The National Council for Technical Education

“Striving for world-class excellence in technical education and training”

IMPROVING THE LABOUR MARKET RESPONSIVENESS TO TECHNICAL

TRAINING IN TANZANIA

Professionalising Competence-based Education and Training (CBET)

through Enhancing a Professional Dimension

Dar-es-Salaam November, 2015

ABSTRACT

The key concepts and principles of Competence-Based Education and Training (CBET) are
explored. The tendency of CBET to be associated with economic development and well-being of
society is explained. The need for enhancing CBET with a profession dimension for Tanzanian
Technical Institutions as a basis for creating competent and professionally groomed graduates for
national development is explained. The CBET curriculum development, facilitation and
assessment techniques are surveyed. The responsibilities of various actors for spearheading CBET
are outlined as proposed by a joint Nuffic funded project titled: “Improving the Labour Market
Responsiveness of Technical Education in Tanzania” in which two partners are involved namely
the National Council for Technical Education (NACTE) - Tanzania; and Maastricht School of
Management, the Netherlands. It is further explained that the project is focusing on the
improvement of the supply and the quality of education and training in support of private sector
development by improving the labour market responsiveness of technical education in Tanzania.

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1.0 ADVOCACY OF COMPETENCE-BASED EDUCATION AND TRAINING (CBET)

Competence-based Education and Training (CBET) is defined as: “a program of study with
clearly defined, concrete and measurable objectives of which every student participating in the
program must have demonstrated mastery upon program completion in terms of knowledge, skills
and attitude (Smith and Keating 1997). CBET focuses on the ‘Head’ (for knowledge), the ‘Hand’
(for skills) and the ‘Heart’ (for attitude / feelings), hence the ‘3H’. CBET puts much emphasis on
what a person can do as a result of the training (the outcome) related to the profession the student
is studying for. The lesson content (input) is directly derived from the operational standards of the
profession. A graduate of a CBET programme therefore is expected to deliver competently in the
labour market. This is the most important feature that has given CBET its prominence.

CBET is delivered through modular curricula to ensure flexibility of the learners who should learn
at their own pace. Often CBET programmes involve students working on their own and
structuring their own methods of learning so as to realise the learning outcomes. In CBET the role
of teachers is to facilitate the learning process, they are often referred to as facilitators. CBET
recognised prior learning. In CBET the assessment is based on demonstration of skills and the
underpinning knowledge. It is evidence based. Of recent, attempts have been made to stress more
on occupational standards of a particular industry so as to produce a graduate who would fit
congruently in a given industry professionally. This enhancement of CBET by giving it a more
professional touch has resulted into what is referred to as ‘Professional-Based Education and
Training (PBET)’. PBET is based on all specific components of a profession. For the purpose of
this work, however, we shall resort to CBET but take on board some PBET concepts that would
make CBET more professional oriented.

In Tanzania the shift from knowledge-based education and training (KBET) to a CBET system
has largely been influenced by the Development Vision 2025 of the Government, which
advocates Tanzania to be a nation with a high level of education at all levels and which produces
the quantity and quality of people sufficiently equipped with requisite knowledge, skills and
attitudes (CBET) to meet the challenges of development at local and international levels. By
considering this need and using the powers vested to the National Council for Technical
Education (NACTE) through its establishing instrument, CAP 129, the Council established a
system of awards known as National Technical Awards (NTA). The NTA are competence-based
and designed to testify that the holder of the award is able to apply competently the knowledge
and skills described in the relevant occupational sector.

The NTA system has seven levels linked to a three level National Vocational Awards (NVA)
system under the Vocational Education and Training Authority (VETA) giving rise to the
Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) system of awards. The primary
objective of TVET programmes is the acquisition of relevant knowledge, practical skills and
attitudes for gainful employment in a particular trade or occupational area since skills acquisition
is considered as vital for growth of a vibrant economy. In this work Vocational Education and
Training (VET) is “training leading to a skilled occupation” (Government of the United Republic
of Tanzania, 1994, p.6); while Technical Education and Training (TET) is “education and training
undertaken by students to equip them play roles requiring higher levels of skill, knowledge and
understanding and in which they take responsibility for their area of specialisation” (Government
of the United Republic of Tanzania, 1997).

This treatise has made close reference to work done by two partners namely the National Council
for Technical Education - Tanzania; and Maastricht School of Management, the Netherlands
through a joint Nuffic funded project titled: “Improving the Labour Market Responsiveness of
Technical Education in Tanzania”. The project is focusing on the improvement of the supply and

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the quality of education and training in support of private sector development by improving the
labour market responsiveness of technical education in Tanzania. The achievements of the
objectives need to have an impact on the employability of graduates and on their competency to
enter the private and other sectors of the economy. As pilot, the project has been working with
two training institutions falling under NACTE: College of Business Education (CBE), Dar-es-
Salaam; and Zanzibar Institute for Tourism Development (ZIToD), Zanzibar. However, the
outcomes of the project will be cascaded to all technical institutions in Tanzania.

