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in Physical Rehabilitation
SUSAN B. O'SULLIVAN, PT, EoD
Professor --==
;;.-
Department of Physical Therapy
School of Health and Environment
University of Massachusetts Lowell
Lowell, Massachusetts
Weare heartened by the reception given to our ear- as practice pattern-specific but as specific to the physical
lier text, Physical Rehabilitation Laboratory Manual: Focus therapy diagnosis and plan of care. Our goal was to provide
on Functional Training. In response to reviewer, faculty, and useful, practical examples of interventions that can be used
student feedback, we have so substantially revised and ex- to enhance functional performance.
panded the original work that it developed into the current PaJ1 III is titled Case Studies. This portion of the work
text and is newly titled Improving Functional Outcomes in provided us with the distinct plivilege of bringing together a
Physical Rehabilitation. group of outstanding clinicians from across the country to
Given the frequency with which physical therapists apply contribute case studies in both written (Part fII) and video for-
their movement expel1ise to improving functional outcomes, our mat (accompanying DVD). The case studies present examples
goal was to present an integrated model applicable to a wide of patient management strategies based on effective clinical
spectrum of adult patients engaged in physical rehabilitation. decision-making for patients with a variety of diagnoses (e.g.,
Part I, Promoting Function: Conceptual Elements, ad- traumatic brain injury, stroke, spinal cord injury, peripheral
dresses the foundations of clinical decision-making and pro- vestibular dysfunction, and Parkinson's disease). The guiding
vides a conceptual framework for improving functional out- questions included with each case study are designed to en-
comes. The organization of content provides the student a hance clinical decision-making and to challenge the student to
logical learning progression of the strategies and interventions address the unique needs of the individual patients presented.
used to improve motor function, including task-specific, neuro- The DVD captures each patient at three critical points within
motor, and compensatory approaches. Integration of motor the episode of caJ'e: (1) at the initial examination, (2) during a
control and motor learning strategies assists the student in ac- treatment session, and (3) near discharge from physical ther-
quiring a comprehensive approach to developing a plan of care. apy intervention. Our hope is that the case studies will facili-
Part II, Interventions to Improve Function, presents tate meaningful dialogue between and among physical therapy
strategies and interventions to promote functional indepen- students and teachers.
dence in a number of different functional skills (Chapters 3 The text includes numerous pedagogical applications.
to 10). Each chapter includes a description of the general Important information has been emphasized using boxes and
characteristics of the posture and activity (e.g., base of sup- tables. The designation "Red Flag" alerts the student to pre-
port provided, location of center of mass, impact of gravity cautions or preventative safety measures. The term "Clinical
and body weight, and so forth) accompanied by a descrip- Note" provides additional insights based on clinical observa-
tion of required lead-up skills, appropriate techniques, and tions. Each chapter includes numerous figures illustrating the
progressions. Also provided are a description of patient out- interventions discussed. Included also are student practice
comes consistent with the American Physical Therapy Asso- activities designed to enhance learning.
ciation's Guide to Physical Therapist Practice, together The text recognizes the continuing growth of the pro-
with clinical applications and patient examples. fession and the importance of basic and applied clinical re-
Our contributing chapter authors significantly enhanced search in guiding and informing evidence-based practice. It
Part II. Gutman and Mortera address interventions to improve also integrates terminology and interventions presented in
upper extremity function from the unique perspective of the the Guide to Physical Therapist Practice.
occupational therapist. Fulk provides distinctive insights for Without question, the text has benefited enormously
developing and implementing a plan of care designed to im- from our talented group of contributors. We are honored by
prove transfers and wheelchair skills. Lastly, Monis and Taub their participation in the project. The breadth and scope of
provide their distinguished perspectives on the history. treat- their professional knowledge and expertise are well re-
ment elements, and substantial potential of constraint-indu ed flected in their contributions.
movement therapy. Our greatest hope is that the text will enhance the un-
The interventions presented address many t~ pc~ of derstanding of strategies to improve functional outcomes
impairments and activity limitations that patient m ~ "(- that lead to independence and ultimately an improved qual-
hibit across practice patterns. They should not be con'Ide ed ity of life for our patients.
v
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
vii
PROPOSAL REVIEWERS
Bill Andrews, PT, MS, EnD, NCS Toby Sternheimer, PT, MEd
Assistant Professor Cuyahoga Community College
Elon University Physical Therapist Assistant Program
Department of Physical Therapy Education Cleveland, Ohio
Elon, North Carolina
Shannon Williams, PT, MEd, FAAOMPT
Pamela R. Bosch, PT, PHD Clinic Director
Associate Professor Texas State University-San Marcos
A. T. Still University Physical Therapy Department
The Arizona School of Health Sciences San Marcos, Texas
Physical Therapy Department
Mesa, Arizona
Karen Jones, PT
Instructor
Herkimer County Community College
Physical Therapy Department
Herkimer, New York
ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PA RT I CHAPTER 9
Promoting Function: Conceptual Elements 1 Interventions to Improve Upper Extremity Skills 216
SHARON A. GUTMAN, PHD, OTR
CHAPTER 1 MARIANNE H. MORTERA, PHD, OTR
Framework for Clinical Decision-Making 3
CHAPTER 10
SUSAN B. O'SULLIVAN, PT, EDD
Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy 232
CHAPTER 2 DAVID M. MORRIS, PT, PHD
Interventions to Improve Motor Control and Motor EDWARD TAUB, PHD
Learning 12
SUSAN B. O'SULLIVAN, PT, EDD
PART III
Case Studies 247
PART II CASE STUDY 1
Interventions to Improve Function 43 Traumatic Brain Injury 251
CHAPTER 3 TEMPLE T. COWDEN, PT, MPT
Interventions to Improve Bed Mobility and Early CASE STUDY 2
Trunk Control 45 Traumatic Brain Injury: Balance and Locomotor
THOMAS J. SCHMITZ, PT, PHD Training 257
CHAPTER 4 HEIDI ROTH, PT, MSPT, NCS
JASON BARBAS, PT, MPT, NCS
Interventions to Improve Sitting and Sitting Balance
Skills 97 CASE STUDY 3
SUSAN B. O'SULLIVAN, PT, EDD Spinal Cord Injury: Locomotor Training 262
ELIZABETH ARDOLINO, PT, MS
CHAPTER 5
ELIZABETH WATSON, PT, OPT, NCS
Interventions to Improve Kneeling and Half-Kneeling ANDREA L. BEHRMAN, PT, PHD
Control 120 SUSAN HARKEMA, PHD
THOMAS J. SCHMITZ, PT, PHD MARY SCHMIDT-READ, PT, DPT, MS
xiii
xiv Table of Content<,
CASE STUDY 9
Stroke: Constraint-Induced Movement Therapy 296
DAVID M. MORRIS, PT, PHD
SONYA L. PEARSON, PT, OPT
EDWARD TAUB, PHD
Promoting Function:
Conceptual Elements
1
CHAPTER
Framework for Clinical
J1 I Decision-Making
SUSAN B. O'SULLIVAN, PT, EoD
From World Health Organization's (WHO) International Participation restrictions are problems an
Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF)' individual may experience in involvement in life
Health condition is an umbrella term for disease, situations.
disorder, injury or trauma and may also include other Contextual factors represent the entire background of an
circumstances, such as aging, stress, congenital individual's life and living situation.
anomaly, or genetic predisposition. I may also include
• Environmental factors make up the physical, social,
information about pathogeneses and or e iology.
and attitudinal environment in which people live and
Body functions are physiological func ions 0 body
conduct their lives, including social attitudes,
systems (including psychological functions,
architectural characteristics, and legal and social
Body structures are anatomical parts 0 he body such as
structures.
organs, limbs, and their components.
• Personal factors are the particular background of an
Impairments are the problems in body ,., 0'
individual's life, including gender, age, coping styles,
structure such as a significant deviation 0 oss
social background, education, profession, past and
Activity is the execution of a task or action ,c~
current experience, overall behavior pattern,
individual.
character, and other factors that influence how
Participation is involvement in a life situa ·0 ....
disability is experienced by an individual.
Activity limitations are difficulties an individ a -2
have in executing activities.
(box continues on page 4)
3
4 PART I Promoting Function: Conceptual Elements
Performance describes what an individual does in his or Impairment s ~ e loss or abnormality of anatomical,
her current environment. physio ogica men ai, or psychological structure or
Capacity describes an individual's ability to execute a function.
task or an action (highest probable level of functioning Functional limitation is the restriction of the ability to
in a given domain at a given moment). perform, at the level of the whole person, a physical
(In June 2008, the American Physical Therapy action, task, or activity in an efficient, typically expected,
Association [APTAj joined the WHO, the World or competent manner.
Confederation for Physical Therapy, the American Disability is the inability to perform or a limitation in the
Therapeutic Recreation Association, and other performance of actions, tasks, and activities usually
international organizations in endorsing the ICF.) expected in specific social roles that are customary for
the individual or expected for the person's status or role
From Guide to Physical Therapist Practice, ed 22 in a specific sociocultural context and physical
Pathology/pathophysiology (disease, disorder, condition) environment. Categories are self-care, home
describes an abnormality characterized by a particular management, work (job/school/play), and
cluster of signs and symptoms and recognized by either community/leisure.
the patient/client or the practitioner as abnormal. It is Health status describes the state or status of the
primarily identified at the cellular level. conditions that constitute good health.
\'isual inputs from the body assist in movement control and and motor program theories) and motor learning theory.
balance. Owing to the inherent use of body weight and Systems theory describes motor function as the result of
gravity, enhanced demands for postural control are placed a series of interacting systems that contribute to different
on the trunk and limb segments during petfOlmance. Activity- aspects of control. For example. the musculoskeletal system,
based training activities are complex movements in which the sensory system. and the neural control systems (syner-
the primary focus is coordinated action. not isolated muscle gistic control. coordination, and balance) all contribute to
or joint control. the movements produced. Motor programming theory is
The key to successful intervention is a thorough un- based on the concept of a motor program, which is defined
derstanding of its basic elements: the task. the individual's as an abstract code that, when initiated, results in the
performance capabilities. and the environment (Fig. 1.1). production of a coordinated movement sequence. Thus
Each will be discussed in this chapter. movement patterns are stored and can be initiated using pre-
The foundational underlying theories on which motor programmed instructions without peripheral inputs or feed-
function is based include: motor control theory (s\,stems back information (termed an open-loop system). Movement
MOTOR FUNCTION
FIGURE 1.1 Motor function emerges from interactions among the task, the individual
and the environment.
Abbreviations: BADL basic activities of doily living: IADL, instrumental activities of doily
living: ROM, range of motion.
CHAP-E7 ' FramC\Hlrk for Clinical Decision·\laking 5
patterns can also be initiated and modified using sensory viewed as a spiral progression with considerable variabil-
inputs and feedback information (termed a closed-loop ity. not as a strict linear progression. Primitive and static
system). In a closed-loop . ystem. feedback is used for attitudinal reflexes are believed to become integrated as
error detection and modification of the movement responses, the central nervous system (CNS) matures and higher-
as seen when learning a new skill. Jlotor learning theory is level postural reflexes (righting and equilibrium reactions)
based on concepts of feedback and practice that are used to emerge (reflex hierarchical theory). Systems theory helps
influence the type and degree of learning and lead to to better define both the adaptive capacity and the modifi-
relatively permanent changes in performance capabilities. ability of responses seen during normal development.
Use of appropriate motor learning strategies (discussed in Emerging motor behaviors are dependent on the maturation
Chapter 2) enhances motor skill acquisition. Organized and function of different system components during critical
practice schedules and appropriate feedback delivery are stages in development. The emergence of postural develop-
essential elements. Additional terminology is presented in ment and control is a good example of this.
Box 1.2. For a thorough review of these concepts, the reader In the adult, the motor skills acquired early in life are
is referred to the excellent works of Schmidt and Lee' and maintained and remain relatively stable across the life span.
Shumway-Cook and Woollacott.~ Skills such as rolling over and sitting up are used every day
The acquisition of motor skills in infants and chil- as a normal part of life. However, these movement patterns
dren that are critical to independent function (such as are responsive to change and can be modified by a number
rolling over, sitting up, sitting, crawling, kneeling, stand- of different factors. Primary factors include genetic predispo-
ing up, standing, walking, and eye-hand coordination) is sition and changes associated with aging causing a decline in
a function of neuromuscular maturation and practice. overall function of the CNS, including sensory decline in
These activities, sometimes termed developmental skills visual, somatosensory, and vestibular functions; changes
or developmental sequence skills, form the basis of a set in synergistic control of movement and timing; and a decline
of skills needed for life-long independent function. The in balance. Secondary and potentially modifiable factors in-
development of motor control in the infant and child is clude changing body dimensions (changes in body weight,
marked by motor milestones that emerge at somewhat body shape and topography, and posture), level of physical
predictable ages. Development generally progresses from activity (changes in muscle strength, flexibility. and range of
head to foot (cephalo-caudal) and proximal to distal. In motion [ROM] associated with inactivity). nutrition, and
infants and children the development of motor function is environmental factors. The physically frail older adult and
Degrees of freedom: The number of separate Schema: A set of rules, concepts, or relationships
independent dimensions of movement in a system that formed on the basis of experience3lP4671; schema serve
must be controlled.41p4631 to provide a basis for movement decisions and
Degrees of freedom problem:The difficulty in explaining are stored in memory for the reproduction of
the simultaneous control of multiple, independently movement.
moving body parts.
