend it.
 The Royal Treasury was no longer the private property of the king. The King would
only get an annual sum for his own upkeep. Annual financial statement/budget was
declared to be under the legislature.
 The King had the right to appoint important officers of the state.

The legislature was unicameral. It was kept for two years. Tax payers held the right to vote.
The legislature had the power to levy new taxes.

EVALUATION OF FUNCTIONS OF THE CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

Merits
Under the Declaration of Rights of Man, inequality was abolished and human dignity was
emphasized upon.

Demerits
 Mob rule brought anarchy to France. A state of lawlessness prevailed.
 The principle of elections for the judicial system was flawed.
 There existed an asymmetrical system of government. Separation of powers was not
given regard to. The legislature was stronger than the executive.

WAR IN EUROPE
After the Revolution, France had to wage wars against most regimes in Europe. At the time,
all other countries had the monarchical system of governance. Thus, the existence of the
Revolutionary State of France was seen as a threat by leaders in Europe. Their aim was to
trample France and reinstate the King there.

At the time, three political groups grew in prominence – the Girondins, the Jacobins and the
Plain. Elections were due and it was known that the victorious group would come to power in
France. The Girondins created a war hysteria in France. This was supplemented by the
general mood in the country, which was war hungry. The hysteria was created for the
following reasons.
 This formed the Girondins’ plan to win the election. By engaging in war mongering
and convincing the masses of the need to go to war, the group gained popular support.
 War was a method of spreading the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality and
fraternity across Europe.
 The Girondins wanted to further weaken the position of the King in France.

In 1792, the King was forced to declare war. France’s first war took place against Austria. At
the time, the French army was not well organized. Their overall military strength was less
than that of Austria’s. Thus, in the beginning France lost comprehensively. This displeased
the masses. Blaming him for the war, they raided the King’s palace. The king somehow
escaped, but this episode proved to be the final straw in the destruction of monarchy.

THE SEPTEMBER MASSACRE

There existed no proper government in France at the time. Anarchy and lawlessness were
commonplace. This period proved to be very brutal. The regime under the Girondins caught
and executed a number of people on the basis of the suspicion of them being against the
Revolution, without a fair trial.

THE ERA OF THE CONVENTION (1792-95)

In this period, attempts were made to establish a proper system of governance. The Girondins
were the most powerful political group. Thus, they took up many functions.

Guillotines were the killing machines used for executions. Hundreds of people were executed
using them. In this period, King Louis XVI and the Queen, who had been on the run until
now, were captured and guillotined. The people rejoiced in these executions. ‘You reap what
you sow.’ The mismanagement under the monarchy had led to the death of so many people.
The monarchy itself ended with the death of the monarchs.

After the initial defeat against Austria, the French military power grew in strength. They
learned from their mistakes. Within the next one year, the French faced a number of European
powers, emerging victorious against each. This was an unprecedented development. France
was economically and militarily weak. However, this feat was made possible because the
people came together to fight for the common cause of saving the Revolution.
Meanwhile, the Girondins lost their majority. Despite delivering victories in wars, the group
lost its popularity due to the economic condition of France. The Girondins had promised a
better economy but could not deliver on this promise. The next political group to come to
power was that of the Jacobins. The anarchical system in France were very unstable. A
government was needed to run state affairs properly. The Jacobins proposed a governmental
structure of direct democracy. This increased their support. This also allowed for a defence
against the rest of the Europe. The government under the Jacobins was led by Robespierre.

REIGN OF TERROR (1792-94)

Despite the establishment of the people’s Government and the mechanism for the formation
of the Republic, Robespierre thought that the appropriate system of governance would be an
authoritarian one. He felt that only a dictatorial structure could save France from the state of
anarchy, lawlessness and chaos. Thus began the period known as the Reign of Terror.
Robespierre exercised absolute control. Any person suspected to harbor anti-Revolutionary or
anti-Robespierre views was immediately hanged. Not only were the members of the clergy
and nobility rounded, but up to 80% of the people who lost their lives were from the third
estate. Thus, under this regime also, they ended up being the worst sufferers. Due to these
reasons, Robespierre became extremely unpopular.