2.0 EXPOUNDING THE LEARNING TAXONOMIES FOR CBET FACILITATION

Learning can be categorized in three domains each with a typical taxonomy of levels of mastering
the learning outcomes. Taxonomy refers to a learning hierarchy starting with a basic level and
ending with a top level of mastery. It can be compared with climbing of stair cases. The domains
of learning are: Cognitive (for knowledge), Psychomotor (for skills), and Affective (for attitude).

2.1 Cognitive Domain (K)

The cognitive domain comprises six levels starting with the simplest level ‘remembering’ and
ending with the most complex level ‘creating’ of the taxonomy. Figure 1 below depicts the levels
of the cognitive domain with associated action verbs used for teaching / learning and subsequent
assessment (Anderson and Krathwohl 2001).

Fig. 1: Levels of the cognitive domain with associated action verbs

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2.2 Psychomotor Domain (S)

The psychomotor domain stands for the development of skills and is the basis for creation of
demonstration and practical work. The taxonomy exists in 5 levels listed below:
(i) Perceiving (sensing);
(ii) Responding;
(iii) Performing automatically;
(iv) Adapting; and
(v) Originating.

Figure 2 below depicts the psychomotor domain levels with associated action verbs for learning
and assessment purposes (Harrow, A. J. Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain, 1972).

Fig. 2: Psychomotor domain levels and associated action verbs

2.3 Affective Domain (A)

The affective domain stands for the development of attitudes and performances. It has 5 levels.
Figure 3 below depicts the affective domain levels (Bloom, 1973).

Fig. 3: Affective domain levels and associated action verbs

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The action verbs associated with the affective domain are given in Figure 4 below (Bloom 1973).

Fig.4: Action verbs associated with the affective domain

Often, during the teaching and learning process the affective domain is not given much attention
compared with the cognitive and psychomotor domains. This is probably because it is not well
understood by teachers. In order to enhance the knowledge of both teachers and learners on this
vital learning component some examples are given in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Typical Examples to explain the affective domain

Level Category Typical Examples

1 Receiving Listen to others with respect. Listen for the names of newly introduced people and
remember them.

2 Responding Participate in class discussions. Give a presentation. Question new ideas, concepts,
models, etc. in order to fully understand them. Recite and observe the safety rules.

3 Valuing Be sensitive towards individual and cultural differences (value diversity). Show
the ability to solve problems. Propose a plan for social improvement and follow
through commitment.

4 Organising Recognize the need for balance between freedom and responsible behaviour.
Accept responsibility for one’s behaviour. Accept professional ethical standards.
Create a life plan in harmony with abilities, interests and beliefs. Prioritize time
effectively to meet the needs of an organization, family and one’s self.

5 Acting Show self-reliance when working independently. Cooperate in group activities

(displays teamwork). Use an objective approach in problem solving. Display a
professional commitment to ethical practice on daily basis. Revise judgments and
change behaviour in light of new evidence. Value people for what they are, not
how they look.

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3.0 ENHANCING CBET WITH A PROFESSION TOUCH

The CBET concept may be applied at all levels in the education system as an approach to learning
which makes an appropriate combination of the knowledge, skills and attitude. However, for
acquiring competences that are relevant and appropriate to a given profession, it is useful to
consider in detail the specific needs for learning the profession. This chapter attempts to explain
the attributes of a profession and how the same may be used to develop a profession friendly
CBET curriculum.

3.1 Structure of a Profession

A profession comprises of four professional components, namely: business; operational;

organisational; and personal. All four professional components must be presented in the
curriculum covering the profession that has to be learnt and demonstrated in terms of knowledge,
skills and attitudes (KSA). Table 2 below explains the four professional components.

Table 2: Explanation of the four professional components

Profession Description
Component

Business (a) Profession based business activities need to be in line with the content and level of a
activities function, for example: cost control, selling, accounting, calculation, are professional
business activities of a management profession.

(b) All profession based business components need to have an immediate relation with the 3
other component

Operational Operational components of the profession are all activities that the professional has to fulfil
functions manually; like a designer has to design, a technician has to repair, and a chef has to cook.

(a) The name of the profession is mostly based on the operational components of the
profession. A curriculum has to be based on the activities a designer, a technician or a
cook has to fulfil.

(b) Also operational components need to have an immediate relation with the 3 other
components of the profession.