• Recall schema:The relationship among past
Motor control: The underlying substrates of neural,
parameters, past initial conditions, and the
physical, and behavioral aspects of movement.
movement outcomes produced by these
• Reactive motor control: Movements are adapted in combinations.
response to ongoing feedback (e.g., muscle stretch • Recognition schema:The relationship among past
causes an increase in muscle contraction in response initial conditions, past movement outcomes, and the
to a forward weight shift). sensory consequences produced by these
• Proactive (anticipatory) motor control: Movements combinations.
are adapted in advance of ongoing movemen s via
Task analysis: A process of determining the underlying
feedforward mechanisms (e.g., the pos ural
abilities and structure of a task or occupation.31p4661
adjustments made in preparation for ca ch'ng a
Task organization: How the components of a task are
heavy, large ball).
interrelated or interdependent.
Motor program: An abstract representation ha: " e
• Low organization: Task components are relatively
initiated, results in the production of a coord'na;ed
independent.
movement sequence.3lp4661
• High organization: Task components are highly
Motor learning: A set of internal processes assoc a:5
inte rrel ated.
with feedback or practice leading to relatively oer~a~a~'
changes in the capability for motor ski11. 31p406
Motor recovery: The reacquisition of moveme • s s
lost through injury.
6 PART I Promoting Function: Conceptual Elemenh
the phy ically dependent individual will likely demonstrate Understanding the Task
the greatest changes in basic motor skills. This adaptability
or change is evidence of the CNS's ability for ongoing reor- Ta~' are ~bItled according to motor functions: mobility.
ganization of motor skills. which is life-long. As in infants tabili~. ontrolled mobility. and skill. Each function is dis-
and children, there is no one predictable pattern of movement cu ed in tum.
to accomplish functional goals that characterizes all adults or
all older adults. Mobility
In the adult patient with activity limitations and partic-
ipation restrictions. motor skills are modified in the presence Mobility i the ability to move from one position to another
of integumentary. musculoskeletal, neuromuscular, or car- independently and safely. Early mobility often involves dis-
diorespiratory impairments. i'vlotor recovery, the reacquisi- crete movements of the limbs or trunk (e.g., the patient
tion of movement skills lost through injury, is highly variable reaches across the body and rolls toward sidelying) with
and individualized. Complete recovery, in which the per- limited postural or antigravity control. Movements may be
poorly sustained or controlled. Later function is character-
formance of reacquired skills is identical in every way to
preinjury performance, may not be possible. Rather it is ized by more controlled movements of the body superim-
likely that the preinjury skills are modified in some way. For posed on postural control (e.g., the patient stands up and
example. the patient with stroke regains walking ability but walks across the room).
now walks with a slowed gait and increased hip and knee Deficits in mobility control range from failure to initiate
or sustain movement to poorly controlled movements. Limited
tlexion on the more affected side. Compensation is defined
as behavioral substitution-that is, the adoption of alterna- or varying degrees of postural control are evident, and move-
tive behavioral strategies to complete a task. For example, ment outcome may be limited.
the patient with stroke learns to dress independently using
the less affected upper extremity (UE). Or the patient with a Stability
complete TI SCI learns to roll using both UEs and momen- Stability (also known as static postural control) is the abil-
tum. Spontaneous recovery refers to the initial neural repair ity to maintain a position with the body at rest with orienta-
processes that occur immediately after injury. For example, tion of the COM over the BaS. A steady posture can be
the patient with stroke regains some UE motor function maintained with minimum sway, no los of balance, and no
approximately 2 to 3 weeks after insult as cerebral edema re- external stabilization support. Prolonged holding (an en-
solves. Function-induced recm'ery (use-dependent cortical durance function) is an integral part of stability control. Sta-
reorganization) refer to the ability of the nervous system to bility comes largely from tonic muscle activity and control
modify itself in response to activity and environmental stim- of proximal segments and trunk. Increasing antigravity sta-
ulation. Stimulation early after injury is important to prevent bility control is evident with the acquisition and mainte-
learned nonuse. For example. the patient with stroke who nance of more upright postures (e.g., sitting to kneeling to
undergoes limited rehabilitation learns to use the less af- standing).
fected extremities to achieve functional goals and fails to Deficits in stability control range from widened BaS
use the more affected extremities. In order for later rehabil- or lowered COM, increased sway, handhold or leg support,
itation to be successful, these faulty patterns must be un- to loss of balance and falls.
learned while correct patterns are learned. Early exposure
to training can prevent this learned nonuse and the develop-
Controlled Mobility
ment of faulty or poor motor patterns. There is ample evidence
that training is also effective for patients with chronic disabil- Controlled mobility (dynamic postural cOlltrol) is the abil-
ity. For example, patients with stroke for more than I year ity to maintain postural stability and orientation of the COM
respond positively to functional task-oriented training using over the BaS while parts of the body are in motion. An in-
constraint-induced (CI) movement therapy (discussed in dividual is able to move in a posture without losing postural
Chapter 10 and Case Study 9). Locomotor training using par- control (e.g., the patient maintains a sitting position while
tial body weight support (BWS), a treadmill, and early assisted shifting weight back and forth or side to side). The distal
limb movements has also been shown to promote function- segments (feet and buttocks) are fixed while the trunk is
induced recovery (discussed in Chapter 8 and Case Study 3). moving. Movement control normally develops through in-
The elements essential for success with these interventions are crements of range (small to large). Movement through
that (I) practice is task-specific and (2) practice is intense with decrement. of range (large to small) can be used in treat-
steady increases in duration and frequency. For example, with ment for progression to stability control for patients with hy-
CI therapy. the patient with stroke practices grasping and ma- perkinetic disorder such as cerebellar ataxia. Full ROM and
nipulating objects during daily tasks using the more affected easy controlled re\"er als of direction are expected in normal
UE 4 to 6 hours per day, every day. The less affected UE may controlled mobilit;. function.
be constrained with a mitt or sling, thereby preventing all The abilit;. to shift weight onto one side and free the
attempts for compensatory movements. opposite limb for non-\\eightbearing dynamic activity is
CHA?-= - . Frame\\ork for Clinical Dccision-\Iaking 7
also evidence of controlled mobilit) function (sometimes actions of body and limb segments. Thus the trunk and prox-
called static-dynamic colltro[,. The initial weight shift and imal segments stabilize while the distal limbs complete the
redistributed weight bearing pIa 'e increased demands on skilled action (e.g.. eating with a knife and fork or dressing).
support segments while the d~ namic limb challenges con- Skills are learned and task specific. Acquisition is the direct
trol. For example, a patient with traumatic brain injury re ult of practice and experience. Skill in one task does not
(TBl) is positioned in quadruped (all fours) and is able to necessarily canoy over to another task without additional
lift first one UE. then the other. or opposite upper and practice and experience. Adaptation refers to the ability to
lower extremities. Or in sitting. the patient is able to reach modify a skill in response to changing task and environmen-
forward and sideward in all directions without losing sit- tal demands. Thus a learned skill such as a transfer from bed
ting stability. to wheelchair is adapted to permit an individual to transfer
Deficits in controlled mobility range from postural in- successfully from wheelchair to toilet or wheelchair to car. It
stability and falls to poorly controlled and limited dynamic is important to distinguish ability from skill. Motor ability is
limb movements. A major distinguishing factor between the general capacity of an individual to perform a skill or task
normal and abnormal controlled mobility function is the de- and is based on stable characteristics or traits that are genet-
gree to which core muscles (trunk and proximal limbs) can ically defined and not influenced by practice. For example, a
stabilize effectively during the limb movements. professional athlete demonstrates a high degree of abilities
(e.g., eye-hand coordination and neuromuscular control) re-
quired to successfully playa competitive sport.
Skill
Motor skills are varied and serve a large variety of action
A skill is an action that has a specific goal and requires a co- goals. Classification systems have been developed to organize
ordinated movement sequence to achieve the goal. Several motor skills into general categories based on components,
characteristics are common to skilled movements. Skills goals, and contexts in which they must be performed. The
have a specific purpose such as investigation and interaction terms may serve as anchor points along a continuum (e.g.,
with the physical and social environment (e.g., grasp and ma- open skill versus closed skill). It is important to remember that
nipulation of objects or walking). Skills require voluntary skills can fall anywhere along that continuum. not just at either
control; thus reflexes or involuntary movements cannot be end. Box 1.3 provides general definitions for the different clas-
considered skilled movements. The term skill also designates sifications of motor skills.
quality of performance. Thus skilled movements are charac- Motor skill performance also has been defined by the
terized by consistency, fluency, precise timing, and economy timing of movement. Reaction time (RT) is the interval of
of effort in achieving the target goal (e.g., how well an indi- time between the onset of the initial stimulus to move and
vidual accomplishes the action). Skills require coordinated the initiation of a movement response. JJorement time (MT)
Ability: A genetically predetermined characteristic or trait • Discrete motor skills: Skills that have distinct
of an individual that underlies performance of certain beginning and end points defined by the task itself
motor skills. (e.g., locking the brake on a wheelchair).
Motor skill: An action or task that has a goal to achieve; • Serial motor skills: Skills that are discrete or
acquisition of skill is dependent on practice and experience individual skills put together in a series. (e.g., the
and is not genetically defined. Alternative definition: an highly individual steps required to transfer from a
indicator of the quality of performance. bed to a wheelchair).
• Continuous motor skills: Skills that have arbitrary
• Gross motor skills: Motor skills that involve large
beginning and end points defined by the performer
musculature and a goal where precision of
or some external agents (e.g., swimming, running).
movement is not important to the successful
• Simple motor skills: Movements that involve a single
execution of the skill (e.g., running or jumping).
motor program that produces an individual
• Fine motor skills: Motor skills that require control of
movement response (e.g., kicking a ball while sitting
small muscles of the body to achieve the goal of skill;
in a chair).
this type of task (e.g., writing, typing, or buttoning a
• Complex motor skills: Movements that involve
shirt) typically requires a high level of eye-hand
multiple actions and motor programs combined to
coordination.
produce a coordinated movement response (e.g.,
• Closed motor skill: A skill performed in a sab,e
running and kicking a soccer ball during a game).
or predictable environment (e.g., walking in a
• Dual-task skills: Movements that involve
quiet hall).
simultaneous actions (motor programs) performed
• Open motor skill: A skill performed in a variab e
together (e.g., walking and carrying a tray, walking
or unpredictable environment (e.g., walking across a
and talking).
busy gym).
8 PART I Promoting Function: Conceptual Element'>
Mobility Ability to move from one Rolling; supine-to-sit; Failure to initiate or sustain
position to another sit-to-stand; transfers movements through the
range; poorly controlled
movements
is generally less successful \\ ith skills that have highly inte- clinical de ision-making process. Assets include the pa-
grated parts, such as walking. In this situation, it is generally tient's strengths. abilities, and positive behaviors or helping
better to implement practice of the criterion skill (whole- strategie that can be reinforced and emphasized during
task training) as soon as possible. The successes therapists therapy. This gives the therapist an opportunity to provide
have had with locomotor training using body weight support positi\'e reinforcement and allows the patient to experience
and a motorized treadmill (discussed in Chapter 8 and Case success. Improved motivation and adherence are the natural
Study 3) illustrates this point. outcomes of reinforcement of patient assets and successes.
is critical in interpreting environmental cues and adapting whoe' n= ocial SUppOlt over individuals who do not
our actions. ha\e . De able to provide assistance. Social isolation is a
Box 1.4 provides definitions of terms related to motor frequent ou -orne of lack of social support.
function and the environment. The reader i referred to Chapter 2 in O'Sullivan and
Schmitz° for a thorough discussion of these topics. The ther-
Attitudinal (Psychosocial) Factors api t needs to be able to accurately identify and understand
the impa t of the e factors on the patient undergoing reha-
A number of attitudinal (psychosocial) factors can influence
bilitation in order to plan successful interventions. Empow-
an individual's ability to successfully participate in rehabil-
ering patient and their families is key to ensuring success-
itation, including motivation, personality factors, emotional
ful outcomes. Patients need to be helped to develop goals
state, spirituality, life roles, and educational level. Preexist-
based on their needs. values, and level of functioning.
ing psychiatric and psychosocial conditions can have a
The successful plan will optimize patient and family/
marked impact on rehabilitation training and outcomes. It is
caregiver involvement. This includes involvement in goal
important to remember that psychosocial adaptation to dis-
setting, selection of activities. as well as ongoing evaluation
ability and chronic illness is an ongoing and evolving
of progress. Patients need to be encouraged to solve their
process. At any point in an episode of care, patients can
own problems as movement challenges are presented. They
exhibit grief. mourning, anxiety, denial, depression, anger,
also need to be challenged to critique their own movements
acknowledgment, or adjustment. Coping style is also an
with questions like: "How did you do that time?" and "How
important variable. Patients with effective coping strategies
can you improve your next attempt?" Complex training
are able to participate in rehabilitation better, seeking the
activities can be difficult and frustrating; for example, prac-
information they need and demonstrating effective problem-
ticing sit-to-stand transitions challenges control of large
solving skills. They are also able to better utilize social sup-
segments of the body and balance through activities that de-
ports and are likely to have more positive outcomes. Patients
crease BaS and elevate COM. These are skills that not only
with maladaptive coping skills are likely to fix blame and
are important to patients but also were previously performed
are less able to participate effectively in rehabilitation.
with little effort or conscious thought. It is important to mo-
Avoidance and escape along with substance abuse are exam-
tivate and support patients. For example, the therapist can
ples of maladaptive behaviors.
begin a training session with those functional skills that the
patient can master or almost master, thereby letting the pa-
Social Environment
tient experience success. The therapist can then challenge
Adequate social support is critical in helping patients achieve skill development by having the patient practice a number of
favorable outcomes. Spouses, family, and signiticant others more difficult task variations. It is equally important to end
can offer considerable help in the form of emotional support, treatment sessions with a relatively easy task so that the pa-
financial support, and physical assistance. Rehabilitation out- tient leaves the session with a renewed feeling of success
comes and quality of life are dramatically improved in patients and motivation to continue rehabilitation.
