UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA DE NUEVO LEON

FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA MECANICA Y ELECTRICA

FISICA DEL ESTADO SOLIDO

RESUMEN DE MECANICA CUANTICA

DRA. BINDU KRISHNAN

DANIEL ARTURO ACUÑA LEAL

MAT: 1377237

San Nicolás de los Garza, N.L. a 22 de noviembre de 2013

The blackbody radiation
We call termic radiation, to the radiation emitted by a body as a consequence
of its temperature. All bodies emit radiation to its surroundings, and absorb
radiation from it. As the temperature of the body increases, it emits more
radiation, and so, the frequency of the radiation increases.
A blackbody is an object that is a perfect absorber of radiation. In the ideal
case, it absorbs all of the light that falls on it, no light is reflected by it, and no
light passes through it.
Experimentally, a plot of the energy density emitted versus wavelength is
showed on the image

Fig 1: experimental data on emitted energy vs wavelength

As the temperature increases, more energy is emitted at higher frequencies.

So, the peak of the plot would shift more to the right. Classical theory was
not able to explain the high frequency behavior of the blackbody emission.
The Rayleigh-Jeans formula tries to explain this, giving an expression of the
energy density in terms of the frequency and the temperature of the body:

8𝜋𝜐2 𝑘𝑇
𝑢(𝜈, 𝑇) =
𝑐3

Where ν is the frequency, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute

temperature and c is the speed of light.
However, this theory failed to explain the experimental data, as we see, at
high temperatures, u blows-up; as opposed to the experimental data. This
failure was known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.

Fig 2: Ultraviolet catastrophe.

So, in the year 1900, Max Planck tried to fix this discrepancy by assuming that
the energy could only take discrete values, instead of any value (as of
classical theory). So, the energy could be expressed as discrete values:

𝐸 = ℎ𝜈

Where E is the energy, ν is the frequency and h is Planck’s Constant.

With some numerical job, Planck determined the value of this constant, so it
would have the best adjustment between his theory and the experimental
data. Nowadays, Planck Constant is determined empirically with very
accurate measurements and it’s found to be:

h=6.6262x10-34 J-s

With his assumption, the energy density was found to be:

8𝜋𝜈2 ℎ𝜈
𝑢(𝜈, 𝑇) =
𝑐3 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇−1
The spectre of frequencies displaces to higher frequencies as T goes up. This
result is known as Wien Law’s.

𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Where λmax is the wavelength for which, at a certain temperature T, the

density of energy reaches its maximum.
The experimental value of this constant is found to be: 2.898x10-3m-°K
So, we can call Planck Postulate as:
“Any physical entity with one degree of freedom, which only makes harmonic
oscillations, can only take certain values of total energy, which satisfies the
relation: E=nhν, n=0,1,2,….”

The photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a surface due to
the action of light. In order to measure this, you can set a metallic surface as
a cathode, and make light strike this surface. A current will be measured due
to the photoelectrons.

Fig 3: photoelectric effect

An experimental plot of the current intensity versus the applied voltage is

presented in figure 4. Note that the photoelectrons have a maximum kinetic
energy and that there is a certain cut frequency, defined as the minimum
frequency value for the photon, so that the photoelectric effect occours.

Fig 4

The classical theory could not explain 3 fundamental facts of the

photoelectric effect:
1. Classical theory demands that the electric vector of the lightwave
increases its amplitude as the intensity of the beam increases. But, the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is independent of the
intensity of the light.
2. Classical theory predicts that photoelectric effect should occur at all
frequencies. But clearly, there exist a threshold frequency, where, for
values lower than this frequency, no photoelectric effect occurs, no
matter how intense the illumination is.
3. There should be a time delay.
In 1905, Einstein proposed that light consisted of particles called photons.
Each photon carries energy and linear momentum:
 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
ℎ
𝑝=
𝜆

The maximum energy of the emitted electrons is:

𝑞𝑉𝑜 = 𝐾

Where q is the charge of the electron and Vo is the stopping potential.

Experiment shows that:
1. When light strikes a metal surface, acurrent flows instantaneously,
even for very weak light.
2. At a fixed frequency, the strength of the current is directly proportional
to the intensity of the light.
3. The stopping potential, and therefore the maximum energy of the
emitted electrons, depends only on the frequency of the light and the
type of metal used.
4. Each metal has a characteristic threshold frequency νo such that:
𝑞𝑉𝑜 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈𝑜 )

The discrepancies of the classical theory are overcome with Einstein

proposition. h is the same constant that Planck found in his theory.