Organizational (a) Profession based organizational activities need to be in line with the level of the
activities function, like teamwork, cultural diversity in the workforce, working hours, rules and
regulation in the organization and mission and vision of the organization.

(b) Also the organizational activities of the profession need to have an immediate relation
with the other 3 components of the profession.

Personal skills (a) Profession based personal skills need to be in line with the level of the function, like
languages, ICT use, personal performances, attitudes, ethical topics, gender topics, etc.

(b) All profession based components for personal skills have to be written in observable
output/action criteria in the curriculum and have to be taught accordingly.

(c) Also profession based components for personal skills need to have an immediate
relation with the other 3 components of the profession. All professional components
have to be written in observable output/action criteria in the curriculum and have to be
taught accordingly.

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3.2 Characteristics of a CBET Curriculum with a Profession Dimension

A CBET curriculum with a ‘profession dimension’ has the following characteristics (Foyster 1990,
Delker 1990 and Norton 1987):

(a) is student-centered and the role of the teacher changes from a frontal teaching lecturer into
a consultant and facilitator;
(b) is outcome-based and its emphasis is mainly directed on the product and lesser on the
process; it reflects the expectations of performance;
(c) encourages specialization – Students can concentrate on knowledge, skills and attitudes of
a specific professional component (for example business components. Graduates can
specialize by following advanced skills training as a life-long learning strategy;
(d) is employment-led: standards are set by the concerned industrial sector in partnership with
relevant educational institution; and
(e) is practice oriented and theory is taught mainly as underpinning knowledge. Training is
fragmented and work is broken down into learnable units/ derived from the professional
profile.

3.3 Formulating Learning Outcomes for a Profession friendly CBET Curriculum

Formulation of learning outcomes has to take place at the beginning of a curriculum development
process. Learning outcomes are written for the students and they state what the student are
expected to have learned. Learning outcomes are specific, observable, and measurable. Learning
outcomes have several advantages. Some of these are that they:

(i) emphasize major points and reduce non-essential material

(ii) simplify and support the students to emphasize major points.
(iii) assist students in organizing and studying content material.
(iv) guide the students of what is expected from them and help them to study important
information.
(v) assist the student in studying more efficiently.
(vi) assist students to anticipate test items.

The statement of a learning outcome has four components namely: the action verb, condition,
standard, and the intended audience (the student). The action verb is the key element of a
learning outcome. The action verb states precisely what the student will be able to do following an
instruction. These are further elaborated in Table 3 below by using the ‘ABCD’ method
(Anderson and Krathwohl 2001):

Table 3: The ‘ABCD’ method of formulating learning outcomes

Letter Component Represented Description

A Audience Is always the leaner or student who has to act according to the
content of the action verb.
B Behaviour Represent the behaviour that is included in the action verb of the
formulated objective.
C Condition Describes the relevant factors associated with the desired
performance.
D Degrees of achievement They explain how well the learner must perform (a standard e.g.
percentage of correct responses; compliance with a given time
period; compliance with a given criterion).

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Note that learning outcomes should be: “testable statements describing what you intend your
students to learn” they should be SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, and Time
bound). There is a preferred order when formulating objectives. The condition is usually placed
first, followed by the behaviour or verb, and finally followed by the criteria. Below is an example:

“By the end of the session the students should be able to state three advantages of a diesel engine
over the petrol engine”.

4.0 CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEVELOPING A CBET CURRICULUM

Curriculum is generally defined as teaching and learning experiences taking place in a learning
institution. It describes all aspects of teaching and learning such as the purpose or the intended
outcomes of learning, learning strategies, assessment methods and certification with adequate
reflection of the needs and interests of the learner, institution, employer, profession, society and
the government. NACTE has developed procedures for Curriculum Development, Review,
Approval and Validation to guide technical institutions in the curriculum development and review
processes (NACTE, 2004). This chapter provides a summary of the key curriculum development
procedures to serve as a guide for use by technical institutions. Specifically, it provides
procedures to facilitate planning for situational analysis and actual development of a competence-
based modularised curriculum.

4.1 Framework for Curriculum Development

To a greater extent the various stages and tasks of curriculum development require a thorough
analysis of the situation to define the problem(s) in relation to the current and future needs of the
target market and the profession. Situational analysis is crucial for assessing and establishing
human and physical resources necessary for effective teaching and learning. Although there are
some variations, three main stages of curriculum development/review can be identified namely:
problem definition; structuring the curriculum; and implementation and evaluation of the resulting
curriculum. The are briefly explained below.

(a) Problem definition

During the problem definition stage, curriculum developers need to:

(i) Consider what is the vision and mission of the respective institutions; and
(ii) Assess the needs of employers, the profession and the society.