Skill movements are shaped to the specific environments • Self-paced skills: Movements that are initiated at will
in which they occur. and whose timing is controlled or modified by the
Anticipation-timing (time-to-contact): The ability to time individual (e.g., walking).
movements to a target or an event (e.g., an obstacle) in • Externally paced skills: Movements that are initiated
the environment, requiring precise control of and paced by dictates of the external environment
movements (e.g., running to kick a soccer ball). (e.g., walking in time with a metronome).
Regulatory conditions: Those features of the
Visual proprioception: Gibson's concept that vision can
environment to which movement must be molded in
serve as a strong basis for perception of the movements
order to be successful (e.g., stepping on a moving
and positions of the body in space.3Ip469)
walkway or into a revolving door).
• Closed skills: Movements performed in a stable or
fixed environment (e.g., activities practiced in a quiet
room).
• Open skills: Movements performed in a changing or
variable environment (e.g., activities practiced in a
busy gym).
frame\\ork for Clinical Decision-l\laking 11
SUMMARY
This chapter has presented an 0\ en'iew of clinical decision-
making and the component that mu t be considered in de-
veloping an effective POc. ucce fuJ intervention is based
on an understanding of motor function and consideration of
three basic elements: the ta k. the individual's perfonnance
capabilities, and the environment.
REFERENCES
I. The World Health Organi/ation. International Cla"ification of
Functioning. Disabilit). and Health Re,ource, (ICF). World Health
Organil.ation. Geneva. S" it/erland. 1001.
2. American Physical Therapy Association. Guide to Physical Therapist
Practice. ed 2. Phys Ther 81 : I, 200 I.
3. Schmidt. R, and Lee. T. Motor Control and Learning-A Behavioral
Emphasis, ed 4. Human Kinetics. Champaign. IL, 2005.
4. Shumway-Cook. A. and Woollacolt, M. Motor Control-Translating
Research into Clinical Practice. ed 3. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Philadelphia, 2007.
5. O'Sullivan. SB. and SchmitL. TJ. Physical Rehabilitation, ed 5.
FA Davis. Philadelphia, 2007.
CHAPTER 1
L areful examination and evaluation of impairments, deficiencies (Fig. 2.1). Equally important is an understanding
activity limitations, and participation restrictions enables the of their indications and contraindications.
therapist to identify movement deficiencies that will be tar-
geted for training. Functional training, defined as an activity-
based, task-oriented intervention, frequently forms the basis Task Analysis
of the physical rehabilitation plan of care (POC). In order to
be most effective, task-oriented training should be intensive Activity-based task analysis is the process of breaking
and shaped to the patient's capabilities as well as integrate an activity down into its component parts to understand
active learning strategies using motor learning principles. and evaluate the demands of a task. It begins with an under-
Some patients with limited motor function who are unable to standing of normal movements and normal kinesiology
perform voluntary movements may benefit from augmented associated with the task. The therapist examines and evalu-
training strategies during early recovery. This can take the ates the patient's performance and analyzes the differences
form of guided. assisted, or facilitated movements. Neuro- compared to "typical" or expected pelformance. Critical skills
motor approaches such as Proprioceptive Neuromuscular in this process include: accurate observation, recognition and
Facilitation (PNF) and Neuro-Developmental Treatment interpretation of movement deficiencies, determination of
('\'DT) incorporate a number of these strategies that can how underlying impairments relate to the movements, and
serve as a bridge to later active functional movements. Pa- determination of how the environment affects the move-
tients with severe impairments and limited recovery potential ments observed. The therapist evaluates what needs to
(e.g., the patient with complete spinal cord injury) benefit be altered and determines how (i.e., what are the blocks or
from compellSatory training designed to promote optimal obstacles to moving in the COITect pattern and how can they
function using altered strategies and intact body segments. be changed). For example, the patient who is unable to
The successful therapist understands the full continuum of in- transfer from bed to wheelchair may lack postural trunk
tervention strategies available to aid patients with movement support (stability), adequate lower extremity (LE) extensor
INTERVENTIONS
FIGURE 2.1 Training to improve motor unc ion in ervention approaches and strategies
Abbreviations: KP, Knowledge of Per ormance KR. Knowledge of Results; NOT.
Neuro-Developmental Treatment: PNF, Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation.
12
CHAPTER 2 Intervention to lrnpro\e .\Iotor Control and Motor Learning 13
control (strength), and rotational ontrol of the trunk (con- step of the a tivity. The term environmental demands refers
trolled mobility). In addition. the patient who is recovering to the phy ical characteristics of the environment required for
from traumatic brain injur) (TBl) may be highly dis- successful performance. Questions posed in Box 2.1 can be
tractible and demonstrate e\'erely limited attention. The used as a guide for qualitative task analysis.
busy clinic environment in which the activity is performed Filming performance is a useful tool to examine pa-
renders this patient incapable of listening to instructions or tients with marked movement disturbances (e.g., the patient
concentrating on the activity. Sociocultural influences must with pronounced ataxia or dyskinesias). Filming allows the
also be considered in gaining understanding of the patient's therapist to review performance repeatedly without unneces-
performance. For example, in some cultures close hands-on sarily tiring the patient. Filmed motor tasks can also serve as
assistance may be viewed as a violation of the patient's per- a useful training strategy to aid patients in understanding
sonal space or inappropriate if the therapist is of the oppo- their movement deficiencies.
site gender.
Categories of activities include basic activities of daily
living or BADL (self-care tasks such as dressing, feeding, and Activity-Based, Task-Oriented
bathing) and instrumental ADL or IADL (home management Intervention
tasks such as cooking, cleaning, shopping, and managing a
checkbook). Functional mobility skills (FMS) are defined as Activity-based, task-oriented intervention is guided by evalu-
those skills involved in moving by changing body position or ation of functional status and activity level data. The therapist
location. Examples of FMS include rolling, supine-to-sit, sit- selects activities and modifies task demands to detennine an
to-stand, transfers, stepping, walking, and running. The term appropriate POc. Extensive practice and appropriate patient
activity demands refers to the requirements imbedded in each feedback are essential to enhance the reacquisition of skills
A. What are the normal requirements of the functional 5. If abnormal, are the movements compensatory
activity being observed? and functional or noncompensatory and
1. What is the overall movement sequence (motor nonfunctional?
plan)? 6. What are the underlying impairments that
2. What are the initial conditions required? Starting constrain or impair the movements?
position and initial alignment? 7. Do the movement errors increase over time? Is
3. How and where is the movement initiated? fatigue a constraining factor?
4. How is the movement performed? 8. Is this a mobility level activity? Are the
5. What are the musculoskeletal and biomechanical requirements met?
components required for successful completion of 9.ls this a stability level activity? Are the
the task? Cognitive and sensory/perceptual requirements met?
components? 10. Is this a controlled mobility level activity? Are the
6. Is this a mobility, stability, controlled mobility or requirements met?
skill activity? 11. Is this a skill level activity? Are the requirements
7. What are the requirements for timing, force, and met?
direction of movements? 12. Are the requirements for postural control and
8. What are the requirements for postural control and balance met? Is patient safety maintained
balance? throughout the activity?
9. How is the movement terminated? 13. What environmental factors constrain or impair
10. What are the environmental constraints that must the movements?
be considered? 14. Can the patient adapt to changing environmental
demands?
B. How successful is the patient's overall movement in 15. What difficulties do you expect this patient will
terms of outcome? have in other environments?
1. Was the overall movement sequence completed 16. Can the patient effectively analyze his or her own
(successful outcome)? movements and adapt to changing activity or task
2. What components of the patient's movemen s are demands?
normal? Almost normal? 17. What difficulties do you expect this patient will
3. What components of the patient's movemen a e have with other functional activities?
abnormal? 18. Are there any sociocultural factors that might
4. What components of the patient's movemen a e influence performance?
missing? Delayed?
and recovery. For example, training the patient with stroke fo- ~ _:~ S ·.28"'~ess and loss of flexibility. It prevents learned
cuses on use of the more involved extremities during daily non ~:e ::~ -ne...., re Involved segments while stimulating
tasks, while use of the less involved extremities is minimized reco,s-, ::~ -~e cen'ral nervous system, or eNS
(e.g., constraint-induced [CI] movement therapy).I ..J Initial (reu' 0 as- c ,)
tasks are selected to ensure patient success and motivation
(e.g., grasp and release of a cup, forward reach for upper ex- The election and use of activities depend on the move-
tremity rUE] dressing). ment potential. degree of recovery, and severity of motor
Using partial body weight support and a motorized deficits the patient exhibits. Patients who are not able to pattic-
treadmill provides a means of early locomotor training for ipate in ta k-oriented training include those who lack initial
patients with stroke or incomplete spinal cord injury.s.9 voluntary control or have limited cognitive function. The pa-
Tasks are continually altered to increase the level of diffi- tient with TBI who is in the early recovery stages has limited
culty. Motor learning strategies are utilized, including potential to participate in training that involves complex activ-
behm-iural shaping techniques that use reinforcement and ities. Similarly, patients with stroke who experience profound
reward to promote skill development. This approach repre- UE paralysis would not be eligible for activity training empha-
sents a shift away from the traditional neuromotor approaches sizing the UE. One of the consistent exclusion criteria for
that utilize an extensive hands-on approach (e.g., guided or fa- CI therapy has been the inability to perform voluntary wrist
cilitated mO\·ements). While initial movements can be assisted, and finger extension of the involved hand. Thus threshuld
a tiye mO\'ements are the overall goal in functional training. abilities to perform the basic components of the task need to
The therapist's role is one of coach, structuring practice and be identified. The therapist needs to answer the question:
prO\'iding appropliate feedback while encouraging the patient. What can the patient do or almost do? Careful analysis of
Box 2.2 presents a summary of task-Oliented training strate- underlying impairments with a focus on intervention (e.g.,
gie to promote function-induced recovery. strength, range of motion [ROMJ) complements activity-
based, task-oriented training. For example, during locomotor
Clinical "lote: Activity-based, task-oriented training training using body weight support (BWS) and a motorized
effectively counteracts the effects of immobility treadmill (TM), stepping and pelvic motions are guided into
and the development of indirect impairments such as an efficient motor pattern. Patients need to demonstrate
Focus on early activity as soon as possible after injury • Provide explicit verbal feedback to improve
or insult to utilize specific windows of opportunity, movement accuracy and learning and correct errors;
challenge brain functions, and avoid learned nonuse: promote the patient's own error detection and
"Use it or lose it:' correction abilities.
Consider the individual's past history, health status, • Provide verbal rewards for small improvements in
age, and experience in designing appropriate, task performance to maintain motivation.
interesting, and stimulating functional activities. • Provide modeling (demonstrations) of ideal task
Involve the patient in goal setting and decision-making, performance as needed.
thereby enhancing motivation and promoting active • Increase the level of difficulty over time.
commitment to recovery and functional training. • Promote practice of task variations to promote
Structure practice utilizing activity-based, task-oriented adaptation of skills.
interventions. • Maximize practice: include both supervised and
• Select tasks important for independent function; unsupervised practice; use an activity log to document
include tasks that are important to the patient. practice outside of scheduled therapy sessions.
• Identify the patient's abilities/strengths and level of Structure context-specific practice.
recovery/learning; choose tasks that have potential • Promote initial practice in a supportive environment,
for patient success. free of distracters to enhance attention and
• Target active movements involving affected body concentration.
segments; constrain or limit use of less involved • Progress to variable practice in real-world
segments. environments.
• Avoid activities that are too difficult and result in Maintain focus on therapist's role as coach while
compensatory strategies or abnormal, stereotypical minimizing hands-on therapy.
movements. Continue to monitor recovery closely and document
• Provide adequate repetition and extensive practice as progress using valid and reliable functional outcome
appropriate. measures.
• Assist (guide) the patient to successfully carry out Be cautious about timetables and predictions, as
initial movements as needed; reduce assistance in recovery and successful outcomes may take longer
favor of active movements as quickly as possible. than expected.
essential prerequisites of ba-i head and trunk stability dur- progres ion in training is then to more upright postures such
ing upright positioning to be on idered appropriate candi- as sitting and tanding. Box 2.3 identifies the potential treat-
dates for this type of training. ment benefits of different postures and activities.