Planck-Einstein relations: they connect the particle-like properties of energy

and momentum to wavelike properties of frequency and wave vector

𝐸 = ℏ𝜔
𝑝 = ℏ𝑘

ℎ
Where ℏ =
2𝜋
The Bohr theory of the atom
The theory of Bohr tries to explain certain characteristics of the atomic
spectra.
He made 3 assumptions applying his theory to the hydrogen atom:
1. The electron moves in circular orbits around the proton with the
influence of a Coulomb force.
2. Only certain orbits are stable. These are the orbits in which the
electron doesn’t emit.
3. The emission of radiation by an atom occurs when the electron jumps
from an initial state more energetic to another lower state. The
frequency of the emitted light is given by Planck-Einstein relation.
4. The size of the permitted orbits are determined by an additional
condition, that is, the allowed orbits are those which the angular
momentum is an integer multiplier of ℏ.

De Broglie’s relation
In 1923 Louis de Broglie proposed that Planck-Einstein relations should be
extended to material particles. A particle with energy E is associated with a
wave of frequency 𝜔 = 𝐸/ℏ. In addition, momentum is related to the wave
vector via: 𝑝 = ℏ𝑘. So, applying these simple relations to a material particle
moving with momentum p has wavelength:

ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝

In the experiments of geometric optics, the wave nature of matter doesn’t

manifest. Because of the representative dimension of the used apparatus are
too big to be compared with the wavelength of the light.
Uncertainty principle
It tells that you cannot measure the position and the momentum of a particle
simultaneously, at least no more than ℏ/2:

Δ𝑝Δ𝑥 ≥ ℏ/2

Where: Δ𝑝 is the uncertainty on the momentum measurement and Δ𝑥 is the

measurement on the position.
The second part of the uncertainty principle is related to the measurements
on the energy, and the time needed to measure. On this case:

Δ𝐸Δ𝑡 ≥ ℏ/2

Where: Δ𝐸 is the uncertainty on the energy measurement and Δ𝑡 is the

uncertainty on the time measurement.

The wave function and Schrödinger equation

The objective of the classical mechanics is to find the position of a particle at
any given time to determine its velocity, momentum, kinetic energy and any
other dynamical variable. Simply we apply Newton’s second law and using
appropriate initial conditions, the problem is solved!
Quantum mechanics approaches this same problem quite differently. In this
case, what we’re looking for is the wave function, Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡), of the particle,
and we get it by solving the Schrödinger equation:

ℏ2 𝜕 2 Ψ ∂Ψ
− + 𝑉(𝑥)Ψ = iℏ
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2 ∂t

Schrödinger equation:
 Its consistent with de Broglie and Einstein postulates.
𝑝2
 Its coincident with: 𝐸 = +𝑉
2𝑚
 It is linear on Ψ
  The potential V is generally a function of x and possibly of t, but the
special case: V=constant is treated as the case of the free particle,
where its total energy is a constant.

Schrödinger equation is not valid on particles which are moving at relativistic

speeds. It is postulated that Schrödinger equation is valid not only for the
case where V=constant, but for many other types of potentials, such as the
Coulombian potential.

Born interpretation of the wave function

Born gave a statistical interpretation of the wave function in several
postulates:
 The state of motion of a particle can be described by a (generally
complex) wave function Ψ(𝑟⃗, 𝑡) which has continuous derivatives
throughout the range of the variables involved. The quantity: Ψ ∗ Ψ𝑑𝑉
represents the probability of finding the particle in a volume element
dV at a point (x,y,z) and time t. it follows that ∭ Ψ ∗ Ψ𝑑𝑉 = 1 for all t,
and Ψ is normalized to unity. The wave function an its derivatives must
remain continuous, finite and monovaluated for all the values of x, y
and z
 Every measurable quantity is represented by a linear hermitian
operator D acting on Ψ such that the average result of many
measurements of this quantity in a state is given by: 〈𝐷〉 =
∭ Ψ ∗ (DΨ)𝑑𝑉 . This quantity is called the expectation value of
operator D for the state Ψ. It is a real quantity.
 The wave function must satisfy the fundamental law of motion
expressed by the Schrödinger equation.
 The operators corresponding to basic measurable quantities are listed:
ℏ 𝜕
the momentum operator is 𝑝 = and the operator for the energy is
𝑖 𝜕𝑥
𝜕
𝐸 = 𝑖ℏ
𝜕𝑡
  Every individual measurement of a quantity corresponding to an
hermitic operator D can yield only an eigenvalue for D, namely, a scalar
λ for which the equation: 𝐷Ψ = 𝜆Ψ posseses a nontrivial solution.