A good curriculum must be designed in the context of the social economic and technological
needs of a given society demonstrated by the current level of its development and aspirations.
Thus the goals and desired objectives of the curriculum should be derived and hence defined
based on the analysis of the vision and mission of respective technical institutions as well as the
needs of the employers, the profession and the society.

(b) Structuring of curriculum

Structuring of curriculum involves establishing curriculum contents and mode of delivery; type of
students to be enrolled and their prior abilities; and resources that are required for effective
implementation of the curriculum.

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(c) Implementation and evaluation of the resulting curriculum

After the curriculum has been implemented for some time, the socio economic and technological
needs of the society could have changed. Hence, it will be necessary to devise mechanisms for
continuous revision of the curriculum in a systemic and logical manner, taking into account the
feedback from stakeholders and keeping in line with the true needs of the society. Recommended
review time is 3 – 5 years.

4.2 Key Factors for CBET Curriculum Development

Technical institutions should strive to develop profession oriented curricula so as to produce

graduates who are professionally fit for the labour market. There are five important factors to
consider when developing a CBET curriculum that has a professional touch. The factors are
summarized and explained in Table 4 below:

Table 4: Factors to Consider for a CBET Curriculum Development

Step Action Description

No.

1 Analysing a job- It is important to link learning outcomes with occupational / professional

profile requirements. There is need therefore to analyse job profiles using incumbent
workers of a given industry or an experienced Human Resources Manager of
a relevant professional organisation. NACTE has job-profiles for some
occupations, which may be downloaded from its website and adopted.

2 Imbedding In a curriculum for Ordinary Diploma (NTA Levels 4, 5 and 6) most

professional professions have the following compositions of professional content:
components in content Business 10%; Operations 50%; Organisational 20%; and Personal Skills
development 20%. This distribution is illustrated in pie chart below:

3 Organizing content in When the four professional components are filled with the corresponding
a logical order from functional components of the profession they need to be organized in a
simple to complex. logical order from simple to more difficult. Next the content of the
curriculum can be developed by disaggregating complex learning outcomes
into simpler outcomes and developing related learning tasks.

4 Modularising the Learning outcomes that form a coherent compatibility for specific
curriculum contents competence are clustered to form modules (self-contained learning packages
which may be assessed independently).

5 Organising the Modules are organised in a logical sequence for realisation of the intended
modules for delivery competences and allocating them into semesters. Some modules need to be
purposes covered before others (pre-requisite modules). This requirement has to be
observed.

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5.0 SURVEYING SOME APPROACHES FOR FACILITATING CBET LEARNING

In CBET the main role of teachers is to facilitate learning. In CBET learning is relevant to real life
situations and experience of the learner. There is cross-curricular integration of knowledge, skills
and attitude to contextualise the learning. This chapter highlights more on CBET facilitation
techniques.

5.1 Main Characteristics of Teaching Methods in CBET

In a CBET environment teaching (or learning facilitation) has the following main characteristics:

(i) Knowledge, skills and attitudes should be integrated.

(ii) Teaching should be learner-centered, emphasizing on outcomes (what individuals know
and can do), and should allow flexible pathways for achieving the outcomes.
(iii) Methods of teaching involve mastery learning. The idea is that all participants with the
right entrance requirements can master completely the required knowledge, skill, and
attitude if sufficient time, resources and appropriate training methods are used.
(iv) Learning takes place in diverse settings including the work place, training institutions and
employer based training centers.
(v) Flexible teaching approaches can include large groups, small groups and individual study
components.

5.2 Envisioning the 3 C’s Educational Concept

In the realm of CBET, the educational system is based on the 3 C’s representing the vision behind
the system. The 3C-integrated teaching concept is a universal approach for competence
development and multi skilling of students in order to become complete, customer-oriented and
creative professionals. Figure 5 below depicts the 3C educational concept (C. van der Klip,
2002).

Fig. 5: Illustration of the 3C’s educational concept

3C EDUCATIONAL CONCEPT

Customer-orientation
COMPLETENESS CUSTOMER-ORIENTATION CREATIVENESS
COMPLETNESS
C P
E
O R
M S
ACTIVE SOCIALIZATION (Creativity) O
P N
A
L Op L
es A t t e ra t i
ud itu o
ttit
E S
des nal S
s /A
K
kill
k ill
T I
S s / L
S 50%
E
IN ES 10% L
S
B US
A
F Profession
T
20% T
U Org 20% 20%
Atti anizatio
I
N tude nal T
s Skil KIL LS U
C ls/ AL S D
SON
T P E R U DE E
ATTIT
I
O
N
PASSIVE SOCIALIZATION (Rules Regulations)

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The 3C educational compass is a complete construction framework for creating complete,
customer-oriented and creative lessons, demonstration and practical by following all criteria. The
concept is further elaborated in Table 5 below:

Table 5: Elaboration of the 3C’s educational concept

Criterion Description

1 First C Completeness The curricula need to be based on the occupational standards

approved by industry for functions in the profession. This should
include the profession components of business; operations;
organisation; and personal skills.