The therapist also needs to consider the postures in
which training occurs. As postures progress in difficulty by el-
Impairments
evating the center of mass (COM) and decreasing the base of
support (BOS), more and more body segments must becoor- Identifying and correcting impairments (e.g., limited range of
dinated (presenting a degrees offreedom problem). Patients motion, decreased strength) are essential elements in improv-
are likely to demonstrate increasing problems in synergistic ing functional pelformance. The therapist must accurately
control, posture, and balance. Thus the patient with TEl and identify those impairments that are linked to deficits in func-
significant movement deficiencies (e.g .. pronounced ataxia) tional pelformance. An inability to stand up or climb stairs
may need to begin activity training in more stable postures may be linked to weakness of hip and knee extensors. A
such as quadruped or modified plantigrade. With recovery, strengthening program that addresses these impairments can be
BOX 2.3 Postures: Primary Focus, Potential Treatment Benefits, and Activitieso
Quadruped
All fours position (hands and knees) • Focus on improving trunk, LE, UE, and neck/head
Weightbearing at knees, through extended elbows and control
hands • Improve trunk, hip, shoulder, and elbow stabilizers
Stable posture • Decrease extensor tone at knees by prolonged
Wide BOS weightbearing
Low COM • Decrease flexor tone at elbows, wrists, and hands by
prolonged weightbearing
• Promote extensor ROM at elbows, wrists, and fingers
• Lead up for I plantigrade activities, floor-to-standing
transfers, antigravity balance control
• Activities in posture: holding, weight shifting, UE
reaching, LE lifts, assumption of posture, locomotion
on all fours
Bridging
Weightbearing at feet and ankles, upper trunk • Focus on improving lower trunk and LE control
Stable posture • Improve hip and ankle stabilizers
Wide BOS • Weightbearing at feet and ankles
Low COM • Lead-up for bed mobility, sit-to-stand transfers,
standing, and stair climbing
• Activities in posture: holding, weight shifting,
assumption of posture, LE lifts
Sitting
Weightbearing through trunk and at bu 0 S -:"~ • Focus on improving upper trunk, lower trunk, LE, and
Can include weightbearing through extencec :: .. s head/neck control
and on hands • Important for upright balance control
Intermediate BOS • Lead-up for UE ADL skills; wheelchair locomotion
Intermediate height COM • Activities in posture: holding, weight shifting, UE
reaching, assumption of posture
(box continues on page 16)
16 PART I Promoting Function: Con~eplllal Elements
BOX 2.3 Postures: Primary Focus, Potential Treatment Be e:-'s :~: :::;-, '"s: continued)
Modified plantigrade
Standing with weightbearing on hands through • Focus on improving head/neck, trunk, and UE/LE
extended elbows (on support surface) and through control in supported, modified upright posture
trunk, LEs • Decrease tone in elbow, wrist, and finger flexors by
Modified upright antigravity position prolonged weightbearing
Stable posture • Increase extensor ROM at elbows, wrists, and fingers
Wide BOS • Hips flexed, COM forward of weight bearing line
High COM creating an extension moment at the knee
• Increased safety for early standing (four-limb posture)
• Lead-up for upright balance control, standing and
stepping; standing UE ADL tasks
• Activities in posture: holding, weight shifting, UE
reaching, LE stepping, assumption of posture
Standing
Weightbearing through trunk and LEs • Focus on improving head/neck, trunk, and LE control in
Full upright, antigravity position fully upright posture
Narrow BOS • Hips and knees fully extended
High COM • Lead-up for upright balance control, stepping,
locomotion, stair climbing; standing UE ADL skills
• Activities in posture: holding, weight shifting, UE
reaching, LE stepping, assumption of posture
Abbreviations: ADL, activities of daily living; BaS, base of support; COM, center of mass; I, independent;
LE, lower extremity; UE, upper extremity; ROM, range of motion,
'Adapted from O'Sullivan and Schmitz,'O
expected to improve function. Interventions can include tra- to improved function in sit-to-stand or stair climbing can be
ditional muscle-strengthening techniques (e.g., progressive expected to be greater when the muscle performance and neu-
resistance training utilizing weights and open-chain exer- romuscular adaptation requirements during the functional
cises). Task-specific, functional training activities can also be . training tasks closely approximate the desired skill.
utilized. For example, the patient who is unable to stand up
independently can practice sit-to-stand training first from a
Guided Movement
high seat; as control improves, the seat is gradually lowered to
standard height. The patient with difficulty in stair climbing During initial training, the therapist may provide manual
can first practice step-ups using a low. 4-inch step: as control assistance during early movement attempts. This can take
improves, the height of the step can be increased to standard the form of passive movements quickly progressing to active-
height. The activity modification reduces the overall range in assistive movements. Guidance (hands-on assistance) is
which muscles must perform. making it po sible for the used to help the learner gain an initial understanding of
patient to successfully complete the acti\·it). The e examples task requirements. During early assisted practice, the ther-
illustrate an important training principle-that i . specificity of apist can substitute for the missing elements, stabilize pos-
training. The physiological adaptation to exer ise training are ture or parts of a limb. constrain unwanted movements, and
highly specific to the type of training utilized. Tran fer effects guide the patient to\\ ard correct movements. For example,
CHAPTER 2 lntenention., I" ImproH \Iotor Control and Motor Learning 17
constraining or holding the patient to ensure an upright sit- BOX 2.4 G Ided Movements: Questions to Consider
ting po ture and shoulder ,t bilization in a position of 'or Anticipating Patient Needso
function (70 degrees of ~houlder tlexion) allows the patient
• What are the critical elements of the task necessary for
to focus on and control earl~ hand-to-mouth movements.
movement success?
This reduces the number of bod) segments the patient
• How can I help the patient focus on these critical
must effectively control. thereby reducing the degrees of elements?
freedom. Guided mO\'ement also allows the learner to ex- • How much assistance is needed to ensure successful
perience the tactile and kinesthetic inputs inherent in the performance?
movements-that is. to learn the sensation of movement. • When are the demands for my assistance the greatest?
The supportive use of hands can allay fears and instill con- The least?
fidence while ensuring safety. For example, the patient • How should I position my body to assist the patient
effectively during the movement without interfering
recovering from stroke with impaired sensation and per-
with the movement?
ception can be manually guided through early weight shifts • When and how can I reduce the level of my assistance?
and sit-to-stand transfers. The therapist must anticipate the • What verbal cues are needed to ensure successful
patient's needs and how best to provide assistance. As the performance?
need for manual guidance decreases, the patient assumes • When and how can I reduce the level of my verbal cues?
active control of movements. The overall goal of training • At what point is the patient ready to assume active
control of the movement?
is active movement control and trial-and-enor discovery
• How can I foster independent practice and critical
learning.
decision-making skills that allow for adaptability
of skills?
Verbal Instructions and Cueing
'Adapted from O'Sullivan and Schmitz.'
Verbal instructions prepare the patient for correct movement
and assist the patient in learning "what to do." The therapist
needs to help the patient focus on critical task elements in Red Flag: Overuse of manually guided movements
order to maximize early movement success. Timing cues or verbal cueing is likely to result in dependence on
assist the patient in premovement preparatory adjustments the therapist for assistance, thus becoming a "crutch." It is
that focus on learning "when to move," For example, during important not to persist in excessive levels of assistance
sit-to-stand transfers the therapist instructs the patient: "On long after the patient needs such support. This may result
three, I want you to shiff your weight forward over yourfeet in the patient becoming overly dependent on the thera-
and stand up. One, two, three." Verbal cueing during prac- pist (the "my therapist syndrome"). In this situation,
tice is used to provide feedback and assist the patient in the patient responds to the efforts of assistance from
someone new with comments such as, "You're not doing
modifying and conecting movements. Normally the cere-
bellum drives motor learning and adaptation through the use
it correctly, my therapist does it this way" This is strong
evidence of an overdependence on the original therapist
of intrinsic sensory feedback information (somatosensory,
and the assistance being given.
visual, and vestibular inputs). In the absence of intrinsic
feedback or with an inability to conectly use intrinsic feed-
Parts-to-Whole Practice
back, verbal cues (augmented feedback) may be necessary.
The therapist needs to select critical cues and refocus the Some complex motor skills can be effectively broken down
patient on recognizing intrinsic error signals associated into component pat1S for practice. Practice of the component
with movement or coming from the en\'ironment. Once the parts is followed closely by practice of the integrated whole
movement is completed, the patiem . hould be a ked to eval- task. For example, during initial wheelchair transfer training,
uate performance ("HoI\' did yOIl do?") and then to recom- the transfer steps are practiced (e.g., locking the brakes, lifting
mend corrections (" What do yOll need TO do differenTly neXT the foot pedals, moving forwat'd in the chair, standing up, piv-
time to ensure success? ''). This help to keep the focu on oting, and sitting down). During the same therapy session, the
active movement control and trial-and-enor di. o\ef) learn- transfer is also practiced as a whole. Delaying practice of the
ing. Box 2.4 poses relevant question for the therapi t to integrated whole can interfere with learning of the whole task.
consider for anticipating patient need".
Clinical Note: Ports-to-whole practice is most
Clinical Note: The key to success r _5 -;;; ;;; _ ::2-:: effective with discrete or serial motor tasks that
movements is to promote active vc:;-::~ ::" :::::- 'Ia e highly independent parts (e.g" transfers). Parts-to-
as possible, providing only as much aSSIS'or::~ ::: ,', r Ie practice is less effective for continuous movement
needed and removing assistance as soar C5 :::::: :: ~ .'.: -::s s (e.g" walking) and for complex tasks with highly inte-
manual guidance is reduced, verbal cueing ::::- :.:::', ;;-c'ed parts (e.g., fine motor hand skills). Both require a
tute. Guidance is most effective for slow pos'v'::: ';0- -;:- egree of coordination with spatial and temporal
sponses (positioning tasks) and less effective c_' -;; :2-::ue cing of elements. For these tasks, emphasis on the
rapid or ballistic tasks. ::--:::::-~e of the integrated whole is desirable.
18 PART I Promoting Function: Conceptual Elements
Motor leaming is defined as "a set of internal processes • Perfonnance test: An examination of observable
associated with practice or experience leading to relatively impro ements with attention to the quality of
permanent changes in the capability for skilled behavior."111]J4661 movements and the success of movement outcomes
after a period of skill practice.
Learning a motor skill is a complex process that requires
• Retention: The ability of the learner to demonstrate a
spatial, temporal, and hierarchical organization of the CNS. learned skill over time and after a period of no practice
Changes in the CNS are not directly observable but rather are (termed a retention interval).
inferred from changes in motor behavior. • Retention test: An examination of a learned skill
administered after a period of no practice (retention
interval).
Measures of Motor Learning • Generalizability (adaptability of skills): The ability to
Peljormance changes result from practice or experience apply a learned skill to the performance of other
similar or related skills.
and are a frequently used measure of learning. For example,
• Resistance to contextual change (adaptability of
with practice an individual is able to develop appropriate context): The ability to perform a learned skill in
sequencing of movement components with improved timing altered environmental situations.
and reduced effort and concentration. Performance, how- • Transfer test: An examination of performance of similar
ever. is not always an accurate reflection of learning. It is or related skills compared to a previously learned skill.
possible to practice enough to temporarily improve perform-
ance but not retain the learning. Conversely, factors such
as fatigue, anxiety, poor motivation, and medications may a useful framework for describing the learning process and
cause performance to deteriorate, although learning may for organizing intervention strategies.
still occur. Because performance can be affected by a num-
ber of factors, it may reflect a temporary change in motor Cognitive Stage
behavior seen during practice sessions. Retention is an im- During the initial cognitive stage of learning, the major task
portant measure of learning. It is the ability of the learner is to develop an overall understanding of the skill, called the
to demonstrate the skill over time and after a period of no cognitive map or cognitive plan. This decision-making phase
practice (retention inten-al). A retention test looks at per- of "what to do" requires a high level of cognitive processing
formance after a retention interval and compares it to the as the learner performs successive approximations of the task,
performance observed during the original learning trial. Per- discarding strategies that are not successful and retaining
formance can be expected to decrease slightly, but it should those that are. The resulting trial-and-error practice initially
return to original levels after relatively few practice trials yields uneven performance with frequent errors. Processing
(termed warm-up decrement). For example, riding a bike is of sensory cues and perceptual-motor organization eventually
a well-learned skill that is generally retained even though an leads to the selection of a motor strategy that proves reason-
individual may not have ridden for years. The ability to ably successful. Because the learner progresses from an
apply a learned skill to the learning of other similar tasks initially disorganized and often clumsy pattern to more orga-
is termed adaptability or generali:ability and is another nized movements, improvements in pelformance can be read-
important measure of learning. A transfer test looks at ily observed during this acquisition phase. The learner relies
the ability of the individual to perform variations of the heavily on vision to guide early learning and movement.
original skill (e.g., performing step-ups to climbing stairs
and curbs). The time and effort required to organize and Strategies to Enhance Learning
perform these new skill variations efficiently are reduced The overall goal during the early cognitive stage of learning
if learning the original skill was adequate. Finally, resist- is to facilitate task understanding and organize early prac-
ance to contextual change is another measure of learning. tice. The learner's knowledge of the skill and its critical task
This is the adaptability required to perform a motor task in elements must be ascertained. The therapist should highlight
altered environmental situations. Thus, an individual who the purpose of the skill in a functionally relevant context.
