INTRODUCTION

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Madras Presidency was one of

the most extensive of all the British territories in India.1 Until the re-organization
of the States in 1956, Tamil Nadu State bore the name of Madras Presidency.
Situated in the South eastern corner of the Indian sub continent, Madras remains as
the cultural heart of Dravidian South India.2 It stretches from the tip of the Indian
Peninsula, Cape Comerin half way up the east coast of Bengal. A part of it lies on
the Indian Ocean, touching Bombay Presidency to the North, another segment
extends westward from the Bay of Bengal, bordering on both Bombay Presidency
and the native state of Hyderabad.3 It has got a coastal line of 620 miles and it lies
between 8o 5' and 13o 35' northern latitudes and 76o 15' and 80o 20' eastern
longitudes. It covered an area of 14,000 square miles at the time of its formation
and had a population of 30 million people scattered in several linguistic divisions.
For administrative convenience, it was divided into 21 districts consisting of four
linguistic divisions.4 Lying within the embrace of the great tradition of Indian
civilization, the Tamil country has a culture of its own. The Tamil culture and
Dravidian languages have deep contrast to that of the north.

The Tamil Society, known for its tribal nature during the Sangam period
gradually developed into a state comprising a caste-ridden society based on different
occupations. In course of time, under various dynasties, the caste system became
rigid. Islam as well as Christianity began to influence the Tamil society. But the
Tamil society remained divided by castes, promoting deep-rooted untouchability.5

1
Eugene F.Irschick, Politics and Social Conflict in South India, Oxford, 1969, p.2.
2
Robert L.Hard Grave, The Nadars of Tamil Nadu, Oxford, 1969, p.12.
3
Eugene F.Irschick, op.cit., p.2.
4
C.Paramarthalingam, Social Reform Movement in Tamil Nadu in the19th Century with
Special Reference to St. Ramalinga, Madurai, 1995, p.15.
5
Ibid., p.4.

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Boundaries, Configuration, Hill and River

The southern districts of Tamil Nadu viz., Madurai, Ramanathapuram,

Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari are bordered on the West by the Western Ghats.6
From the foot of the Ghats, the districts gently slope towards the sea and are
punctuated by detached and scattered hills. To the South of Madurai and in
Ramnad and northern Tirunelveli, the soil is poor, and rainfall is scanty. The principal
stream is Vaigai which has its origin in Varushanad Hills. It flows right across the
centre of the district and empties itself into the sea at Attankarai, east of Ramnad.7
In Tirunelveli, the river Tambraparani originates from Agatiar hills or Pothigai
hills.8 Due to torrential rain in the Western Ghats during monsoon the river
overflows frequently. It passes like a green winding ribbon and fertilising
Ambasamudram, Tirunelveli, Srivaigundam and Tiruchendur taluks. The black
soils of these areas yield cotton and groundnut. Due to the lack of irrigation, a vast
tract was left as virtual waste and in the tract brambled udai (a kind of thorny tree)
grows naturally. The South eastern portion of Tirunelveli district with Tiruchendur
and the major portion of Srivaikuntam and Nanguneri taluks is one of the most
desolate areas in South India. The teris ranges of deep, loose, red sands are
peculiar to the region and are often destitute of vegetation. Farther to the South,
crossing the border of Tirunelveli to Kanyakumari, the country becomes more
luxuriant as the palmyras mix with coconut and green paddy fields. With the
exception of Kanyakumari which shares the tropical vegetation of Kerala, the
southern districts of Tamil Nadu offer varieties of flatness and barrenness.

6
Robert L.Hard Grave, op. cit., p.18.
7
W.Francis, et al., Gazetteer of South India, Vol.II, New Delhi, 2002, p.213.
8
Manual of the Administration of the Madras Presidency, Vol.II, p.6.

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Historical Setting of Southern Districts

During the Sangam period, the southern districts of Tamilnadu (Madurai,

Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari) were ruled by the Chera, Chola
and Pandya dynasties. The Cheras and Cholas established separate kingdoms in
the west and north respectively where as the Pandyas, remained in and around
Madurai region till thirteenth century.9 In the fourteenth century, the Pandyas
were defeated by the Muslim invaders and the whole of Southern part of Madurai
went into the hands of the Muslims.10 Bukka I (1356-1377 AD) the Vijayanagar
ruler sent his younger son Kumarakampana in 1370 towards Madurai. After a
prolonged war, he removed the Sultanate of Madurai in 1378.11 In 1526 AD, the
Vijayanagar rulers nominated Viswanatha Nayak as the representative to quell the
rebellion and maintain peace and amity in the extreme south. Thus the Madurai
Nayakdom was established.12 Before the Nayaks' success in consolidating their
power, the King of Travancore extended his power upto the southern portion of
Tirunelveli. Kanyakumari remained with Travancore. Viswanatha Nayak, for
administrative convenience divided his territories into seventy two Palayams and
each placed under a local chieftains. They were known as Poligars and they paid
tribute to the Nayaks.13