2 Second C Customer orientation Customers are the most important key persons for any organization
therefore it is important to know how to create a successful customer
orientation strategy, which is a set of directives and guidelines for
attracting and treating customers. Customer orientation is a set of
activities undertaken by an employee or company for the purpose of
supporting beliefs in sales that allow considering customer needs and
satisfaction as the major priorities of the company.

3 Third C Creativeness Creativity is the ability to generate innovative ideas and manifest
them from thought into reality. The process involves original
thinking and producing. The term creativity includes human
innovation. Creativity and innovation are considered crucial tools for
growth and sustainable development. Education and training should
contribute to the promotion of these capacities.

5.3 Viewing Some Best Practices in CBET

Best Practices in CBET has ‘DO’s and ‘DO NOT DO’s of which some are summarised below.

Table 6: Elaboration of Do’s and Do not Do’s in CBET

S/N ‘Do’ and Description

‘Do not Do’
1 Match the Trainers need to research the background of the participants in general before picking the
content to content and activities of the training programme.
appropriate
level

2 Adopt an This mode enables the participants to retain their continued interest. It also gives the
interactive trainer an immediate feedback on the level of understanding of the learners.
mode of
delivery

3 Do not spoon Ask leading questions to solicit answers from the participants. You can even drop hints, or
feed display a picture that reveals the solution. Let them exercise their brains.

4 Avoid using While it may be acceptable to use jargon and technical words in training computer
jargons / professionals who understand their meaning, to a non-technical person it would be
difficult useless. “Keep it simple”.
words

5 Set Be aware of the limits of your students before setting the desired learning outcomes to be
achievable achieved at the end of your training session. Setting high goals will cause frustration and
goals you will defeat the purpose of your training session. Use a step-by-step technique.

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S/N ‘Do’ and Description
‘Do not Do’
6 Be prepared Even though you have covered all aspects while designing your training, be prepared and
to adapt and make contingency plans for unexpected occurrences or difficulties faced by the
improvise participants. Consider a case of a trainer who made an elaborate power point presentation
only to find that the place he had to conduct the training had erratic power supply with no
back-up facilities.

7 Optimize Keep the training sessions to the optimum time level based on the attention span of your
training participants. Allow for short breaks between training sessions so that your participants can
sessions refresh. Avoid monotony by inserting variable activities in your training programme.

8 Reinforce The learning can be reinforced through follow up activities and short references to the
learning points covered earlier from time to time. If your students are unable to grasp a particular
skill despite repeated attempts, try some new approach as continuous repetition of the
same activity may become boring.

9 Keep energy It’s important to keep all the participants interested and absorbed in your training sessions.
level high Frequent motivation and positive feedback will keep the enthusiasm flowing.

10 Ensure To ensure that your training programme has been successful, do follow up activities a few
follow up weeks after the training activity to find out if the participants have retained the skills or
action knowledge you have imparted, or some corrective action is required. This follow up
activity will also help you to uncover possible flaws in your training methodology and
help you to design more effective sessions next time.

5.4 Overview of Teaching Methods

A wide range of facilitation and learning methods is available to assist teachers. The methods
shown below are some of the ones that are particularly useful in student-centred learning.
Teachers need to make a careful selection to ensure that the method matches the specific learning
outcome. Figure 6 below illustrates some of the CBET learning facilitation methods.

Fig. 6: Illustration of Some CBET learning facilitation methods

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Table 6 below illustrates some common facilitation and learning modes in CBET (C. van der Klip,
2009). The dark boxes in the Table indicate the best match, while the dots are for good matches.

Table 6: Illustration of some common facilitation and learning modes in CBET

Method or Objective Environment

technique

Learner interaction and

Useful for large groups
Best with small groups
Incorporate real world

Useful for individuals

Stimulate high-order
Generate discussion

Stimulate creativity
Obtain work values
Obtain information
Create excitement

Change attitude

communication

communication
Generate ideas

Obtain skills

Two-way
One-way
thinking

activity
Brainstorming   
Case study     
Demonstration   
Discussion   
Filed trip/tour    
Guided practice   
Illustrated talk   
Independent  
practice
Lecture    
Problem solving     
Programmed  
instruction
Projects         
Question/answer   
Readings  
Role-playing     
Simulation       
Interaction groups        
On-the-job training       

6.0 CONDUCTING ASSESSMENTS IN CBET

Assessment is a key component in all education and training processes. With a fair assessment
system, students can be confident in the quality of training offered and employers can have
confidence in the quality of the education. It is important to note that assessments in general are
essential for the maintenance of professional standards. This chapter gives an overview of what
should be considered in CBET assessment.