has learned a skill (e.g., walking with a cane on indoor level The task should seem important, desirable, and realistic to
surfaces) should be able to apply that learning to new learn. The therapist should demonstrate the task exactly as it
and variable situations (e.g., walking outdoors or walking should be done (i.e., coordinated action with smooth timing
on a busy sidewalk). Box 2.5 defines measures of motor and ideal performance speed). This helps the learner develop
learning. 11 an internal cognitive map or reference of correctness. At-
tention should be directed to the desired outcome and criti-
cal task elements. The therapist should point out similarities
Stages of Motor Learning
to other learned tasks so that subroutines that are part of
The process of motor leaming has been described by Fitts other motor programs can be retrieved from memory.
and Posnerl 2 as OCCUlTing in relati\·el;. distin t tages. termed Highly skilled indi\iduals who have been successfully
cognitive, associatil'e. and aIilOIlOIllOliS. The~estages provide discharged from rehabilitation can be expert models for
'- HAPTER 2 lntcncntion to ImproH \lotor Control and \lotor Learning 19
demon~tration.Their ~uccc" In ·un.:rioning in the "real world" self-a" e motor performance and recogniLe intrin~ically
will al~o have a po~iti\'e ctlcctln mllli\ ating patients new to re- (naturall~ 'ulTing feedback during the movement. Prac-
habilitation. For example. it I' \ c,": uifticult for a therapist with tice ,hould be \aried. encouraging practice of variations of
full u~e of muscles to <lccuratcl~ uemonstrate appropriate the kill and gradually vaJ'ying the environment. For example.
tran~fer skills to an indi\iuual \\ nh C6 complete tetraplegia the leamer practice bed-to-wheelchair transfers. wheelchair-
(American Spinal Injur~ A, ociation [ASIAl Impairment to-mat tran fer.. \-\ heelchair-to-toilet tran~fers. and finally
Scale designation of A). A fOllller patient 'With a similar level wheelchair-to-car transfers. The therapist reduces hands-on
of injury can accurately uemon,trate ho'W the skill should be as.i~tance. which is generally counterproductive by this stage.
pelt·ormed. Demonstration ha, abo been shown to be effective The focus should be on the leaJ'ner's active control and active
in producing learning even with unskilled patient models. In decision-making in modifying skills in this stage of learning.
this situation the leamer/patient benefits from the cognitive
processing and problem-solving as he or she watches the un- Autonomous Stage
skilled model and evaluates the ped'ormance, identifying er- The final or autOl/011l0U.l' stage of learning is characterized
rors, and generating corrections. Demonstrations can also be by motor performance that, after considerable practice. is
filmed. Developing a visual library of demonstrations of largely automatic. There is only a minimal level of cognitive
skilled former patients is a useful strategy to ensure the avail- monitoring. with motor programs so refined they can almost
ability of effective models. The learner's initial performance "run themselves." The spatial and temporal components of
trials can also be recorded for later viewing and analysis. movement are becoming highly organized, and the learner is
During initial practice. the therapist should give clear capable of coordinated movement patterns. The learner is
and concise verbal instructions and not overload the leamer no\-\ free to concentrate on other aspects of performance.
with excessive or wordy instructions. The overall goal is to such as "how to succeed" in difficult environments or at
prepare the patient for movement and reduce uncel1ainty. It is competitive sports. Movements are largely error-free with
important to reinforce correct performance with appropriate little interference from environmental distractions. Thus the
feedback and intervene when movement errors become con- leaJ'ner can perform equally well in a stable. predictable
sistent or when safety is an issue. The therapist should /lol environment and in a changing. unpredictable environment.
attempt to correct all the numerous errors that characteri/e this Many patients undergoing active rehabilitation are discharged
stage but rather allow for trial-and-error leaJlling during prac- before achieving this final stage of learning. For these pa-
tice. Feedback, pmiculaJ'ly visual feedback, is impol1ant dur- tients. refinement of skills comes only after continued prac-
ing em'ly leaming. Thus the learner should be directed to "look tice in home and community em ironments. The patient with
at the movement" closely. Practice should allow for adequate TBI and significant cognitive impairment may never achie\e
rest periods and focus on repeated practice of the skill in an this level of independent function, continuing to need struc-
environment conducive to learning. This is generally one that ture and assistance for the rest of his or her life.
is free of distractions (closed environment) because the cogni-
tive demands aJ'e high during this phase of leaJlling. Strategies to Enhance Learning
Training strategies begun during aSSOCIatIve learning are
Associative Stage continued in this final phase. The therapist continues to pro-
During the middle or a.l'.I'ociatire stage of learning, motor mote practice. By this stage, movements should be largely
strategies are refined through continued practice. Spatial and automatic. The therapist can provide distractions to chal-
temporal aspects become organiLed as the movement devel- lenge the learner. If the learner is successful at this stage, the
ops into a coordinated pattern. A~ performance improves. distractions will do little to deteriorate the movements. The
there i~ greater consistency and fewer error" and extraneou therapi~t can al~o incorporate dual-task trail/iI/g. in which
movements. The learner is now concentrating on "ho\\ to the learner is required to perform two separate tash at one
do" the movement rather than on "what to do." Propriocep- time. For example, the patient is required to walk and carry
tive cues become increasingly important. \\ hIle dependen e on a conversation (Walkie- Talkie te\t) or to walk while car-
on visual cues decrease~. Thus the learner leaIll t e\peri- ry ing a tray with a glass of water on it. The learner should
ence the cOlTect "feel of the movement." LeaIllin.= e be equally successful at both tasks performed simultane-
varying length~ of time depending on a number ,- t.. r. ou l~. Only occasional feedback i~ needed from the thera-
wch a~ the nature of the ta~k, prior experience an m 1\ - pi t. focusing on key error~. Massed practice (rest time is
tion of the learner, available feedback. anu organIz 'I mu h le~ than practice time) can be used while promoting
practice. i.10l11g ta k demands in environments that promote open
. II. The leaJ'ner should be confident and accomplished in
Strategies to Enhance Learning ..l'Ion-making from repeated challenges to movement
During this middle stage of learning. the therapi t ,'Cln;lln.I'" hat have been posed by the therapist. The outcome of
to provide feedback. intervening a~ movement elTor a,;e of learning is successful preparation to meet the
con~istent. The learner i~ directed toward an appr,~ 1 .l,k challenges of home. community, and work/play
of propriocepti\e input, associated with the m r nments. Table 2.1 presents a summary of the stages of
(e.g., "HOI\! did Ihar feeP"). The learner is encour . r learning and training strategies.
20 PART I Promoting Function: Conc(>ptual Elemcnt
in which faulty habits and po,ture, must be unlearned before retention of transfer skills can be expected. The constant
the correct movements can be ma,tered. This sometimes oc- challenge of \ ar: ing the task demands provides high COl/-
curs when a patient goes home for an extended period before textl/al I1lterjerence and increases the depth of cognitive
participating in active rehabilitation. The organization of proces. ing through retrieval practice from memory stores.
practice depends on several factor. including the patient's The acquired kills can then be applied more easily to other
motivation, attention span. concentration, endurance, and task variations or environments (promoting adaptability).
the type of task. Additional factors include the frequency of Blocked practice will result in superior initial performance
allowable therapy sessions. which is often dependent on due to low contextual interference and may be required in
hospital scheduling, and the availability of services and pay- certain situations (e.g., the patient with TBI who requires a
ment (socioeconomic factors). For outpatients, practice at high degree of structure and consistency for learning).
home is highly dependent on motivation, family support, Practice order refers to the sequence in which tasks are
and suitable environment as well as a well-constructed HEP. practiced. Blocked order is the repeated practice of a single
Questions that guide and inform clinical decisions task or group of tasks in order with a specified number of tri-
about practice include: als (three trials of task I. three trials of task 2, three trials of
task 3: II 1222333). Serial order is a predictable and repeating
• How should practice periods and rest periods be spaced
order (practicing multiple tasks in the following order:
(distribution of practice)'l
(23123123). Random order is a nonrepeating and nonpre-
• What tasks and task variations should be practiced (mri-
dictable practice order (1233213 I 2). Although skill acquisi-
ability of practice)?
tion can be achieved with all three orders. differences have
• How should the tasks be sequenced (practice orderp
been found, Blocked order produces improved early acquisi-
• How should the environment be structured (closed \'.1'.
tion and performance of skills, while serial and random orders
open )'7
produce better retention and adaptability of skills. This is again
Massed practice refers to a sequence of practice and rest due to contextual intelference and increased depth of cognitive
intervals in which the rest time is milch less than the practice processing. The key element here is the degree to which the
time. Fatigue. decreased performance. and risk of injury are learner is actively involved in memory retrieval. For example,
factors that must be considered when using massed practice. a treatment session can be organized to include practice of a
Distributed practice refers to spaced practice intervals in number of different tasks (e.g., forward-. backward-. and side-
which the practice time is equal to or less than the rest time. stepping, and stair climbing). Random ordering of the tasks
Although learning occurs with both. distributed practice re- may initially delay acquisition of the desired stepping move-
sults in the most learning per training time. although the total ments but over the long-term will result in improved retention
training time is increased. It is the preferred mode for many pa- and adaptability of skills.
tients undergoing active rehabilitation who demonstrate lim- Melltal practice is a practice strategy in which perfor-
ited performance capabilities and endurance. With adequate mance of the motor task is imagined or visualized without oven
rest periods, performance can be improved without the inter- physical practice. Beneticial effects result from the cognitive
fering effects of fatigue or increasing safety issues. Distributed rehearsal of task elements. It is theoriLed that underlying
practice is also beneficial if motivation is low or if the learner motor programs for movement are activated but with sub-
has a shalt attention span. poor concentration. or motor plan- threshold motor activity. Mental practice has been found to
ning deficits (e.g., the patient \\ ith dyspraxia). Distributed promote the acquisition of motor skills. It should be consid-
practice should also be considered if the ta,k itself is complex. ered for patients who fatigue easily and are unable to sustain
is long, or has a high energy cost. ~1a-,sed practice can be con- physical practice. Mental practice is also effective in alleviat-
sidered when motivation and skillle\eb are high and when the ing anxiety associated with initial practice by previewing the
patient has adequate endurance. attention. and concentration. upcoming movement experience. Patients who combine men-
For example, the patient with spinal cord inJur: CI in the tal practice with physical practice can increase the accuracy
final stages of rehabilitation may ,pend Ion; r,,"~ Id~ e ,ions and efficiency of movements at significantly faster rates
acquiring the wheelchair skills needed for 111 e n em ,-om- than subjects who used physical practice alone. Box 2.7
munity mobility. defines practice schedules that can be used to enhance motor
Blocked practice refers to a pracli,e c-: _"'-.-= r;,,- learning.
nized around one task pe/formed repellfufl. . _ -'c-:-'- --e
by the practice of any other task. Ral/dom pra tl Clinical Note: When using mental practice, the
therapist must ensure that the patient under-
a practice sequence in which a variety of la '
:-o"'ds the task and is actively rehearsing the correct
randomly across trials. While both allo\\ t r
-:::. e ents. This can be assured by having the patient
acquisition, random practice has been sho\\ n .> -::~-
~-:::o ze aloud the steps he or she is rehearsing.
rior long-term retention effects. For example. _ .:e
different transfers (e.g., bed-to-wheelchair. \\ h '" • Red Flag: Mental practice is generally contraindi-
toilet, wheelchair-to-tub seat) can be practiced. ::o'ed in patients with cognitive, communication,
the same therapy session. Although skilled pe" :. :::erceptual deficits. These patients typically have
of individual tasks may be initially delay ed. ~-- =-: _-. understanding the idea of the task.
22 PART I Promoting function: Conceptual Element
Associated Stage
Characteristics Tra'ning Sua eg'es
Associated Stage
Characteristics Training Strategies
"How to do" decision • Focus on use of variable feedback (summed, fading, bandwidth) designs to
improve retention.
Organize practice.
• Encourage consistency of performance.
• Focus on variable practice order (serial or random) of related skills to
improve retention.
Structure environment.
• Progress toward open, changing environment.
• Prepare the learner for home, community, work environments.
Autonomous Stage
Characteristics Training Strategies
The learner practices movements Assess need for conscious attention, automaticity of movements.
and continues to refine motor Select appropriate feedback.
responses; spatial and temporal • Learner demonstrates appropriate self-evaluation and decision-making skills.
highly organized, movements are • Provide occasional feedback (KP, KR) when errors are evident.
largely error-free; minimal level
Organize practice.
of cognitive monitoring
• Stress consistency of performance in variable environments, variations of
"How to succeed" decision tasks (open skills).
• High levels of practice (massed practice) are appropriate.
Structure environment.
• Vary environments to challenge learner.
• Ready the learner for home, community, and work environments.
Focus on competitive aspects of skills as appropriate, e.g., wheelchair sports.