Many of the Poligars were drawn from the Telugu Nayaks. Other Poligars
were Maravars, traditional warriors of Tamil Kings. In the middle of the
eighteenth century, the over lordship of the southern districts passed into the hands
of the Nawabs.14 The Maravar Poligars fought with the Nawab in vain. When the

9
Robert L.Hard Grave, op.it., p.14.
10
Subramania Pillai, History of Dravidian People, Tuticorin, 1914, pp.92-94.
11
S.Clement, Main Currents of Vijayanagar History, Madurai, 1974, p.28.
12
K.Rajayyan, History of Tamil Nadu, 1565-1982, Madurai, 1982, p.25.
13
B.S.Baliga, Madras District Gazetteers- Madurai, Madras, 1960, p.48.
14
R.Caldwell, History of Tinnevelly, New Delhi, 1982, p.143.

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Nawabs found their position in trouble, they called upon the British for help.
Accordingly, the East India Company sent an expedition against the Poligars in
1751. Shortly thereafter, they established a permanent garrison at Palayamkottai.
After 1751, the British waged a series of wars against the Poligars. The major
Poligar war took place against Kattabomman of Panjalamkurichi in 1799.
The Nawab gave over the administration of Carnatic, including Tirunelveli and
Madurai to the British East India Company in payment for a portion of revenue.15
After 1801, the whole of Carnatic territory was formally ceded to the Company.
A number of the more pliant Poligars were inverted by the British as Zamindars
and the troublesome were dispersed.16

When the British East India Company assumed control over Tirunelveli, it
had included the major portion of the present district of Ramanathapuram
(or Ramnad) and parts of Madurai. When the first Collector took charge in 1801,
he had jurisdiction over the Palayams (later the Zamindaris) of Sivaganga and
Ramnad.17 But in 1803, these were combined in a separate district of Ramnad. The
present district of Ramnad was formed only in 1910, placing the seven taluks of
the two Zamindari tracts with the taluks of Sriviliputtur and Sattur which had
formed part of Tirunelveli district. Tirunelveli itself was reorganized several times
and with the creation of Ramnad, it was divided into eight taluks.

Social Conflict

In every type of social structure there are occasions for conflict. Social life
is always characterized as an admixture of conflict and peace. History has
witnessed conflicts in all the societies either contemporary or primitive. Max Weber

15
Ibid., p.3.
16
Proceedings of the Inam Commissioner, Tirunelveli, No.6, 27 February 1863.
17
S.Sundararajan, Noorandu Kalukkumun Tirunelveli Mavattam, (Tamil) Madras, 1985,
pp. 235-236.

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points out that conflict cannot be excluded from social life.18 But conflicts vary in
their bases, duration, means, outcomes and consequences. Conflicts also vary in
their causes and contents and their intensity too. Lewis Coser suggests that social
conflict may be taken to mean a struggle over values and claims to scarce status,
power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or
eliminate their rivals. Sociologically viewed, conflict does not mean random
disorder, rather it refers to meaningful action in pursuit of goals. On the relational
nature, conflict was synonymously used with competition for sometime. Conflict
is always conscious. Indeed it evokes the deepest emotions and strongest passions
and enlists the greatest concentration of attention and of efforts.

Psychological concepts like hostility, aggressive impulses or antagonist

sentiments do bear on conflict. Yet it refers only to predispositions of individuals
and groups to engage in behaviour of certain kind. Sometimes, feelings of hostility
result in conflict but it depends on certain conditions which are empirically
variable.19 However, conflict always involves a relationship in which such pulses
and sentiments find expression. Conflicts are related to resistance, protest,
rebellion, revolt and revolution. These processes are associated with relations of
dominance. When there is a question for power and authority, conflict arises.
At one end the subordinated may accept the situation without any question. In due
course they may practise silence, get determined to resist the authorities.
Articulated resistance is called protest. At the other end of the continum, the
subordinated rejecting the relationship of dominance, may rise in open rebellion,
revolt or revolution.20

18
Ram Bali Mishra, Caste and Caste Conflicts in Rural Society, New Delhi, 1989, pp.1-2.
19
Jaya Ram and Satish Saberwal (ed.), Social Conflict, New Delhi, 1996, pp.5-6.
20
Ibid,, pp.6-7.