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6.1 Types of Assessment

There are two types of assessment: formative (diagnostic) assessment; and summative assessment.
Table 7 below gives a summary of their key differences.

Table 7: Key differences between formative and summative assessment

Factor Formative Summative

Purpose Formative assessments provide support to Key reasons for summative assessment
improve student’s learning. The formative include the following:
test has four functions: (i) To validate learner’s competencies
(i) Determines whether a learner can (ii) To provide for a certification and award
progress to the next unit
(iii) To validate teacher’s performance
(ii) Provides feedback to a learner. This
acts as motivation for learning
(iii) Evaluates the learning programmes for
review purpose
(iv) Evaluates teaching and learning
methods of sessions delivered

Timing Formative assessments are conducted Summative assessments are normally

throughout the training duration. conducted at the end of a given programme
with the aim of verifying learner’s
competences.

Techniques For formative assessment the following For summative assessments the following five
assessment techniques can be applied: assessment methods can be used:
(i) Questions & answers (i) End of programme/term/semester
(ii) Projects (Planned set of examination.
interrelated tasks to be executed over a (ii) Projects (Planned set of
fixed period) interrelated tasks with specified time).
(iii) Assignments (iii) Assignments.
(iv) Essays (iv) Essays.
(v) Practical tests (v) Practical tests.

Conditions When applying the formative assessment
method the following issues should be taken
into consideration:
(i) Use “Short-term" assessment
(ii) Provide rapid feedback
(iii) Ensure feedback provides motivation
The assessment takes place in all the four
areas of the professional profile. The content
of the assessment has to be created by using
the three learning domains: Knowledge, Skills
and Attitudes. Three types of assessments can
be identified:
(i) Knowledge tests: (cognitive domain)
(ii) Skill tests: (psychomotor domain)
(iii) Attitude or personal performance tests:
(affective domain)

It should be noted that in both formative and summative assessment the tests have to meet the
viability and reliability criteria defined hereunder:

(a) Validity is the extent to which a test accurately measures what it purports to measure.
(b) Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results.

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6.2 Methods of Assessment
For assessments one can use different methods and techniques. Table 8 below gives some
examples of the most commonly utilized testing instruments.
Table 8: Examples of the most commonly utilized testing instruments
S/N Test Method
1 Multiple-choice
tests
2 True – false tests
3 Matching Tests
4 Essay tests
5 Short answer test
6 Performance tests
7 Alternative
Testing Modes
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Description
Can be used to measure both simple knowledge and complex concepts. Since
multiple choices can be answered quickly, one can assess many topics in a one-
hour exam. In addition the items can be easily and reliably scored.
Because random guessing will produce the correct answer half the time, true-false
tests are less reliable than other types of exams. However these items are
appropriate for occasional use.
The matching format is an effective way to tests students’ recognition of the
relationship between words and definitions, event and dates, categories and
examples and so on.
Enables teachers to judge students’ abilities to recognize, integrate interpret
material; express themselves in their own words. Essay tests give you the
opportunity to comment on students’ progress, the quality of their thinking, the
depth of their understanding and the difficulties they may be having. However
because essay tests pose only a few questions, their content validity may be low.
Depending on your objectives, short answers questions can call for one or two
sentences or a long paragraph. Short answer tests are easier to write, though they
take longer to score than multiple-choice tests.
Asks students to demonstrate proficiency in conducting an experiment, executing a
series of steps in a reasonable amount of time, following instructions, creating
drawings, manipulating materials or equipment or reacting to real or simulated
situations. Performance tests can be administered individually or in groups. The
following is recommended when using performance test:
(i) Specify the criteria to be used for rating or scoring;
(ii) State the problem so that the students know exactly what they are supposed
to do;
(iii) Give students a chance to perform the task more than once or to perform
several tasks samples.
Some alternative assessment modes are:
(i) Take home tests;
(ii) Open book tests; and
(iii) Group exams;
(iv) Paired testing (two students are answering); and
(v) Evidence portfolios (a cumulative collection of a students’ work. Students
decide what examples to include that characterize their growth and
accomplishment over the term. Evidence portfolios are used to provide a
complete picture of student’s achievements).
Page 15
Table 9 below illustrates the validity, reliability, and level of complexity for setting and marking
of the test items.