By this time, Revolutionary France emerged victorious in wars against all armies in Europe.
The first republic was established in 1795. Robespierre was captured and executed. ‘You reap
what you sow.’

THE DIRECTORATE
Under the republic, the Directorate was established as a system of governance, in 1795.
France was not ruled by any one person. Instead, the country was administered by a number
of directors. This system too, became unpopular soon. France had no experience of
establishing a republic and there was no proper plan for governance. This led to its failure of
the Directorate.

RISE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE

Following this, another system called the Consulate was established. Napoleon emerged as
the first counsel of France. Gradually, he grew in power in this position, sidelining all his
opponents in the process. By 1802 he had accumulated enough power to declare himself the
emperor of France.
The people of France were actually supportive of Napoleon’s dictatorship. They did not have
a problem with the monarchical system being reinstated. Over the past years, they had grown
tired of the anarchical regimes established in the wake of the Revolution.

REASONS BEHIND THE REVOLUTION OCCURRING ONLY IN FRANCE

Though many European countries had similar political structures, the Revolution occurred
only in France for the following reasons.

1. Nature of the Nobility

Every country in Europe had a noble class. However, the French noble class was distinct in
that it did not have any responsibilities under the system. In other countries, the nobility had
various functions, protection of the state, for example. Noble thus, were commanders and
generals in their militaries. However, in France the nobles enjoyed privileges without any
obligations. This made them exploitative, lazy and corrupt. Since they were not involved in
states policies they were apathetic to the people’s condition.

2. Enlightened Middle Class

France had a well-educated, enlightened middle class comprising of teachers, professors,
students, thinkers, doctors, etc. Members of the intelligentsia acted as the leaders of the
revolution. They understood the rampant discrimination in the system and spread awareness
among the masses.

3. French Involvement in the American Revolution

Many French soldiers, coming from the third estate, had fought in the American War of
Independence alongside the Americans, against the British. Thus, they were influenced by the
ideas of liberty. They returned to France carrying the idea of Revolution with them.

4. The French Economic Condition

In the whole of Europe, France was the only country which was on the verge of financial
bankruptcy. The French economy was very weak and the Royal Treasury was empty. Every
individual in France felt the effect of this situation and experienced frustration. The financial
crises, thus, led to popular unrest.
 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION
BACKGROUND
The monarchical system had existed in Russia for a long time. The tsar was the political head
of Russia. At the time of the Revolution, tsar Alexander III (1865-93) was succeeded by tsar
Nicholas II. Alexander III, had been an autocratic and incompetent ruler. All decisions were
taken by a small group of people. In fact, the leaders for a long time had been autocratic and
incompetent. This led to a rise in grievances for the people. This had made the tsar-dom
unpopular. Further, tsar Nicholas II was also incompetent. These formed the basis of the
Revolution.

NIHILISM AND ANARCHISM

Following this, nihilism and anarchism emerged.

Nihilism as a doctrine emerged in the 1870s. Nihilists were inspired by Hegel and Marx. The
central doctrine of the ideology was disbelief in structure and disregard for authority. The
entire principle was based on the idea of absolute individualism. Individualism refers to the
‘self’ taking more importance than society or nation. The only search was for the self.
Obligations towards the state or society could be negated in front of the interests of the
individual. Nihilists negated obligations towards the society, and the state. By nature, this was
a radical movement. It was on the extreme side, since no authority was paid any regard.

The idea of anarchism had developed in the French Revolution. Later, Nihilism in Russia
metamorphized into anarchism. Thus, nihilism was not the origin of anarchism. This ideology
emerged in the 1880s. At the time, Indian freedom movement was gathering pace, and many
Indian revolutionaries drew inspiration from the anarchists and adopted their ideologies.
When Nihilism transformed into anarchism, a lot of radical measures were undertaken. Many
youngsters joined the movement. Anarchists believed in destroying all existing order and
structure. The anarchists resorted to methods of terrorism. Using force, arms, assassination of
political leaders, etc.

SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY

Around 1897, the Social Democratic Party was established in Russia. This party was
comprised of youngsters inspired by nihilism and anarchism. The party split in 1905 into two
factions, the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks. The radicals wanted to adopt more extreme
measures while the liberals wanted to adopt democratic measures. The Bolsheviks were the
radicals, and formed the majority (literal meaning of Bolsheviks – majority men) while the
Mensheviks were the liberals, and formed the minority (literal meaning of Mensheviks –
minority men).

REASONS BEHIND TSARS BEING ABLE TO MAINTAIN AUTHORITY FOR CENTURIES

1. Loyalty of the Bureaucracy
For any administrative structure, the bureaucracy forms the frame. The bureaucracy was
privileged and they realised that their privilege would continue only if the tsar-dom remained
intact. Thus, they remained loyal, ensuring the survival of the structure.

2. Church Structure
The Greek Orthodox Church was present in Russia. It did not have any allegiance with the
Catholic Church/Pope in Rome. Here, the Church was subordinate to the State. The Church
was a powerful institution but there existed no conflict between the Church and the State.
This added stability.

3. Illiteracy
The state took no measures for ensuring public education. Illiteracy was rampant. The Church
had the obligation to do this but in reality, no public education system existed. People could
not understand their problems and the reasons behind them. Thus, they did not revolt against
the state.

4. Paternal Despotism
The tsar had the figure of a father. This was created by the tsar himself. The idea of the tsar
being the paternal authority under whom all people lived, led to the people being subdued.

5. Conservative Agrarian Class

The agrarian class in Russia was conservative in nature. They were of the belief that no
system of governance could exist except for monarchy. They felt that the monarchical system
was the best system possible. This idea did not allow them to question the system and hope
for any change.

BLOODY SUNDAY (JANUARY 1905)

People had many grievances under tsar Nicholas II. A large procession was marching to the
King’s palace. The march was peaceful. The people had no design for overthrowing the
regime. They just wanted to place their problems before the King. However, the King’s
troops fired upon this procession.

This did not lead to a suppression, but a gradual swelling of the masses. The tsar realised the
gravity of the situation and decided to create an institution where the people could vent their
grievances. The October Manifesto (1905) was signed and for the first time in autocratic
Russia, a legislature was formed. This legislature/National Assembly was called the Duma.

THE OCTOBER MANIFESTO

The deal between the rebel groups and the tsar resulted in the following provisions.
 The manifesto promised to confer certain fundamental rights – the freedoms of
conscience, press, association.
 Legislative power was conferred to the Duma.
 Being a law-making body, the Duma was to be constituted through elections.

REASONS BEHIND THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF 1917

1. Political Condition
The Russian political condition before the Bolshevik Revolution was much like the French
political condition before the French Revolution. Both the rulers, Louis XVI and tsar
Nicholas II were autocratic and not competent to handle state affairs. The power vacuum
created in France was filled by the Queen Marie Antoinette and in Russia by the tsarina. The
tsarina was influenced by a Rasputin, a Siberian monk, who was known to be mysterious and
was thought to have magical powers. In both countries, the political situation displeased the
people.

2. The Duma
The legislature was merely a puppet of the crown. Hence, it became irresponsible. This
displeased the masses.

3. State of the Administration

Overall, it was highly inefficient, corrupt and autocratic. The whole system was crumbling
and it was under severe strain.
 4. Social Condition
The social condition in Russia was similar to the French condition under Louis XVI. The
masses were poor, illiterate and hungry. This led to women having a role to play in the
Revolution, as they were forced to come out of their houses and get involved, due to the food
problem.

5. Condition of the Peasantry Class

Agriculture still remained feudal in nature, due to which extensive exploitation was prevalent.
Being the class involved in agriculture, they had to bear the taxes. Agriculturists had to work
with primitive tools, which led to it being backward overall. The limited amount that was
being produced by the peasantry class went to the nobles of the state.

6. Working Class/Laborers
The relationship between the proletariats and the bourgeoisie, as described by Marx, could be
seen in Russia. The working class was also subject to severe exploitation by the capitalists.
Improper working hours, lack of hygienic conditions and low wages were pertinent issues.
Further, the labourers weren’t allowed to form unions. Hence, there was no medium through
which their grievances could be addressed.