"From O'Sullivan and Schmitz, wTable 13.1 Characteristics of Motor Learning Stages and Training Strategies
(with permission).
posture. The development of mJependenl decision-making \'oluntar~ mO\ement abilities are good candidates. These
skills is critical in en,unn~ learning and adaptability intenention, ma~ help the patient bridge the gap between
required for communit) Ii\ ing. absent or ,e\ erel~ disordered movements and active move-
ments. Thus the) are used to "jump start" recovery.
Neuromotor Training Approaches and Red Flag: Once the patient develops adequate
voluntary control, these interventions are generally
Neuromuscular Facilitation Techinques counterproductive and should be discontinued.
A B
FIGURE 2.2 PNF pattern: supine, UE D1F (flexion-adduction-external rotation), with elbow straight. (A) (start of pattern)
The therapist's distal hand is placed in the patient's palm; the proximal hand grips the patient's arm from underneath.
The therapist applies initial stretch and resistance to shoulder flexors, adductors, and external rotators (proximal hand)
and wrist and finger flexors (distal hand). Resistance is maintained as the UE moves through the range to the end
position (8).
A B
FIGURE 2.3 PNF pattern: supine, UE Dl E (extension-abduction-internal rotation), with elbow straight. (A) (start of pattern)
The therapist's distal hand grips the dorsal-ulnar surface of the patient's hand he proximal hand applies pressure to the
posterior-lateral surface of the patien 's arm. The therapist applies initial stre ch and resistance to shoulder extensors,
abductors, and internal rotators (proximal hand) and wrist and finger extensors (dis'a hand), Resistance is maintained
as the UE moves through the range 0 he end position (8).
CHAPTER 2 Inll'rHnlion I I pr H lolor (onlrnl and \Inlor Learning 27
B
FIGURE 2.4 PNF pattern: supine, UE D2F (flexion-obduction-external rotation), with elbow straight, (A) (start of pattern)
The therapist's distai hand grips the dorsal-radial surface of the patient's hand; the proximal hand applies pressure
over the anterior-lateral surface of the patient's arm, The therapist applies initial stretch and resistance to shoulder
flexors, abductors, and external rotators (proximal hand) and wrist and finger extensors (distal hand), Resistance is
maintained as the UE moves through the range to the end position (8).
B~_"""
FIGURE 2.5 PNF pattern: supine, UE D2 E (extension-adduction-internal rotation), with elbow straight, (A) (start of pattern)
The therapist's distal hand is placed in the palm of the patient's hand: the proximal hand provides pressure to the posterior-
medial surface of the patient's arm, The therapist applies initial stretch and resistance to shoulder extensors, adductors,
and internal rotators (proximal hand) and wrist and finger flexors (distal hand), Resistance is maintained as the UE moves
through the range to the end position (8).
lower Extremity Patterns extension. The knee remains straight. Verbal cue:
Terminology: Lower extremity (LE) pattems are "Push your foot down, turn your heel out, and push
named for motions occurring at the prox'''1a joi (hip). down and out toward me."
The intermediate joint (knee) may be e e ded s raight • Intermediate joint action (Fig. 2.8): LE 01F with knee
leg pattern) or moving into flexion or e e si ~ extension, sitting. Verbal cue: "Foot up, heel in, now
(intermediate pivot). kick up and across your body."
• Flexion-adduction-external rotation, or a agona ':Oe on • Intermediate joint action (Fig. 2.9): LE 01E with knee
(01F), supine (Fig. 2.6):The foot dorsi lexes c~:::'- e~s' flexion, sitting. Verbal cue: "Push your foot down, now
the lower limb externally rotates and pu s :J =-- " . ss bend your knee down and out toward me."
the body, moving into hip adduction and' e -- --" • Flexion-abduction-internal rotation, or diagonal 2
knee remains straight. Verbal cue: "Pull YOur: C~ _c ~/exion (02F), supine (Fig. 2.10): The foot dorsiflexes
your heel in, and pull your leg up and across. -_ - - _ and everts; the lower limb internally rotates and lifts
• Extension-abduction-internal rotation, or a a;;:::-; ::> and out, moving into hip abduction and flexion. The
extension (01E), supine (Fig. 2.7):The foot p a--,,-:: __ ~ee remains straight. Verbal cue: "Foot up, turn and
and everts; the lower limb internally rotates an::: :.. our leg up and out toward me."
pushes down and out, moving into hip abdlJc: :::- ::-
FIGURE 2.6 PNF pattern: supine, LE D1F (flexion-adduction-external rotation), with knee straight. (A) (start of pattern) The
therapist's distal hand grips the patient's dorsal-medial foot: the proximal hand applies pressure on the anterior-medial
surface of the patient's thigh just proximal to the knee. The therapist applies initial stretch and resistance to hip flexors,
adductors, and external rotators (proximal hand) and ankle dorsiflexors and invertors (distal hand). Resistance is main-
tained as the LE moves through the range to the end position (8).
8
FIGURE 2.7 PNF pattern: supine, LE D1E (extension-abduction-internai rotation), with knee straight. (A) (start of pattern)
The therapist's distal hand grips the plantar-lateral surface of the patient's foot: the proximal hand applies pressure on
the patient's posterior-lateral thigh. The therapist applies stretch and resistance to hip extensors, abductors, and internal
rotators (proximal hand) and ankle plantarflexors and evertors (distal hand). Resistance is maintained as the LE moves
through the range to the end position (8).
FIGURE 2.8 PNF pattern: sitting. LE Dl F (flexion-adduction-external rotation) with nee extension. (A) (start of position)
The therapist's distal hand grips the patient's dorsal medial foot. The proximal hand applies pressure over the patient's
anterior-medial thigh. The therapist applies stretch and resistance to knee extensors and ankle dorsiflexors (distal hand).
Resistance is maintained as the LE moves t rough the range to the end positlo 0' \J .<nee extension with hip flexion-
adduction-external rotation (8).
CHAPTER 2 Intenentinn- tn Impro\t' \Intor Control and Motor Learning 29
FIGURE 2.9 PNF pattern: sitting, LE D1E (extension-obduction-internal rotation), with knee
flexion. (A) (start of pattern) The therapist's distal hand grips the plantar-lateral surface of the
patient's foot. The proximal hand applies pressure on the patient's posterior-lateral thigh. The
therapist applies stretch to knee flexors and ankle plantarflexors (distal hand). Resistance is
provided as the LE moves through the range to the end position of full knee flexion with hip
abduction and ankle piantarflexion (8).
FIGURE 2.10 PNF pattern: supine. LE D2F ( ex -000 c·ion-internal rotation), with knee straight. (A) (start of pattern) The
therapist's distal hand grips the patien s do c-e'o '00+; he proximal hand applies pressure on the patient's anterior-
lateral thigh. The therapist applies stretc 0 "+0 P exors. abductors, and internal rotators (proximal hand)
and ankle dorsiflexors and evertors (dis7o C c) "(9SS-C ce s provided as the LE moves through the range to the end
position (8).
• Extension-adduction-external rotation, or diago a • Intermediate joint action (Fig. 2.12): D2F with knee
2 extension (D2E), supine (Fig. 2.11 ):The foot pla~:a""'~ 55 flexion, supine. Verbal cue: "Foot up, now bend your
and inverts; the lower limb externally rotates a c ::h.. S~55 knee and lift up and out toward me."
down and in, moving into hip adduction and exte~: 0- • Intermediate joint action (Fig. 2.13): D2E with knee
The knee remains straight. Verbal cue: "Foot do.·.~ ~ ~ extension, supine. Verbal cue: "Push your foot down,
and push your leg down and across your body.' "ow push down and in, straighten your knee."
(box continues on page 30)
30 PART I Pnlmnting tunnioll: ('nlH'Crlllal Elcment',
FIGURE 2.11 PNF pattern: supin'e LE D2E (extension-adduction-external rotation), with knee straight, (A) (start of pattern)
The therapist's distal hand grips the medial-plantar surface of the patient's foot; the proximal hand applies pressure over
he posterior-medial aspect of the patient's thigh. The therapist applies stretch and resistance to hip extensors, adductors,
and external rotators (proximal hand) and ankle plantarflexors and invertors (distal hand). Resistance is maintained as the
LE moves through the range to the end position (8).
FIGURE 2.12 PNF pattern: supine, LE D2F (flexion-obduction-internal rotation), with knee flexion. (A) (start of pattern) The
therapist's distal hand grips the patient's dorsal-lateral foot; the proximal hand applies pressure on the patient's anterior-
lateral thigh, The therapist applies stretch to hip flexors, abductors, and internal rotators (proximal hand) and knee flexors,
ankle dorsiflexors, and evertors (distal hand). Resistance is provided as the knee flexes and the LE moves through the
range to the end position (8).
FIGURE 2.13 PNF pattern: supine. LE D2E '. ~r Knee extending. (A) (start of pattern) T e erapist's distal hand grips the
medial-plantar surface of the po- en's < , - e proximal hand applies pressure over' e pos erior-medial aspect of the
patient's thigh. The therapist apo es s"e'e n end resistance to hip extensors, adduc-ors, a d external rotators (proximal
hand) and knee extensors, an Ie 0 0"'o':2"'e's and invertors (distal hand). Resls'o ce s "'10 1 alned as the knee extends
and the LE moves throug e 'a ge'o --e e~d position (8).
CHAPTER 2 Intcr\cntion, III Imprr \(' \Iotor Control and Motor Learning 31
• Intermediate joint action (Fig. 2.14): D2F with knee across your face, turn and look up at your hands.
extension, sitting. Verbal cue: "Foot up and out, now Reach up and around."
kick your leg up and out toward me." • Lift (bilateral asymmetrical UE flexion with neck
extension and rotation to right or left) (Fig. 2.17): The
Head and Trunk Patterns lead arm moves in D2F; the assist arm holds on from
Note: Head and trunk patterns combine trunk flexion or underneath the wrist; the elbows are straight. The head
extension with rotation. and trunk extend and rotate to the right or left. Both
elbows are straight. Verbal cue: "Lift your arms up and
• Chop (bilateral asymmetrical UE extension with neck
out toward me, turn and look up at your hands. Reach
flexion and rotation to right or left) (Fig. 2.15): The lead
up and around."
arm moves in D1 E; the assist arm holds on from the
• Reverse lift (bilateral asymmetrical UE extension with
top of the wrist; the elbows are straight. The head and
neck flexion and rotation to right or left) in the opposite
trunk flex and rotate to the right or left. Both elbows
direction of lift (Fig. 2.18). Verbal cue: "Squeeze my
are straight. Verbal cue: "Push your arms down and
hand, turn, and pull your arms down and across your
toward me, turn and look down at your hands. Reach
body. Lift and turn your head. Reach down and across."
down toward your knee."
• Bilateral LE flexion with knee flexion for lower trunk
• Reverse chop in the opposite direction of chop
rotation to left (or right) (Fig. 2.19): The hips flex; the legs
(bilateral asymmetrical UE flexion with neck extension
pull up and across the body toward one side; the knees
and rotation to right or left) (Fig. 2.16). Verbal cue:
are typically flexed. Verbal cue: "Feet up, now bend both
"Squeeze my hand, turn and pull your arms up and
knees and swing your feet up and toward me."
FIGURE 2.14 PNF pattern: sitting. LE D2F with knee extending. (A) (start of pattern) The therapist's distal hand grips the
patient's dorso-Iateral foot: the proximal hand applies pressure on the patient's anterior-lateral thigh. The therapist applies
stretch and resistance to knee extensors and ankle dorsiflexors and evertors (distal hand). Resistance is maintained as the
knee extends and the LE moves through the range to the end position (8).
B
FIGURE 2.15 PNF pattern: supine, chop (b C-","::; ~ ---=-:::: _= :.:;rension with neck and trunk flexion with rotation).
(A) (start of pattern) The therapist's dista c-::: ;;-~. --= :=-'='--: ";:;-- nand (lead arm), dorsal-ulnar aspect. The proxi-
mal hand applies pressure to the patient's C"'",':::-:: :-?": ::- --s ~erapist applies stretch and resistance to the lead
arm. shoulder extensors, abductors, and in-w-:; ':-::-:. ::: -:; -:::")0) and wrist and finger extensors (distal hand) as
both UEs move through the range to the ere:: _._: - - : -::::: _-::: - ~nk flex and rotate (8).
(box continues on page 32)
32 PART I Promoting. unctinn: Conceptual F:lement~
A l
FIGURE 2.16 PNF pattern: supine. reverse chop. (A) (start of pattern) The therapist's distal hand is placed in the patient's
right palm (lead arm); the proximal hand grips the patient's arm from underneath. The therapist applies stretch and resis-
tance to shoulder flexors, adductors. and external rotators (proximal hand) and wrist and finger flexors (distal hand) as
both UEs move through the range to the end position; the head and trunk extend and rotate (8).
A B
FIGURE 2.17 PNF pattern: supine, lift (bilateral asymmetrical UE flexion with neck and trunk extension with rotation).
(A) (start of pattern) The therapist's distal hand grips the patient's right hand (iead hand); the proximal hand provides
pressure to the patient's anterior-lateral arm. The therapist applies stretch and resistance to the lead arm. shoulder flexors.
abductors, and external rotators (proximal hand) and wrist and finger extensors (distal hand) as both UEs move through
the range to the end position; the head and trunk extend and rotate (8).