Table 9: Validity, reliability, and level of difficulty for setting and marking of test items.

Method Validity Reliability Ease of design Ease of marking

Multiple choice High High Low High

Multiple selection High High Low Medium
Matching High High Low Medium
True/false High High Low High
Essay Low Low High Low
Short answer Medium Medium Medium Medium
Structured Medium Medium Medium Medium

6. 3 Credit System for the NTA

A credit is a term used to describe the amount of learning that has taken place, awarded by
covering 10 hours for acquisition of knowledge, skills and attitude in a teaching and learning
setting. A credit is awarded as evidence of learning achievement. The 10 hours per credit (also
referred to as notional hours) are based on a student with an average learning ability.
Fundamentally an academic credit is a tool for measuring and expressing learning equivalence. It
play an important role in rewarding incremental progress of learners, facilitating student transfer,
recognizing prior learning and contributing to the definition of academic standards. The
fundamental principle behind credit framework is that it is awarded only for evidence of learning
achievement. The NACTE procedures for curriculum development require the curriculum
developers to assign credits to modules based on outcomes to be achieved by the learner. Each
NTA level has been assigned a minimum number of credits which should be covered by the
respective curricula. The table below shows the NACTE Credit System for the different NTA
levels.

Table 10: NACTE Credit System

NTA Qualification Minimum Overall Minimum Credits Maximum Credits Lowest NTA
Level Title Credits from Current from Lowest NTA Level
NTA Level Level
4 Basic Technician 120 120 0 3
Certificate (From NTA 4) (Form IV)
5 Technicians 120 120 0 4
Certificate (From NTA 5)
6 Ordinary 240 120 30 5
Diploma (From NTA 6 & 5)
7 Higher Diploma 360 120 30 5
(From NTA 7,6,5)
8 Bachelors 480 120 30 5
Degree (From NTA 8,7,6,5)
9 Masters Degree 180 150 30 8
(From NTA 9 & 8)
10 Doctorate 540 360 30 8
(From NTA 10,9,8)

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6. 4 Grading System within CBET

The grading of the assessments will be done as percentages of completeness of the answers.
Marks are awarded out of 100 per cent. NACTE has the following grading system for assessment
in CBET:

Table 11: NACTE Grading System

NTA Levels 4-5 NTA Levels 6 NTA Levels 7-10

A 80-100 A 75-100 A 70-100

B+ 65-74 B+ 60-69
B 65-79 B 55-64 B 50-59
C 50-64 C 45-54 C 40-49
D 40-49 D 35-44 D 35-39
F 0-39 F 0-34 F 0-34
I I I
Q 0 Q Q 0

Legend:
F Failure
I Incomplete
Q Disqualification
Note:

A student, who fails to complete the required work or sit for the examination in any course for
authorised reasons, will be given “I” as a provisional grade. The student receiving such a grade
shall be required to make up the unfinished portion of the module during the re-sit period and
shall be given a grade without prejudice to the previous grade "I". The definitions of the grade
points for different grade ranges are given in Table 12 below:

Table 12: Grade points for different grade ranges

NTA Levels 4-5 NTA Levels 6-10 Definition

Grade Points Grade Points

A 4.0 A 5.0 Excellent: Work of outstanding quality, rare talent for the module, an
original and/or incisive mind.
B+ 4.0 Well Above Average (Very Good): Excellent, comprehensive, accurate
work; flair for and comprehension of the module is clearly perceptible.
B 3.0 B 3.0 Above Average (Good): Student has a sound grasp of the most important
goals of course. Work described as careful, competent, and good .
C 2.0 C 2.0 Average (Satisfactory): Average competence, which falls short of B.
Work described as adequate.
D 1.0 D 1.0 Below Average (Poor): Marginal, barely satisfy the minimum
requirements.
F 0.0 F 0.0
I
Q 0.0 0.0

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NACTE qualifications (NTA) are also classified. Classification of Award follows a computation
of cumulative Grade Point Average (GPA). A cumulative grade point average (Cum GPA) for
each candidate shall be computed by dividing the total number of grade points earned for all
modules by the total number of credits for the award examined.

i.e. Cumulative GPA = Sum of (P x N)

Sum of N

Where P represents a grade point assigned to a letter grade scored by the students in a module and
N represents the number of credits associated with the module. (GPA) shall be computed to four
decimal points, rounded off to three decimal points and truncated to single decimal point.
Example of computation of semester GPA for NTA levels 4 to 5 is given below (NACTE, 2015):

Table 13: Illustration of Computation of GPA

Module Credits Grade Earned Points

Building Materials 6 B 3 x 6=18
Land Surveying 4 C 2 x 4= 8
Mathematics 4 A 4 x 4=16
Total: 14 42
Semester GPA = 42 / 14 = 3.0

Award shall be given to a student who satisfies the following conditions:

(i) Has completed all modules for the award.