Schrödinger equation independent of time

We can write Schrödinger equation in a manner that is independent of the
time variable, by setting: Ψ = 𝜓(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡)
Substituting this on Schrödinger equation we find that:

ℏ2
− 𝜙(𝑡)𝜓 ′′ (𝑥) + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡)𝜓(𝑥) = −𝑖ℏ𝜙 ′ (𝑡)𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚

Dividing this equation by 𝜓(𝑥)𝜙(𝑡) we find that:

1 ℏ2 ′′ 1
− 𝜓 (𝑥) + 𝑉 = 𝑖ℏ𝜙 ′ (𝑡)
𝜓(𝑥) 2𝑚 𝜙(𝑡)

Note that the right side of the equation only depends on t, while the right
side only depends on x, and so, the only way for this to happen is that both
equations are equaled to a certain constant k called the separation constant.
The separation constant is found to be the energy of the system, so the
equation finally reads as:

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− + 𝑉(𝑥)𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

This is Schrödinger equation independent of time.

Solutions of the Schrödinger equation (free electrons & infinite square well)
The first type of potential we are going to analyze is that of a free particle, i.e.
V(x)=Vo=constant. For this potential, Schrödinger equation reads:

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− + 𝑉𝑜 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2
And its solutions are found to be:

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥
A is the amplitude of the wave. When you normalize the wave function, the
value of the constant A is found to be 1. The normalized wave function and
the density of probability is showed in the image:

Fig 5: the wave function for a given time

Fig 6: the probability denstity

The allowed energies that the particle can assume are a continuous spectrum
of values, i.e. the particle can have any value of energy with no restrictions.

Now, consider a potential that has the form:

0, 0<𝑥<𝐿
𝑉(𝑥) = {
∞, 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿

The figure represents this type of potential. This type of potential is called
the infinite square well. We note that, now we have 2 regions: region 1
represents the region where x is between 0 and L; L is called the length of the
potential; and region 2 for all other values of x. if we write Schrödinger
equation for region 1 we would get:

Fig 7: infinite square well

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

2𝑚𝐸
Or, written in another way, by setting 𝑘 2 = :
ℏ2

𝑑2𝜓
= −𝑘 2 𝜓
𝑑𝑥 2

Its general solutions are found to be:

𝜓(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥

The constants A and B are found by applying the appropriated boundary

conditions. On region 2, the wave function must be 0 because the wave
function must remain finite for all values of x. So: 𝜓(0) = 𝜓(𝐿) = 0. We find
that:
 𝑛𝜋
𝑘= , 𝑛 = 1,2,3 …
𝐿

And so, the wave function now reads:

𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝐴𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝐿 , 0<𝑥<𝐿
𝜓(𝑥) = {
0, 𝐿 ≤ 𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 0

n is called the principal quantum number, it comes from the spatial part of
the Schrödinger equation by applying the appropriate boundary conditions.
The constant A is found by the normalization condition. It can be showed,
2
that the normalization constant is √
𝐿
The only values of that the energy can have are those which:

(𝑛𝜋ℏ)2
𝐸=
2𝑚𝐿2

For the values of n=1, 2, 3… this means that energy is now quantized. Energy
can only take discrete values. This kind of situation is associated with
bounded states, such as an electron bounded to the atom. On this case, the
potential used is of this kind, and the energy quantization is a natural thing.
The ground state, i.e. the lowest energy state, is not reached at n=0 because
this would mean that E=0 and no particle will exists. So, the ground state is
reached at n=1. The next figure represents the possible energy values that
the particle can have
 Fig 8: allowed energy values

The first 3 wave functions and its probability densities are illustrated on the
next 2 images

Fig 9: wave functions

 Fig 10: probability density. The pointed lines represent the classical
prediction

We see from the last 3 images, that the values of x for which the wave
function is defined, the probability density and the potential are different
from the ones we used. This is solved by realizing that the wave function is an
odd function and moving it to a new origin.