7. Intellectuals
In the Russian Revolution too, intellectuals played an important role. They spoke about the
injustice prevalent in Russia and helped spread awareness. Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace,
Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Crime and Punishment and Turgenev’s Father and Son were
influential works of literature. Tolstoy was a count himself, and thus, had a good
understanding of the feudal situation. Turgenev’s works emphasised on discrimination in the
society.

8. The First World War

Russia had been involved in the war right from the beginning. However, it faced major
reverses in the war. These losses resulted in the monarchy becoming unpopular with the
masses. Further, the war put a serious strain on the national economy. This resulted in
amplifying grievances.
 9. Leadership
Vladimir Lenin was instrumental in the revolution, right from its nascent stages. He ran the
Pravda paper. Through this paper and his writings, he galvanized the masses. Although he
was imprisoned, and remained in Siberia for more than a decade, he made a comeback later
on.

THE MARCH REVOLUTION

Though it occurred it March, it is called the February Revolution. It began on 8 March, 1917
with the Bread Riots. A large group of rioters moved to the tsar’s palace in St Petersburg,
protesting the lack of food. They were joined by factory workers who also has grievances.
The idea was to give a memorandum which explained the people’s problems to the tsar.
Troops were ordered to fire on the mass of people. However, the troops refused to follow
these orders and in fact joined the crowd. Thus, the last defence for the tsar was gone and it
became clear that the monarchical system was extinguished. The tsar abdicated and a
provisional government was formed.

THE PROVISIONAL GOVERNMENT

Alexander Kerensky became the head of the Provisional Government, which remained in
force from March to October. Though Kerensky was a socialist, the Government turned
unpopular. This led to the November Revolution. The factors behind the failure of the
Government were as follows.

1. Continuation in the War

There was great demand for withdrawal from WWI due to its adverse effects on the country.
However, the Provisional Government decided to continue with the war.

2. The Petrograd Soviet

Under the Revolution, small local self-governments called Soviets had been formed in cities
all over the country. These Soviets had representatives and were responsible for
administration. The Central Power controlling the Soviets was the Petrograd Soviet. Lenin
suggested that the power with the Provisional Government should be transferred to the
Soviets.
THE NOVEMBER REVOLUTION
The Petrograd Soviet decided to seize power. The transfer of power was completely bloodless
and the Bolsheviks came into power. The armed guards of the Bolsheviks seized all the
Government buildings and officials were put in prison.

Formally, the first Communist State ever was laid down under the leadership of the
Bolsheviks. Lenin became the head of the state. The American journalist John Reed gave an
eye witness account of this Revolution in his book ‘Ten Days That Shook The World’.

MEASURES TAKEN AND PROBLEMS DEALT WITH BY LENIN

1. Nationalisation of Land
All private land, land under feudal lords was confiscated and declared to be state property. It
was then distributed among the landless class. This had been a promise of the Bolsheviks for
a long time. Since, they delivered on this, they were able to root deeply in the peasantry class.

2. Establishment of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat

The communist government by nature is authoritarian. Thus, the dictatorship of the
proletariat was established. The party system was removed, and all political parties except the
Bolshevik party were abolished. In 1918, Duma, the National Assembly was dissolved by the
Bolshevik guards. The Bolshevik party ruled with an iron hand.

3. Withdrawal from World War I

WWI had caused great economic strife due to which all classes had been affected. The
Bolsheviks had promised to withdraw the Soviet Union from the war. However, the
withdrawal was a great challenge.

In March 1918, the treaty of Brest Litovsk, was signed between the Soviet Union and
Germany, through which the Union withdrew. However, Russia had to cede massive amounts
of territory to Germany under the treaty. These included Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Poland,
Latvia, Lithuania and Ukraine. Ukraine had been the most industrialised state of the Soviet
Union. In this deal, Soviet Union lost 1/3 rd of its geographical area, 1/3rd of its population and
half of its industry. This proved to be a terrible cost for the withdrawal of war. Later, when
Stalin came to power, he captured back all these territories.
 4. Civil War and Foreign Intervention
The Caucasus region in Russia witnessed a civil war, with the Whites (the nobility and the
landed elite class) were rebelling against the state. They had realised that they could not enjoy
any privileges under Soviet rule. Thus, they wanted an independent state which could be run
on the previous Russian system. Tackling the Whites, therefore, was a challenge for the state.