(ii) Has achieved a minimum cumulative Grade Point Average (GPA) equivalent to Pass.

The awards shall be classified as shown below:

Table 14: Classification of Awards

Class of Award Cumulative GPA

NTA 4-5 NTA 6-8 NTA 9 NTA 10

First Class 3.5 to 4.0 4.4 to 5.0 4.4 to 5.0 -

Second Class 3.0 to 3.4 - 3.5 to 4.3 -
Upper Second Class - 3.5 to 4.3 - -
Lower Second Class - 2.7 to 3.4 - -
Pass 2.0 to 2.9 2.0 to 2.6 3.0 to 3.4 -

Note:
(i) There is no classification for NTA Level 10.
(ii) Further information on assessment may be obtained from the NACTE Examinations
Procedures (NACTE, 2015).

It is hoped that technical institutions will find this document a useful guide for developing,
implementing and revising their curricula bearing in mind the ‘profession dimension’. This
document, however, should be used as “complementary guide” to other NACTE documents.
NACTE/Professionalizing CBET in Tanzania Page 18
7.0 TRAVERSING BEYOND PROJECT DISSEMINATION

So far an attempt has been made to disseminate the professionally enhanced ‘Competence-Based
Education and Training (CBET)’ perspective of the results of the project “Improving the Labour
Market Responsiveness of Technical Education in Tanzania” jointly managed by the National
Council for Technical Education (NACTE) and Maastricht School of Management (MsM). The
project has built capacity of the Zanzibar Institute for Tourism Development (ZIToD), Zanzibar
on the development and delivery of on the development and delivery of CBET curricula.
Eventually the experience will be rolled out to the rest of technical institutions (TIs) accredited by
NACTE. It is important therefore to define the roles of the various actors in this meticulous
ambition. Table 15 below stipulates the respective mandates of the key actors.

Table 15: Mandates of key Actors for Institutionalisation of Entrepreneurship Education

Organisation Responsibility Timeframe

NACTE Disseminate information about the professionally December

enhanced CBET curriculum development and delivery 2015
techniques in the media including the relevant websites.

Coordinate institutionalisation of the professionally Institutional

enhanced CBET curriculum development and delivery Accreditation
techniques in TIs including sanctioning the resulting Cycle
curricula

ZiTOD Prepare a leaflet / brochure indicating what the college January 2016
is able to offer to TIs in a bid to role out the experience
so far gained.

MsM Prepare a leaflet / brochure indicating what the school is February 2016
able to offer in terms of building capacity of technical
teachers to develop and deliver professionally enhanced
CBET curricula.

TIs Governing / Advisory Boards to adopt the March 2016

professionally enhanced CBET curriculum development
and delivery techniques as an urgent policy matter; draw
an action plan to that effect; and submit to NACTE for
approval.

In consultation with ZiTOD and NACTE, develop and Institutional

deliver professionally enhanced CBET curricula. Accreditation
Cycle

NACTE, in its regulatory capacity is optimistic to tell the TIs: “It can be done, play your party”.

NACTE/Professionalizing CBET in Tanzania Page 19

REFERENCES

Cees van der Klip, 2000. Internal publication: Plan 2000 educational change program for the
Maastricht Hotel Management School.

Cees van der Klip, 2008, Internal publication: Educational development for the National College
of Tourism in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Foyter 1990, Delker 1990, Norton 1978. Teacher professional development for improving quality
of teaching.

Harrow, A. J. Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain. N.Y. David McKay Company, Inc. 1972.

Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S. and Masia, B.B. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook
II. The Affective Domain. N.Y., David McKay Company, Inc. 1964.

Manyaga, T.N.P. 2006, NACTE. Competence-Based education and Training facilitation methods.
Paper presented at a Strategic Planning Workshop.

NACTE (2004), National Council for Technical Education, Tanzania, Procedures for Curriculum
Development and Review, Dar-es-Salaam.

NACTE (2005), National Council for Technical Education, Tanzania, Situational Analysis
towards Curriculum Development / Review, Dar-es-Salaam.

NACTE (2015), Procedures for Assessment Conducted by NACTE and Autonomous Technical
Institutions, Dar-es-Salaam.

Smith and Keatings, 1997. Innovations in Career and Technical education: Strategic approaches
towards work force competence around the globe.

Toru Liyoshi and M.S.Vijay Kumas, 2008. Opening upon Education: The collective advancement
of education trough open technology, open content and open knowledge.

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