Now, we turn our attention to a 3 dimensional scheme. It is natural to find 3

dimensional infinite squared wells on nature. A representation of this kind of
potential is given on the figure:
 Fig 11: 3 dimensional infinite square well

It can be easily showed, that the wave function now reads:

8 𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
𝜓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = √ 𝑠𝑒𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑒𝑛 ( ) 𝑠𝑒𝑛 ( )
𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧 𝐿𝑥 𝐿𝑦 𝐿𝑧

The allowed energy values now read:

ℏ2 𝜋 2 𝑛𝑥2 𝑛𝑦2 𝑛𝑧2

𝐸= ( + + )
2𝑚 𝐿2𝑥 𝐿2𝑦 𝐿2𝑧

If the lengths of the box are equal, then we have degeneracy. Energy values
with the same quantum numbers are degenerate. This is because of the
symmetry of the system. Also note that the ground state is reached for
nx=ny=nz=1
Kronig-Penney potential, Bloch functions
Electrons in solids can be described by the Kronig-Penney potential as
illustrated in the figure

Fig 12: Kronig-Penney ´potential

This type of potential is a simplified view of the electron moving through the
solid, it doesn’t take into account the imperfections and vacancies in the
solid. The distances a and b represent the spacing between ions and the ion
size respectively. The quantity Vob represents the strength of the potential.
Writing Schrödinger equations for region I and II respectively we get:

𝑑 2 𝜓 2𝑚𝐸
+ 2 𝜓=0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

𝑑 2 𝜓 2𝑚
+ (𝐸 − 𝑉𝑜 )𝜓 = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ2
 2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚
We can write for simplification: 𝛼 2 = and 𝛾 2 = (𝐸 − 𝑉𝑜 )
ℏ2 ℏ2
These two equations must be solved simultaneously. We can solve them by
applying Bloch’s Theorem, which reads:
“The solutions for the periodic potential are given by:
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑢(𝑥)𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥
Where u(x) is now a function of x which posses the periodicity of the lattice in
the x direction”
Solving these equations and applying some conventions:

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼𝑎
𝑃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑎
𝛼𝑎

𝑚𝑎𝑉𝑜 𝑏
𝑃=
ℏ2

If we plot the last function for a certain value of P, we note that it only can
have values when cos(𝑘𝑎) = ±1
So, plotting we found that:

Fig 13: Solutions of the periodic potential

From the solution and the graph, we see that only certain values of the
function are allowed, due to the restriction on cos(𝑘𝑎). This permits the
appearance of the bands in the solid (the regions where the previous
conditions holds on the 1 dimensional lattice) So, we see from the solutions
that:
 If the potential barrier strength is large, then, P is also large and the
curve proceeds more steeply. The allowed bands are narrow.
 If the potential barrier strength is small, then P is small and the allowed
bands become wider.
 If the potential barrier strength becomes so small that disappears, then
P is zero, and we have the relationship of the energy values for a free
electron.
 If the potential barrier strength is very large, then P tends to infinity,
but the wave function must remain finite. This is only possible when
𝑠𝑒𝑛(𝛼𝑎)
→ 0 and so, the only possible energy values are given by:
𝛼𝑎
(𝑛𝜋ℏ)2
𝐸=
2𝑚𝐿2

The energy values for the 3 previous cases are shown in the next figure

Fig 14: the energy values for a) bound electrons, b) free electrons, c) electron
in a solid
The widening of the energy levels into energy bands and the transition into
quasi-continuous energy region is shown in Fig 15. This widening occurs
because the atoms increasingly interact as their separations distance
decreases. The arrows a, b, and c refer to the three sketches

Fig 15: widening of the energy levels

Energy bands in solids

The plot of the energy versus the wave vector is a parabola, i.e. it has the
form of:

𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝐸1/2

From the solutions of the periodic potential (P=0, free electrons), because
the cosine function is a periodic function in 2π, the above equation should be
written in the more general form:
 2𝜋 2𝑚
𝑘+𝑛 = √ 2 𝐸1/2
𝑎 ℏ

The plot of the wave vector versus the energy is given in figure 16

Fig 16: wave vector versus energy

The energy is a periodic function of k, with the periodicity 2π/a

We noted, that if an electron propagates in a periodic potential we always
observe discontinuities of the energies when cos(𝑘𝑎) has a maximum or a
minimum. This is only the case when:

𝜋
𝑘=𝑛
𝑎

At these singularities, a deviation from the parabolic E versus k curve occurs,

and the branches of the individual parabolas merge into the neighboring
ones as shown in figure 17. This is called the periodic zone scheme.
 Fig 17: periodic zone scheme

We can also use the reduced zone scheme, the region where the bands are
plotted is called the first Brilloin zone. We will call the lowest band the
valence band (m-band) and the next higher one the conduction band (n-
band), the gap that separates these bands is called the band gap. Figure 18
presents the reduced zone scheme.