In the French Revolution, rest of the Europe had wanted to eliminate Revolutionary France to
prevent the idea of revolution from toppling their monarchies. Similarly, powers in the west
feared been an adverse impact of communism on their capitalist systems. Communism was
the antithesis to capitalism. Thus, countries like the US, Italy, Britain and France attacked
Russia, hoping to break the communist system apart. This was not an overt attack. The west
simply supported the cause of the Whites. This meant that their resources were controlled by
and their troops had to fight under the Whites. Russia, at this stage, was waging war on all
fronts, against not just the Whites, but the western powers also.

Trotsky was the Commander in Chief of War in Russia. The policy of conscription –
mandatory military service, was adopted. The recruits received training, all of which was
organised by Trotsky. Thus, a strong, massive Red Army emerged.

The Red Army won the civil war. The reasons for this were as follows.

a. National Unity
Trotsky and Lenin were able to convince the people that a great cause was being
fought for. It was said that the enemies wanted to see the Soviet Union destroyed. In
order to safeguard their interests, a great nationalist force in the people arose. The
people galvanised to fight as a single block as a common cause.

b. Disorganisation of the Whites

Planning in the Soviet military was well-organised, centralised and meticulous. The
Whites, on the other hand, was not fighting as a unified unit. Each person had selfish
interests. The military was not organised, centralised. Diverse instructions and
indecision were there.
 c. War Communism
The national leadership under Lenin and Trotsky imposed the policy of war
communism. All agricultural surplus was confiscated from the peasant and sent to the
Red Army. Despite such a movement, the farmers weren’t against the party. They
knew that their interests were based protected under the Bolsheviks. Thus, no
rebellion took place.

5. Economic Problem
Russia was passing through great economic strain at the time. The War and the draught of
1920-21 had crippled the economy. Further, Russia was experiencing loss of industry and
stagnation in production. Further, war communism had disincentives surplus production in
the primary sector. This led to a severe food shortage. The economy had to be revived, due to
which, the New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced by Lenin. Important provisions were
as follows.
 The peasantry was allowed to retain production surplus if a tax was paid. This ensured
that the peasantry could keep their own produce. This tackled the problem in the
primary sector of the economy.
 Since private trade had been earlier banned, industry had come to a standstill. Private
trade was again allowed. This incentivised trade and industry. Only the heavy industry
was kept under complete state control. Other sectors of trade were not interfered with.
 Earlier, the banking system had been nationalised. The private banking system was
now reintroduced.
 Industrians were guaranteed that profits won’t be taken from them.
 Rationing of the food system took place. Fixed amount of grains and necessities were
provided to families on a monthly basis. The system was akin to the Public
Distribution System of India.

These measures were temporary in nature. They had to be introduced to tackle the existing
issues. Many saw it as a step backward. In 1928 when the revival began, the 5-year plans
were launched and complete state control was reintroduced. No private players were allowed.
The Russian economy was put on the typical communist structure. These plans were mostly
successful under the Soviet regime.
 ARAB-ISRAEL CONFLICT AND THE PEACE PROCESS
Norman Loew – World History

1897
World Zionist Organisation was formed by the Jews in Basel, Switzerland with the mandate
to fight for the home state of Israel.

1910-1914
Jews started coming back to Palestine. They were moneyed. The Arabs at that point, formed
the majority. Less than 10% of the population, then, was Jewish. The Arabs did not have any
issue with the Jews coming back. Large areas of land were bought by the Jews. They started
buying agricultural and desert land. Slowly and surely, Jewish majority settlements started
cropping up.

1914
WWI started.

1916
The Sykes-Pikot Agreement was entered into between Britain and France. They met and
decided to divide areas in Middle East under the French and British mandate, in order to keep
control over it more easily.

They were on the same side during WWI. They had control over the Middle East and realized
that they wanted to protect their control over the region. They wanted to avoid as many
disputes as possible.

1917
Arthur Balfour, Foreign Secretary, Britain, gave the Balfour Declaration. The Declaration
gave the policy initiative for the idea of Israel, which was the idea of a homeland for the
Jews, emphasizing that this was being proposed without prejudicing the interests of the
residents, i.e., the Arabs.