FIGURE 2.19 PNF pattern: supine, bilateral LE flexion, with knee flexion for iower trunk flexion (left), feet on ball. (A) (start of
pattern) The therapist's distal hand provides pressure to both of the patient's feet on the dorsal-lateral surfaces; the proxi-
mal hand applies pressure to the patient's anterior-lateral thighs. The therapist applies stretch and resistance to both feet,
ankle dorsiflexors (distal hand), and both thighs (proximal hand) as the patient bends both hips and knees and swings the
feet up and toward the therapist (8 end position).
• Timing: Normal timing ensures smooth, coordinated of overflow or irradiation from one extremity to the
movement. In PNF patterns, normal timing is from other, or from extremity to trunk. Indications: Enhance
distal to proximal. Distal segments (hand/wrist or synergistic actions of muscles; increase strength.
foot/ankle) move first, followed closely by more • Manual contacts (MC): Precise manual contacts (hand
proximal components. Rotation occurs throughout placements) are used to provide pressure to tactile and
the pattern, from beginning to end. pressure receptors overlying muscles to facilitate
• Timing for emphasis (TE): Maximum resistance is contraction and guide direction of movements;
used to elicit a strong contraction and allow overflow pressure is applied opposite the direction of the
to occur from strong to weak components within a desired motion. Indications: Enhance contraction and
synergistic pattern; the strong muscles are resisted synergistic patterns.
isometrically ("locking in") while motion is allowed in • Positioning: Muscle positioning at optimal range of
the weaker muscles. Indications: Weakness and/or function allows for optimal responses of muscles
poor coordination. (length-tension relationship). The greatest muscle
• Resistance: Resistance facilitates muscle contraction. tension is generated in mid-ranges; weak contractile
Both intrafusal and extrafusal muscle fibers contract, force (active insufficiency) occurs in the shortened
resulting in recruitment of motor units and improved ranges. The lengthened range provides optimal stretch
strength of contraction. Resistance is applied manually for muscle spindle support of contraction, while the
and functionally through the use of gravity to all types shortened range with muscle spindle unloading
of contractions (isotonic-concentric and eccentric; provides the least amount of muscle spindle support
isometric). Tracking or light resistance applied to weak for contraction. Indication: Enhance weak contraction.
muscles is facilitatory and is usually applied in • Therapist position and body mechanics: The therapist
combination with light stretch. Maximal resistance is is positioned directly in line with the desired motion
used to generate maximal effort and adj sed 0 (facing the direction of the movement) in order to
ensure smooth, coordinated movemen- a optimize the direction of resistance that is applied.
resistance varies according to the 'no' 0 2 :J2: e"': Indications: Enhance therapist's control of the patient's
Indications: Facilitate weak muscles to co -'2 : movements; reduce therapist fatigue through effective
enhance kinesthetic awareness of mo 0 ; "-::'::cs:: use of body weight and position.
strength; increase motor control and mo: • Verbal cues (VCl: Verbal cues allow for the use of well-
• Overflow or irradiation: Overflow or irrac c::r :; :-:: timed words and appropriate volume to direct the
spread of muscle response from stronger -_5::':5 - patient's movements. Preparatory verbal cues ready
a synergistic pattern to weaker muscles; ""c -" the patient for movement (what to do). They should
resistance is the main mechanism for sec '-;; be clear and concise and are optimally accompanied
overflow or irradiation. Stronger patterns ca- " 5: ::: by demonstration and/or guided movement. Action
used to reinforce weaker patterns througn -:::-,,- 5-5 verbal cues guide the patient through the movement
(box continues on page 34)
34 PART I Promoting Function: Conl'l'ptual EIl'ml'nt~
(when and how to move). Strong, dynamic action :0 e ance the response. Repeated stretch can
verbal cues are used when maximal stimulation of be aDD ieo :hroughout the range to reinforce
movement is the goal; soft action verbal cues are co rac on ·n weak muscles that are fading out.
used when relaxation is the goal. Timing is critical to Indica ions: Enhance strength of muscle contraction
coordinate the patient's actions with the therapist's VCs, and synerg·stic patterns of movement.
resistance, and MCs. Corrective verbal cues provide • Approximation (AP); Approximation (compressing the
augmented feedback to help the patient modify joint surfaces) is used to facilitate extensor/stabilizing
movements. Indications: Verbal stimulation enhances muscle contraction and stability. It can be applied
strength of muscle contraction and guides the manually, functionally through the use of gravity
synergistic actions in patterns of movement; verbal acting on the body during upright positions, or
corrections provide augmented feedback to enhance mechanically using weights or weighted vests or
motor learning. belts. Approximation is applied manually during
• Visual guidance: Vision is used to guide the patient's upright, weightbearing positions and in PNF extensor
movements and enhance muscle contractions and patterns. Indications:Weakness, inability of extensor
synergistic patterns of movement. The patient is muscle to function in weightbearing for stabilization
instructed to look at the movements as they are control.
occurring. Indications: Enhance initial motor control • Traction (TR): A distraction force (separating the joint
and motor learning. surfaces) is used to facilitate muscle contraction and
• Stretch (STR): The elongated position (lengthened motion, especially in flexion patterns or pulling
range) and the stretch reflex are used to facilitate motions. Force is applied manually during PNF flexor
muscle contraction. All muscles in the pattern are patterns. Gentle distraction is also useful in reducing
elongated to optimize the effects of stretch. Verbal cues joint pain. Indications:Weakness, inability of flexor
for voluntary movement are always synchronized with muscles to function in mobilizing patterns.
• Rhythmic initiation (RI): The patient is instructed to relax direction (e.g., action command for D1 E: "Now, push
("Relax, let me move you "). The therapist moves the down and out toward me"). Reversals are repeated
patient passively through the range, establishing as often as necessary. If an imbalance exists, the
appropriate speed and rhythm using verbal cues. stronger pattern is selected first, with progression to
Movements are then progressed to active-assisted the weaker pattern. Modifications include working in
("Now, help me move you"). Finally movements are a particular part of the range, progressing to full
lightly resisted ("Now, push up"). Light tracking ROM (increments of ROM). ROM can be decreased
resistance is used during the resistive phase to in each direction, progressing to holding steady
enhance movement. At the end, the patient is asked to (decrements of ROM). The patient can also be asked
move independently ("Now, move up on your own"). to hold steady at any point in the range or the
General goals: Promote initiation of movement, teach endpoint of ROM, typically the end range (slow
the movement, improve coordination, promote reversals, hold). An initial stretch is used to initiate
relaxation, and promote independent movement. the movement response. General goals: Improve
Indications: Inability to relax, hypertonicity (e.g., coordination (smooth reversals of antagonists, rate
spasticity and rigidity); difficulty initiating movement; of movement). strength, active range of motion,
uncoordinated movement; motor planning or motor endurance; reduce fatigue. Indications: Impaired
learning deficits (e.g., apraxia or dyspraxia); strength, range, and coordination; inability to easily
communication deficits (e.g., aphasia). reverse directions between agonist and antagonist;
• Reversals of antagonists: A group of techniques that fatigue.
allow for agonist contraction followed by antagonist • Stabilizing reversals: Stabilizing reversals use
contraction without pause or relaxation. alternating isotonic contractions of first agonists
• Dynamic reversals (DR) (slow reversals): Dynamic ("Don't let me push you backward") and then
reversals use isotonic contractions of first agonists, antagonists ("Now, don't let me push you forward")
then antagonists performed against resistance. First, against resistance, allowing only very limited
the therapist resists contraction of one pattern (e.g., movement. The technique progresses to stabilizing
D1 F. "Now, pull up and across your body"); at the holds (alternating isometrics) until the patient is
end of the desired range a preparatory command is holding steady in the position. Before hands are
given to reverse direction, and the therapist's hands moved, a preparatory command is given ("Now")
are switched to resist the opposite pattern. The before the patient is asked to reverse directions. If
patient is then instructed to move in the opposite an imbalance exists, the stronger pattern is selected
CI-fAPTER 2 Intenention' to Impr \~ \lotor Control and Motor Learning 35
first, with progression to he weaker pattern. General inability to eccentrically control body weight during
goals: Improve stability strength, coordination, movement transitions, poor dynamic postural control.
endurance, range of motion. Indications: Impaired • Contract-relax (CR): This relaxation technique is usually
strength, stability and balance, coordination. performed at a point of limitation of ROM in the
• Rhythmic stabilization (RS): Rhythmic stabilization uses agonist pattern ("Pull your foot up, turn your leg out,
isometric contractions of antagonist patterns, focusing and lift up and out"). The therapist then asks for a
on co-contraction of muscles. RS of the trunk utilizes strong isotonic contraction of the range-restricting
resistance applied to one segment (e.g., on the anterior muscles (antagonists) with emphasis on the rotation
shoulder, the therapist's right hand pushes backward) ("Now, turn your leg in and hold"). The contraction is
while applying resistance to the other segment (e.g., on held for 5 to 8 seconds and is then followed by
posterior pelvis, the therapist's left hand pulls forward). voluntary relaxation and active movement into the
The therapist builds the resistance up slowly; no new range of the agonist pattern ("Relax, now turn
movement is allowed. Verbal cues include "Hold, don't and lift your leg up and out"). This can be repeated
let me move you, hold, hold." The therapist then shifts until no additional range is obtained. Improvements in
hands and applies resistance in the opposite direction, range are obtained through the combined effects of
keeping each hand on the same section of the trunk both reciprocal inhibition and autogenic inhibition. The
(e.g., the therapist's right hand pulls forward on the technique can be followed with repeated contractions
shoulder while the left hand pushes backward on of the agonist muscles in order to enhance gains in
the pelvis). Verbal cues include "Now, don't let me range. General goals: Improve ROM. Indications:
move you the other way, hold, hold." An alternative Limitations in ROM.
command is "Don't let me twist you, hold, hold." Upper • Hold-relax (HR): This relaxation technique is usually
trunk flexors and rotators are resisted at the same time performed in a position of comfort and below a level
as lower trunk extensors and rotators. General goals: that causes pain. The patient moves the limb to the
Improve stability (co-contraction of antagonists), end of pain-free ROM. A strong isometric contraction
strength, endurance, ROM, and coordination; promote of the restricting muscles (antagonists) is resisted
relaxation and decrease pain. Indications: Impaired (providing autogenic inhibition), followed by voluntary
strength and coordination, limitations in ROM; impaired relaxation and passive movement into the newly
stabilization control and balance. gained range of the agonist pattern. The therapist
• Repeated stretch (repeated contractions): Repeated instructs the patient to pattern: "Hold, don't let me
isotonic contractions are performed, directed to the move you."This is followed by a command to "Relax,
agonist muscles, initiated by a quick stretch and now, let me move your leg up and out."
enhanced by resistance. The stretch can be performed • Hold-relax-active contraction (HRAC}:This is similar to
from the beginning of the range (lengthened range) or HR except movement into the newly gained range of the
throughout the range at a point of weakness. The agonist pattern is active, not passive. Active contraction
therapist gives a preparatory command ("Now") while is always desirable as it serves to maintain the inhibitory
providing quick stretch of the muscles working in the influence through effects of reciprocal inhibition. General
pattern. An action command ("Pull up and across") goals: Improve ROM and decrease pain. Indications:
follows. The technique can be repeated (three or four Limitations in passive ROM (PROM) with pain.
stretches) during one pattern ("Again, pull up and • Replication (hold-relax-active motion): The patient is
across") or until contraction weakens. General goals: positioned in the end position (shortened range) of a
Enhance initiation of motion, motor learning; increase movement and is told: "Hold, don't let me move you."
agonist strength, endurance, coordination, ROM; The isometric contraction is resisted, followed by
reduce fatigue. Indications: Impaired strength, difficulty voluntary relaxation and passive movement into the
initiating movement, fatigue, and limitations in active lengthened range ("Relax, now let me move you
ROM. The technique should not be applied in the back"). The therapist then instructs the patient: "Now,
presence of joint instability, pain, or injured muscle. push back" into the end position again. Stretch and
• Combination of isotonics (agonist reversals): Resisted tracking resistance are applied to facilitate the isotonic
concentric contraction of agonist muscles moving contraction. For each repetition, increasing ROM is
through the range is followed by a stabilizing desired. General goals: Promote motor learning,
contraction (holding in the position) and then eccen ric, improve coordination and control in the shortened
lengthening contraction, moving slowly back 0 e range. Indications: Marked weakness; inability to
start position; there is no relaxation betwee - e. pes sustain a contraction in the shortened range.
of contractions. Verbal cues are directed 0 "a'O sa • Resisted progression (RP): Stretch, approximation, and
phase of the movement ("Push up." "Nov. "O:J tracking resistance are applied manually to facilitate
"Now, go down slowly"). The technique s . p Cc • lower trunk/pelvic motion and progression during
used in antigravity activities and assump '0" ; locomotion (walking or crawling); the level of
postures (e.g., bridging and sit-to-stand trars': :-;:; resistance is light so as to not disrupt the patient's
General goals: Improve motor learning and momentum, coordination, and velocity. RP can also be
coordination; increase strength; promote s a applied using an elastic resistance band. Verbal cues
eccentric control. Indications: Weak postura "c ude: "On three, I want you to step forward with
(box continues on page 36)
36 PART I Promoting r undion: Conceptual Element-
your right foot. One, two, three, and step, step, step." '0-:-- :Jassive movements) or "Relax, roll your legs
General goals: Improve coordination and timing of ou,,·.ara. no.v roll them inward" (active movements).
lower trunk/pelvis during locomotion. Indications: -he 'o'a ons are continued until muscle tension
Impaired timing and control of lower trunk/pelvic re axes ovements are slow and gently progress
segments during locomotion, impaired endurance. through ncreased range. General goals: Promote
• Rhythmic rotation (RRo): Relaxation is achieved using relaxation and increased range in muscles restricted
slow, repeated rotations of a limb or body segment. by excess tone. Indications: Relaxation of hypertonia
Rotations can be passive or active. Verbal cues include: (spasticity, rigidity) combined with passive or active
"Relax, let me move you, back and forth, back and ROM of the range-limiting muscles.