5
 India displays an unparalleled variety of conflicts owing partly to the
complexity of her cultural tradition and social structure. Communal, caste,
regional and linguistic conflicts have become permanent features in civil life.
In addition, conflicts arise against historical backdrop, which have seen much
mixing of cultural codes. So clashes are inevitable in the diversed codes.21
Conflicts are common in Tamil villages, among factions and between local caste
groups and between landlords and labourers. Caste conflicts of this type are not a
new phenomenon in the Tamil countryside. Mishra fixes the responsibility on the
government for the conflicts. "In modern India casteism and caste tension are
rooted in different steps and measures taken by Indian government. The policy of
providing educational, economic, political and social privileges to the members of
a particular caste may be equalitarianism but they have created cleavages and gulfs
between higher and lower castes.

Scope and Purpose

The conflicts that have taken place in Tamil Nadu are numerous and vast.
Hence this study is confined to the southern districts of Tamil Nadu alone.
The frequent communal clashes in the southern districts and its consequences
constitute a significant theme in the Modern History of Tamil Nadu. The frequent
appearance of the word 'Southern Districts' in connection with communal riots in
news papers made the researchers' mind focus attention on this area. The problems
faced by the groups involved in riots, the economic deprivation, material losses,
judicial enquiry, rigorous imprisonment, social inequality formed a base for this
research. There is no dearth of literature concerning all aspects of conflict study.
Since the study is sensitive, no researcher has hitherto attempted to bring out the
issue to the lime light. Since the southern districts are considered to be conflict-

21
Ibid., p.20.

6
prone area in Tamil Nadu, an indepth study on these lines is necessary. So the
need to professionally reconstruct the untold and unacknowledged social problems
in the southern district in the given period is felt and attempt is made to probe and
record the conflicts under the topic Social Conflicts in Modern of Tamil Nadu,
A.D. 1900-1947. This period is chosen because the problem of the depressed class
people and their emancipation and upliftment is a 20th century phenomenon.
The period of study also marks the emergence of caste based groups and their
struggle for social acceptance. It was in this period public attention was focused on
the problem of caste system and the evils attached to it. In that context, attention
has been paid on the problem of the depressed class and their upliftment.

Though conflicts are sporadic then and there throughout Tamil Nadu, and
communal riots are erupting very often, this study is confined to southern districts
which constitute nucleus with regard to conflicts. The scope of the thesis is to
trace the development of caste system, causes and consequences of conflicts,
emancipation of the untouchables, their rights to temple entry, legislative measures
to safeguard the depressed class, emergence of caste based organizations, and the
attempt of the British to curb the Mukkulathor community connected with some
social problems. The work also aims to study the attitude and response of the
Government towards caste and caste based conflicts.

Methodology

The study endeavours to highlight some important social issues in Tamil

Nadu particularly in southern districts. This study also traces the causes of social
conflicts, mobility and social change. Historical methodology is followed in the
entire study and the narrative is in chronological sequence. While tracing out the
consequence of an issue on a subsequent problem, analytical approach is made.
Based on authentic sources, the issues are discussed in appropriate chapters.

7
Source of Information

For writing this work both primary and secondary sources are used.
Primary sources kept in Tamil Nadu Archives, Chennai., Regional Record Office,
Coimbatore., Collectorate Record office, Madurai and Tirunelveli are consulted.
The records pertaining to the Departments of Public, Judicial, Legal and Home
supply a large amount of useful materials.

Various Government Reports such as the Report on the Administration of

the Police of the Madras Presidency, Report on the Indian Education Commission,
Indian Law Reports, Annual report of the Tamil Nadu Harijan Sevak Sangh,
Report of the Magistrates of Madurai and Ramnad, Report on the Caste clashes in
Southern Districts of Tamil Nadu and Memoranda of the Madras Government,
Indian Statutory Commission are quite useful to trace the various riots and social
disorders and the Governments response. These reports give a sketch of the works
of the depressed class for their legal rights and status. The records in Dalit Centre,
Theological Seminary, Madurai, Regional Record Office at Madurai supplied
plenty of information relevant to this work.

The proceedings of the Legislative Assembly and Legislative Council give a

vivid account about the conflicts and caste based riots which happened sporadically in
the stipulated period. They appraise the steps taken by the Government to prevent
such occurrences. They also bring out the arguments for and against the measures
taken by the Government. Gazetteer of South India, Madras District Gazetteer,
Madurai District Gazetteer, Ramanathapuram District Gazetteer, Tirunelveli District
Gazetteer, The Madura Country Manual, Madras Criminal Tribes Manual and
Madras Police Manual clearly express the various social issues. The Madras Native
Newspapers Report, Fortnightly Reports, Reports in the Hindu and in the Indian
Express throws abundant light on the public opinion on this matter.