The Jews were financing the British cause in WWI. This made the Allies sensitive to the
Jewish cause. The area was under British rule.
1918
WWI came to an end. The Treaty of Versailles was signed. The League of Nations was
formed.

The Ottoman Empire had been very strong. But slowly, they started losing control over their
territories. The Arabs helped the British and the French so that they could get some freedom
from the Turks in the Arab world, making the British sensitive to Arab interests as well.

1919
The League of Nations mandates were formed. The Arab states were divided between Britain
and France in accordance with the Sykes-Pikot agreement. Palestine, Jordan and Iraq went to
Britain. Syria and Lebanon were the French protectorate.

Hostilities started developing since the Arabs did not want Britain to help establish a Jewish
state in Palestine. The Jewish population had been increasing and hit 30% of the total
Palestinian population in 1929.

1921-1928
The Imam Haj Emin Al-Hussaini was the most powerful imam with considerable political
power. He began to take violent measures. In and around Jerusalem, a lot of Jews were killed.
The area turned into a battleground. The attacks on the Jews in this period were conducted
largely because of his mandate.

1928
Britain issued a clarification, that while the Jews would come into Palestine, a territory
demarcation would take place, so that Arab interests would also be taken care of. This was
done because the Arabs had helped the allies significantly in the war.

1933
The German government after WWI was not stable and the socio-economic condition was not
good. Adolf Hitler came to power. The active persecution of Jews began. It was portrayed
that the Jews had been the reason of all German problems and for the German defeat in WWI.
Hitler wanted a pure Aryan race. Fleeing Germany, Jews began coming to Palestine in larger
numbers.
1937
The Peel Commission was formed. Britain had been in control of the Middle East at the time,
but it was facing a lot of problems back in the Continent. Hitler was pushing East. Britain’s
outlook at the time, thus, was that it wanted peace in the Middle East, in order to reduce
complications. Britain wanted to negotiate peace between the Arabs and the Jews. Thus, the
Peel Commission was formed.

It suggested the 2 states solution for the first time. It recommended the division of the land of
Palestine into Israel and Arab controlled Palestine. However, neither the Jews nor the Arabs
were in favour of the idea. Each believed that they had the right over the entire land. Thus,
the Commission was a failure.

2 years later the Commission gave the following recommendation. In the form of a
consolation for both sides, the British declared that 10k Jews could enter the territory every
year. There was something for each side in this arrangement. 4 recommendations were made
by the Commission.
 The two-state theory.
 The entry restriction on Jews at 10k per year.

The status quo remained the same. Neither party was completely happy.

1939
WWII broke out. Persecution of Jews went through the roof. The mass exodus of Jews began.
However, this was met with Arab resistance. The US believed that the problem was so
substantial that their intervention was required. They suggested the increase of the limit from
10k to 100k. David Ben-Gurion, endorsed the idea of 100k Jews.

Once the Jews made their way out of the continent, they went to US if not Palestine. Since
they had money, they were able to successfully lobby for their interests in the US. US has
consistently been partial to the Israeli interest. The US support has always helped Israel
maintain a balance and stay victorious in the middle east.

1945-47
WWII ended. Britain was financially fucked up. Thus, it wanted to distance themselves from
problems. It had realized that maintaining control over all colonies was not possible and its
mandate over the Middle East had to come to an end.
The issue was referred to the UN. In 1947, the UN Special Committee on Palestine was
formed. When the UNGA began considering the status of Israel, the clamour for its existence
grew even more. At the time, the ship Exodus, was turned away by Britain. This also affected
the atmosphere, making many sympathise with the Jews, especially in the backdrop of WWII.

1948, MAY 14
Israel formally came into being. The Special Committee divided Palestine into two parts –
Israel and Palestine. Palestine had earlier covered entire present-day Israel and Jordan. This
area was divided. David Be-Gurion, the first Israeli PM was celebrating independence over a
radio show when, just a few hours after its establishment, Israel was attacked by the Arab
states.