Fig 18: reduced zone scheme

We are now in position to explain the band structure of electrons moving in a
3 dimensional lattice. The possible energy states that electrons can have is
being determined by the Fermi Sphere, which is the relationship of the
energy and the wave vector that comes from solving Schrödinger equation in
three dimensions.

Fig 19: the Fermi sphere

The energy of the topmost filled level in the ground state is called the Fermi
Energy, and is defined as:

2/3
ℏ2 3𝜋 2 𝑁
𝐸𝑓 = ( )
2𝑚 𝑉

Where: N/V is called the electron concentration. The probability of finding an

electron at a given energy state is given by the Fermi distribution:

1
𝑛(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝑓
exp( 𝑘𝑇 )
+1

Where: E is the given energy state, Ef is the Fermi level, k is the Boltzmann
constant and T the absolute temperature.
At T=0, the function n(E) changes discontinuously from the value 1 (filled
state) to the value 0 (empty state) at E=Ef. At all temperatures, n(E) is equal
to ½ when E=Ef.
The graph of n(E) at different temperatures is given in figure 20

Fig 20: Fermi distribution at various temperatures

The number of orbitals per unit energy range, D(E), is called the density of
states. It is given by:

𝑉 2𝑚 3/2 1/2
𝐷(𝐸) = 2 ( 2 ) 𝐸
2𝜋 ℏ

Note that the density of states is proportional to the volume of the Fermi
sphere V.
The density of states is modified by the energy conditions within the first
Brillouin zone. For lower energies, the electrons behave free-electron like,
and thus, the density of states is a parabola. For larger energies, fewer states
are available, thus D(E) decreases with increasing E, until eventually the
corners of the Brillouin zones are filled. At this point D(E) has dropped to
zero. The largest number of energy states is thus found near the center of a
band, as shown schematically in figure 21

Fig 21: density of states within a band. Z(E) represents the density of states
D(E)

The number of electrons per unit energy, N(E), within an energy interval dE
can be calculated by multiplying the number of possible energy levels, D(E),
by the probability for the occupation of these energy levels. Because of the
Pauli principle, each energy state can be occupied by one electron of positive
spin and one of negative spin, so:

N(E)=2*D(E)*n(E)

The plot of N(E) versus the energy is given in figure 22

 Fig 22: number of electrons per unit energy

The area within the curve in figure 22 represents the number of electrons N*,
that have an energy equal to or smaller than the energy E.

Now, we are in position of defining a metal, a semiconductor and an insulator

from the band theory of solids. From the figure we see that:
1. The valence band is partially occupied. Under the influence of an
external electrical field, the electrons that fills the level near to the
occupation limit starts to accelerate and pass to higher free energy
levels on the same band. This crystal will conduct electricity
2. Let’s suppose that the valence band is completely filled, but the next
higher allowed band is superposed to this one. If an external electrical
field is applied to this crystal, the electrons will move to other levels on
the free band and it will conduct.
3. Now we consider the case when the bands are separated by a certain
band gap, and the valence band is completely occupied (band gap is
higher than 2 or 3 eV). In a crystal with this kind of structure, an
 external electrical field could not create an electrical current. This kind
of material is a dielectric.
4. If the band gap is lower than 2 or 3 eV, the material is called a
semiconductor. Because of the thermal energy, some electrons move
to the conduction band. At very low temperatures, all semiconductors
behave like dielectrics.

Fig 23: occupation of electrons in bands in 1: monovalent metal, 2: bivalent

metal, 3 dielectric, 4: semiconductor

Problems
1: For the sun, the maximum wave length that emits is of 5100 Ä, find the
temperature of the surface of the sun.
From wein’s law, we see that: 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 2.989𝑥10−3 𝑚°𝐾
2.989𝑥10−3 𝑚°𝐾
Isolating the temperature we find that: 𝑇 = = 5700°𝐾
5100𝑥10−10 𝑚

2: Calculate the energy of a photon of wavelength: 0.1nm, 10000nm, 100Ä.