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 In addition to these, the published works by different authors supply
materials for making links with different trends of the primary sources. Caste in
India, Its Nature Functions and Origins by J.H.Hutton, Castes and Tribes of
Southern India, by Edger Thurston, Caste, Society and Politics in India by Susan
Bayly, Caste and Race in India by G.S.Ghurye, Studies in the History of India
with Special Reference to Tamil Nadu by K.K.Pillay and History of Tamil Nadu by
K. Rajayyan supply information about the origin and growth of Caste system in
India and also the condition of the depressed people in India. Eugene F.Irschick's
Politics and Social Conflicts in South India, 1916-29 P.K.Kars' Conflict and
Society, Ram Bali Misra's Caste and Caste Conflict in Rural Society, Indhu Raja
Gopal's The tyranny of castes describe the social stratification, segregation,
discrimination and the rise of various conflicts and consequences. C.J.Baker and
D.A.Washbrook's South India: Political Institutions and Political Change
1880-1940, Rajini Kothari's Caste in Indian Politics, Swapna H.Samuel's Dalit
Movement in South India, 1857-1950 furnish exhaustive information about various
caste movements, rising of caste organization and their struggle for status in
politics and society.

Sri Vaikunda Swamigal and the struggle for social Equality in South India
by R. Ponnu, The Nadars of Tamil Nad by Robert L.Hard Grave, A South Indian
Sub Caste by Louis Dermont, Temple Entry Movement and Sivakasi Riots by
B.Shobanan, Reform Movement in Tamil Nadu in the 19th century with special
reference to St.Ramalinga by C.Paramarthalingam deal about the temple entry
movement, struggle and upliftment of the Nadars, Louis Dumont's A South Indian
Sub Caste and Forward Block by K.Bose furnish information about the Thevars
particularly the Kallar Community, their activities against the British and other
social groups and the imposition of criminal Tribes Act and their reclamation.

9
Eminent scholars and veteran professors in the field of conflicts study, sociologists
and anthropologists were consulted. Based on their suggestion, materials were
collected.

Review of Literature

No concerted efforts have so far been made to estimate the social maladies
in the 19th and 20th century Tamil society. But the availability of a few literary
works on conflicts indicate the need felt regarding the study. The works such as
Social Problems in India by Ram Ahuja and Social Conflict edited by Jaya Ram
and Satish Saberwal, refer to different aspects of the conflicts and the causes that
triggered off such conflicts at all India level. But these works do not offer
coverage on Tamil Nadu particularly the southern districts during the stipulated
period.

The following notable books deal only with communal conflicts. Virendra
Prakash Singh's Caste Community and Conflict in Social Change, Ram Bali
Mishra's Caste and Caste Conflict in Rural Society V.T.Rajshekar's Class-Caste
Struggle The Emerging Third Force deal only with communal conflicts
elaborately. They do not shed light on other social issues like Temple Entry
Movement, Emancipation of the untouchables and the caste based organizations.
Though there are various books on the Social History of the Tamils, they have not
covered all the aspects of the social problems. The Social History of the Tamil by
P.Subramanian, The Tamil Social History by N.Subramanian edited by
P.Thiyagarajan concentrates only on social life and the caste system of the Tamils.
Some unpublished research works theses like ‘Communal Riots in Tiruchirapalli
District’ and Communal Conflicts in Virudhunagar District which are confined to
communal riots only in the particular districts. These works too have not given a

10
detailed account about the disabilities of the depressed class and their struggle for
social equality and justice. The absence of a single work covering all the social
issues in the southern districts prompted the researcher to take up such a study.

Chapterization

The entire study is divided and presented in six chapters excluding

introduction and concusion. The first chapter provides a historical background to
the theme particularly the caste system, socio-economic disparities and
untouchability. The second chapter discusses the untouchables’ struggle for social
equality. It gives a detailed account about the disability of the untouchables,
restrictions imposed on them and the various organizations which worked for their
emancipation. The third chapter deals with the agitation related to temple entry.
It narrates the series of problems faced by the depressed class when they tried to
enter temples. In the fourth chapter, the resistance of Mukulathors is discussed.
Mention has been made about the drastic measures taken by the British to suppress
these people who were very much connected with the two previous chapters.
The fifth one is about the emergence of caste associations and struggle for social
identity. It examines the various caste based organization and their work for
community promotion and political representation. The sixth throws light on
various communal conflicts, riots and disorders in the southern districts and it also
focuses on the governmental response.

11