1948, MAY 15
The First Arab-Israel War started. The combatants were Israel on one side and Egypt, Jordan
Iraq, Syria and Lebanon on the other. Israel managed to hold on to its areas and pushed the
Arabs away. Fearing persecution by Israel, Arab population in Israel started fleeing. They
wanted to come back only when the Arabs won the war against Israel. Jordan accepted the
refugees. This created a refugee crisis. Gaza and West bank were formed. Israeli Stand –
Palestinian Arabs fled because they were given incentives by Arab states to join them. Arab
Stand – Arabs were being persecuted by the Israeli state.

The Israeli militia was the Hagana. In addition, Israel had death squads. The village of Deir
Yassein was an Arab village with around 200 hundred inhabitants. Every single person in the
village was killed by the Israeli militia. The gang accused of Dier Yassein was the Sten Gang.
This became an important story for the Palestinian cause. The Israeli stand is that this was not
an official order of the state. The Arab stand is that it was.

1949-1956
Situations were mostly calm. However, the atmosphere was hostile. Propaganda, distrust,
war-mongering etc. was widespread on both sides.

1956
The Suez War took place.

The Suez Canal, which was built by Britain and France, had a degree of Brit and French
control over it. The Canal was extremely important for obvious reasons. Though it was
territorially in Egypt, 1936 onwards the British had negotiated with the Egyptians to keep
soldiers at the canal to keep control over it. The British believed that the Suez Canal was an
important area which could not be affected by the hostilities in the area. The 20-year
agreement of control over the Canal ended in 1956. Britain wanted to renew the agreement
since they had invested heavily. Kamal Abdul Nasser, leader of Egypt, wanted to nationalize
the Suez Canal. Nasser was ready to compensate the stakeholders but this was not
represented in Western media. Britain and France had economic interests. So, they were
against the nationalization. Nasser’s decision was shown as a heavy potential loss to the West.
Britain was losing its influence on the Arab world. The Arabs were more or less allied with
the US. the Aswan Dam had to be built with the US. US threatened to withdraw funds if the
canal was nationalized. Egypt got funds for the dam for Russia. Egypt forced Jordan to
remove the British Chief of Staff with an Arab guy. Thus, the West was clearly against Egypt.

Additionally, Nasser, wanted to put a blockade on ships going to Israel, which would put
Israel at a massive economic disadvantage, especially after the blockade on Eelat. The
Egyptians had the stance that Israel must be destroyed, and asked the Arabs to unite for this
cause. The Sinai Peninsula had acted as a buffer zone between Israel and Egypt. Egypt had
set fidayeens into Israel continually. Israel wanted to stop these fidayeen attacks.

Israel thus became the western proxy and attacked the Sinai Peninsula leading to the Suez
war. The battles took place in various places, not just around the Canal. The Arab states
fought together. Israel won large amounts of territories. They got Sinai and Golan but lost it
again in the course of the war. They had active British and French help. By the time the war
ended, Egypt had control of the territories which it had held in the beginning.

Nasser emerged as the leader of the Arab world. Not only did it lead the Arabs in the war,
Egypt also helped Iraq get rid of the British control and the Algerians get rid of the French
influence over them.

The UN felt that the situation had gotten too politicized and hostile. It sent a peacekeeping
force to establish stability in the area.

1964
The PLO was formed, with Yasser Arafat at the helm.
1967
The Six Day War took place. Yet again, Egypt said that it did not believe in the existence of
the Israel state. The subsequent war has been the greatest military conquest for Israel.

On June 5th, Israel sent aircrafts over Sinai, Syria and Jordan, vanquishing, all of their air
forces. This gave them an immense advantage, because the Arabs had no air support in the
battles that followed. Israel took over the entire city of Jerusalem. All territories within the
original Palestinian region were taken over by Israel. Ground troops were sent into Egypt. By
June 9th, Israel took over Golan Heights. By June 10 th, Israeli forces were over such a large
area, that the UN was forced to have a ceasefire. By June 11 th, unilateral ceasefires were
declared by Israel against all the states.

The reason behind Egypt failing so spectacularly was Israel’s swiftness in the attack. The
reason behind their victory was their deftness and strategy. On the very first day, the Israeli
air force took out the two major air forces in the Arab world, Egypt’s and Jordan’s.
additionally, while Israel had been in a continuous state of mobilization, due to the continual
threat from all sides, Arab mobilization was a lot slower. Further, Israel generally had
superior military resources, since it was aided by the US.