𝑐 ℎ𝑐
From Planck-Einstein relation: 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐, but 𝜐 = , so: 𝐸 =
𝜆 𝜆
Substituting the given values of the wavelength:
(6.625𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠)∗(3𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠)
For 0.1nm, 𝐸 = = 1.235𝑘𝑒𝑉
1𝑥10−10 𝑚
(6.625𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠)∗(3𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠)
For 10000nm, 𝐸 = = 0.124𝑒𝑉
1𝑥10−5 𝑚
 (6.625𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠)∗(3𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠)
For 100Ä, 𝐸 = = 123.52𝑒𝑉
1𝑥10−8 𝑚
By using the conversion factor: 1eV=1.609x10-19J

3: Find the wavelength of an electron moving at a speed of 1x107m/s

The momentum of an electron is given by p=mv and the wavelength of a
ℎ 6.625𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠
particle is given by: 𝜆 = , so: 𝜆 = (9.1𝑥10−31 = 0.728Ä
𝑝 𝑘𝑔)∗(1𝑥107 𝑚/𝑠)

4: Find the speed and the kinetic energy of a neutron that has a de Broglie
wavelength of 0.2nm. Compare with the classical translational kinetic energy
of a gas molecule at room temperature.
From the last relationship used, we find that the speed of the neutron is
ℎ 6.625𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠
given by: 𝑣 = = (2𝑥10−10 = 1976.11𝑚/𝑠
𝜆𝑚 𝑚)∗(1.675𝑥10−34 𝑘𝑔)
The kinetic energy is given by: 𝐸 = 12𝑚𝑣 2 = 12(1.675𝑥10−34 𝑘𝑔) ∗
(1976.11𝑚/𝑠)2 =0.0203eV
For the kinetic energy of the gas molecules, we have that E=kT=(8.38x10-
23
J/K)*(293°K)=0.025eV

5: Consider an electron I the lowest energy state of the hydrogen atom, it is

know its position with a precision of 0.05nm. How well it is know its
momentum? And its speed? Calculate its kintic energy.
From the uncertainty principle, the uncertainty in the momentum is given by:
ℏ 1.05𝑥10−34 𝐽𝑠
Δ𝑝 = = ≥ 2.1𝑥10−24 𝑚/𝑠
Δ𝑥 5𝑥10−11 𝑚
The momentum is defined by p=mv, so, the uncertainty in the speed is given
∆𝑝 ℏ
by: ∆𝑝 = 𝑚∆𝑣, so: ∆𝑣 = = ≥ 2.3𝑥106 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 mΔ𝑥
1 1
The kinetic energy is given by 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = (0.91𝑥10−30 𝑘𝑔) ∗
2 2
6 2
(2.3𝑥10 𝑚/𝑠) = 15.05𝑒𝑉

6: An optic fiber is transmitting light on the range of 1300nm-1600nm,

corresponding to 2.3x1014Hz to 1.9x1014Hz. How long will the pulse be?
The energy of the photon is given by: 𝐸 = ℎ𝜐, so: Δ𝐸 = ℎΔ𝜐
 ℏ 1
The uncertainty in the time is given by: Δ𝑡 ≥ , substituting: Δ𝑡 ≥ ≥
Δ𝐸 2𝜋Δ𝜐
1
≥ 3.97𝑥10−15 𝑠
2𝜋(0.4𝑥1014 𝐻𝑧)
The speed of light is given by c=x/t, so x=c*t and: ∆𝑥 = 𝑐∆𝑡 = (3𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠) ∗
(3.97𝑥10−15 𝑠)=1.19x10-6m

7: Find the probability density of the free particle

𝑃(𝑥) = |Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)|2 = 𝐴𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑖𝑘𝑥 − 𝑖ωt)A∗ exp(−ikx + ωt)
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝐴𝐴∗ = 𝐴2

8: Prove that the normalization constant for the wave function of the infinite
2
square well is given by √
𝐿
𝐿
The normalization condition reads: ∫0 |𝜓(𝑥)|2 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿 𝑛𝜋𝑥
So: ∫0 𝐴2 𝑠𝑒𝑛2 ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1
𝐿
𝐴2 𝐿 2
The integral is found to be L/2, so: = 1 and, therefore, 𝐴 = √
2 𝐿

Conclusions
The development of quantum mechanics allows us to describe the electrons
in solids and how materials behave, based on their electronic properties. The
band theory makes a description of materials in terms of their bands and
energy band gaps. Properties of materials are determined by the type of
material, and so, by the band structure. Energy levels and orbitals are easely
calculated using quantum mechanics, and the properties of materials are
explained considering the quantum mechanical treatment of electrons.

References
Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics
Física Vol 2. Raymond Serway
Física Cuántica. Eisberg, Resnick
Electronic Properties of Materials, Humell
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Griffiths
Mathematical Physics, Butkov
Quantum Mechanics Demystified, McMahon
Física del Estado Sólid, Pavlov