This was an immense success for Israel. The entire Sinai buffer came under their control. The
Arabs suffered a massive humiliation. Nasser’s position as the leader of the Arab world was
no longer tenable.

1970
Nasser died. His successor, Anwar Sadat, went ahead with a similar agenda. Arab solidarity
was still present and Egypt was again at the forefront. Egypt started receiving a load of both
financial and military support from the USSR. Anti-Israel propaganda from Egypt kept
continuing. However, unlike in the 6-day war, Israel did not take the offensive. They were
aware of the international sympathy which they were enjoying and did not want to affect this
status.

1972
Al Fatah had formed the PLO. In the aftermath of the 6-day war, the PLO started adopting
more violent methods of operation. Jordan had been the only country to have, historically,
accepted Arab refugees as normal citizens. But this policy slowly changed. The PLO started
trying to seize power in Jordan by force. When the PLO got kicked out of Jordan, they
established their base in Lebanon.

At this time, a group called Black September, constituted of members of Al Fatah who had
walked out of the PLO, went into the Israeli camp in the Munich Olympics and ended up
killing all Israeli participants. This massive development evoked a lot of sympathy for Israel
on the international stage.

1973
The Yom Kippur War took place. Yom Kippur is a religious festival in Israel. On this day, a
two-pronged attack was launched on Israel – from Egypt on one side and from Syria on the
other. However, the attack was not coordinated. Additionally, land forces from Egypt went
further than they could have been covered by their air force. Israel was able to push the
aggressors back. They then slowly fought back. Israel started taking up territories in the Sinai
Peninsula. In October, all sides realised war was not going to benefit any party. The US and
Russia persuaded Israel and the Arabs to stop the war. The parties went to the UN. A
resolution to go back to the status quo, as it existed before the war, was passed. The war had
ended up with an impasse again.

The parties knew that war was fucked up. Diplomatic efforts were made by US and the entire
world. Parties from all sides met in Geneva for mediation. The Presidents, however, did not
go and no direct communication took place. US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger flew in
and out of Egypt and Israel multiple times. This came to be known as Kissinger’s shuttle
diplomacy. However, these efforts did not result in a real resolution. Some progress was made
though. Both sides agreed to not take the offensive and hold on to their position. At the same
time, Israel was negotiating with Syria about Golan Heights. Syria wanted some villages of
strategic importance from Israel. These agreements were also completed.

1974
Egypt-Israel and Syria-Israel came to the agreement that no aggression would take place from
either side.

The PLO started upping the ante on bombing and terrorism in Israel. They were always in the
news. There was resentment on the Israeli side. Israel also took the offensive against the
PLO. UN passed the resolution declaring that Zionism of this kind amounted to racism. This
Resolution was the first international recognition of the idea of Palestine. Anwar Sadat
realised that more dialogue between both sides was necessary.

The ‘Peace with Justice’ agreement was begun between Israel and Egypt. The sides realised
that the situation necessitated declaration on stoppage of wars. This was the central theme of
the agreement. Many other agreements were also entered into. Similar statements were made
between Israel and Syria. Hereinbefore, the Arabs had not recognised Israel. These
agreements proved to be the first instance of recognition of the legitimacy of Israel by the
Arabs.

1978
At the time, Carter was POTUS. Carter was generally more understanding and wanted people
to chalk out issues through negotiations.

Both parties came to the negotiation table at Camp David in the US. At the White House, a
joint statement was released. Following were the most important declarations.
 The state of war between Egypt and Israel would be over.
 Israel would withdraw troops from Sinai, giving mandate to the ceasefire.
 Egypt would not attack Israel and would allow ships destined for Israel to pass
through the Suez Canal.
 Egypt would develop a working relationship with Israel, allowing peace, supplying oil
and other essentials to Israel.

While this was taking place, other situations were developing. The Israel-Lebanon conflict
was beginning. Additionally, US interests in the gulf began to increase, with Iran coming into
the picture. Israel continued to have issues at home, in Gaza and West Bank.