Recent modifications in the terminology for PNF motor deficib (weakness. limited ROM. and impaired tone
techniques have occurred. A comparison of new and tradi- and coordination). Emphasis is on the use of both feedback
tional terminology is presented in Table 2.2. and feedforward mechanisms to support postural control.
Postural control is viewed as the foundation for all skill
Neuro-Oevelopmental Treatment learning. Normal development in children and normal
movement patterns in all patients are stressed. The patient
Seuro-Del'elopmental Treatment (NDT) is an approach
learns to control posture and movement through a sequence
developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s by Dr. Karel
of progressively more challenging postures and activities.
Bobath, an English physician, and Berta Bobath. a physio-
NDT uses physical handling techniques and key points of
therapist. 's Their work focused on patients with neurological
control (e.g .. shoulders. pelvis. hands. and feet) directed at
dysfunction (cerebral palsy and stroke). The essential prob-
supporting body segments and assisting the patient in
lems of these patient groups were identified as a release of ab-
achieving active control. Sensory stimulation (facilitation
normal tone (spasticity) and abnormal postural reflexes
and inhibition via primarily proprioceptive and tactile in-
(primitive spinal cord and brainstem reflexes) from higher
puts) is used during treatment. Postural alignment and sta-
center CNS control with resulting loss of the normal postural
bility are facilitated. while excessive tone and abnormal
reflex mechanism (righting. equilibrium. and protective ex-
movements are inhibited. For example. in the patient with
tension reactions) and normal movements. The role of sen-
stroke. abnormal obligatory synergy movements are re-
sory feedback was viewed as critical in inhibiting abnormal
stricted. while out-of-synergy movements are facilitated.
reactions and facilitating more normal movement patterns.
Activities are selected that are functionally relevant and
Current NDT has realigned itself with newer theories
varied in terms of difficulty and environmental context. Com-
of motor control (systems theory and a distributed model of
pensatory training strategies (use of the less involved seg-
CNS control). Many different factors are recognized as con-
ments) are avoided. Carryover is promoted through a strong
tributing to loss of motor function in patients with neurolog-
emphasis on patient. family. and caregiver education. NOT is
ical dysfunction. including the full spectrum of sensory and
taught today in recognized training courses. '6 Foundational
NOT principles are presented in Box 2.12; OT intervention
strategies and techniques are presented in Box 2.13.
'TABLE 2.2 PNF Techniques: Comparison of New
:, and Traditional Terminology Facilitated Movements (Neuromuscular
Facilitation/Sensory Stimulation)
New Traditional
A number of therapeutic techniques can be used to facilitate,
Combination of Isotonics Agonist Reversals activate, or inhibit muscle contraction. These have been col-
lectively called facilitation techniques, although this term is
Dynamic Reversals Slow Reversals a misnomer because they also include techniques used for
inhibition. The term facilitation refers to the enhanced ca-
Replication Hold-Relax-Active-
pacity to initiate a mO\'emcnt response through increased
Motion
neuronal activit) and altered s) naptic potential. An applied
Rhythmic Initiation Rhythmic Initiation stimulus may lower the s) naptic threshold of the alpha mo-
(no change) tor neuron but ma) not be utTicient to produce an observ-
able movement response. A..ctivation, on the other hand,
Rhythmic Stabilization Rhythmic Stabilization
refers to the actual production of a movement response and
(no change)
implies reaching..l nti '.11 threshold level for neuronal fir-
Stabilizing Reversals Alternating Isometrics ing. Inhibition reIer, Ie' the decreased capacity to initiate a
movement re,p '1 ~. r u;h altered synaptic potential. The
CHAPTER 2 Intenention, to Impro-e 'Iotor Control and Motor Learning 37
• NDT is based on an ongo'ng analysis of sensorimotor • Training is focused on specific task goals and
function and carefully planned interventions designed functional skills. The task and/or environment are
to improve function. Principles of motor control, motor modified as needed to enhance function.
learning, and motor development guide the planning • Active participation by the patient is a goal and an
process. expectation of treatment.
• Interventions focus on the client's strengths and • A major role of the therapist is completing an accurate
competencies while at the same time addressing analysis of motor problems and development of
impairments, activity limitations, and participation effective solutions.
restrictions. Negative signs (weakness, impaired • Motor learning principles are adhered to in the
postural control, and paucity of movement) are equally therapeutic setting, including: verbal reinforcement,
important to address in treatment as positive signs repetition, facilitation of error awareness (trial-and-
(spasticity, hyperactive reflexes). error practice). and an environment conducive to
• The plan of care is developed in partnership with the learning, engaging the patient/client/family, and
patient, family, and interdisciplinary team. ensuring motivation.
• Treatment focuses on the relationship between sensory • Direct teaching of the patient/c1ient/family/caregiver to
input and motor output. ensure carryover of functional activities in the home
• Therapeutic handling is the primary NDT intervention and community setting is an important component
strategy. Facilitatory and/or inhibitory inputs are of NDT
provided to influence the quality of motor responses.
Therapeutic handling: Therapeutic handling is used to • Distal key points include the head and upper and lower
influence the quality of the motor response and is extremities (typically the hands and feet).
carefully matched to the patient's abilities to use sensory
Kev points of control are also used to provide
information and adapt movements. It includes
inhibition of abnormal tone and postures. Examples
neuromuscular facilitation, inhibition, or frequently a
include:
combination of the two. Manual contacts are used to:
• Head and trunk flexion decreases shoulder retraction,
• Direct, regulate, and organize tactile, proprioceptive,
trunk and limb extension (key points of control: head
and vestibular input.
and trunk).
• Direct the client's initiation of movement more
• Shoulder external rotation and abduction with elbow
efficiently and with more effective muscle synergies.
extension decrease flexion tone of the UE (key point of
• Support or change alignment of the body in relation to
control: humerus).
the BOS and with respect to the force of gravity prior
• Thumb abduction and extension with forearm
to and during movement sequences.
supination decrease flexion tone of the wrist and
• Decrease the amount of force the client uses to
fingers (key point of control: the thumb).
stabilize body segments.
• Hip external rotation and abduction decrease extensor/
• Guide or redirect the direction, force, speed. and timing
adductor tone of the LE (key point of control: hip).
of muscle activation for successfu as cOlT'pletion.
• Either constrain or increase the flexibil i e Note: Components of posture and movement that are
degrees of freedom needed to stabirze 0 0 e body essential for successful functional task performance are
segments in a functional activity. facilitated through therapeutic handling and key points
• Sense the response of the client to se s . ~u: a'1d of control.
the movement outcome and provide 0-.e'82 Components of posture and movement that are atypical
feedback for reference of correction. and prevent development of desired motor patterns are
• Recognize when the client can become ~ce::;e-::;",-:~" inhibited. While originally this term referred strictly to
the therapist's assistance and take 0 er ::---::; :< the reduction of tone and abnormal reflexes, in current
posture and movement. DT practice it refers to reduction of any underlving
• Direct the client's attention to'meaning'u 2:==:-~ ::._= impairment that interferes with functional performance.
motor task.'6Ip2591 Inhibition can be used to:
Key points of control: Key points are pa-:s :" --", ::: • revent or redirect those components of a movement
recommended as optimal to control (inh'b hat are unnecessary and interfere with intentional,
coordinated movement.
postures and movement.
• Constrain the degrees of freedom, to decrease the
• Proximal key points include the shoulders at":: == amount of force the client uses to stabilize posture .
and are used to influence proximal segmen - c-:: -.- • 3alance antagonistic muscle groups.
(box continues on page 38)
38 PART I Promoting Function: Conceptual Element>
• Reduce spasticity or excessive muscle stiffness • S eep tapping: Strong tapping applied with a
that interferes with moving specific segments of s,',eeo g mo ion over muscles in the direction of a
the body.'6lp 261) mo 'e e .
• Altemate tapping: Alternate tapping is applied to
Rhythmic rotation (RRo): Relaxation is achieved using
agonis and antagonist muscles to promote reciprocal
slow, repeated rotations of a limb or body segment.
actions.
Range is typically limited by tight, spastic muscles. The
• Pressure tapping: Uses both weightbearing and joint
patient is instructed: "Relax, let me move you, back and
compression to facilitate action of stabilizing muscles
forth, back and forth."The rotations are continued until
and postural tone and to reinforce desired postural
the muscles relax. Movements are slow and gently
alignment.
progress through increased range. For example, the
patient is positioned in hooklying and the knees are Resistance: Resistance is used to activate movements
gently rocked side to side to relax LE extensor tone. Or and improve direction and timing.
the arm is gently rotated back and forth while moving Placing and holding: Body segments are assisted into
the elbow into extension to relax UE flexor tone. The correct alignment for functional movements; the patient
limb is then positioned in extension, abduction, and is asked to hold in the position and then to practice
external rotation with the hand open (fingers extended) moving out of and back into the position.
and weightbearing. The patient can also be instructed to
use active movements (voluntary effort) for RRo.
Tapping: Tapping is used to stabilize muscle tone and
facilitate muscle actions. Types of tapping include the
following:
• Inhibitory tapping: Tapping applied to muscles that
have previously been inhibited to raise tone to normal
levels. Caution must be used to not restore muscle to
its hypertonic state.
synaptic threshold is raised. making it more difficult for the and frequency of simulation need to be adjusted to meet in-
neuron to fire and produce movement. The combination of dividual patient needs. Unpredicted responses can result
spinal inputs and supraspinal inputs acting on the alpha mo- from inappropriate application of techniques. For example.
tor neuron (final common pathway) will determine whether stretch applied to a spastic muscle may increase spasticity
a muscle response is facilitated. activated. or inhibited. and negatively affect voluntary movement. Facilitation tech-
Several general guidelines are important. Facilitative niques are not appropriate for patients who demonstrate
techniques can be additive. For example, several inputs ap- adequate voluntary control. They should be viewed pri-
plied simultaneously. such as quick stretch, resistance, and marily as a bridge to voluntary movement control during
verbal cues, are commonly combined during the use of PNF preactivity training.
patterns. These stimuli collectively can produce the desired The term neuromuscular technique refers to the facili-
motor response, whereas the use of a single stimulus may tation or inhibition of muscle contraction or motor responses.
not. This demonstrates the property of spatial summation The tenn sensory stimulation refers to the structured presen-
within the CNS. Repeated stimulation (e.g., repeated quick tation of stimuli to improve (I) alertness, attention, and
stretches) may also produce the desired motor response arousal; (2) sensory discrimination; or (3) initiation of muscle
owing to temporal summation within the CNS, whereas a activity and improvement of movement control. Effects are
single stimulus does not. Thus, stretch is used repeatedly to immediate and specific to the current state of the nervous sys-
ensure that the patient with a weak muscle is able to move tem. Additional practice using inherent or naturally occun'ing
from the lengthened to the shortened range. The response inputs and feedback is necessary for meaningful and lasting
to stimulation or inhibition is unique to each patient and functional change to occur. Variable perceptions exist among
depends on a number of different factors. including level of patients. For example. decreased sensitivity to stimulation may
intactness of the CNS, arousal, and the specific level of ac- be evident in some older adults and in some patients with neu-
tivity of the motoneurons in question. For example. a patient rological conditions wch as stroke or TBI.
who is depressed and hypoactive or taking C;-..lS suppressant Box 2.14 pre,enh a re\'iew of proprioceptive facilita-
drugs may require large amounts of stimulation to achieve tion techniques. The,e techniques are important elements of
the desired response. Stimulation is generally contraindi- interventions that ma;. be u,ed with patients with poor vol-
cated for the patient with h) peractiyit;.. \\ hile inhibition! untary motor fun -tion, The,e interventions may serve as a
relaxation techniques are of benefit. The inten,it;.. duration, bridge to later funL Ion 111 the,e more severely affected
CHAPTER 2 Inlenention t) I pr H \lolor Control and ;\lotor Learning 39
Clinical Note: Pressure from prolonged weightbearing obje.s ones) in hand and inhibitory splints or casts
on knees (e.g., quadruped or kneeling) dampens (e.g....'ris , lower leg).
extensor tone/spasticity. Pressure from prolonged Commen s: Inhibitory effects can be enhanced by
weightbearing on extended arm, wrist, and fingers combining them with other relaxation techniques
dampens flexor tone/spasticity (e.g., sitting with (e.g., deep-breathing techniques, mental imaging).
weightbearing on an extended arm and hand, modified Precaution: Sustained positioning may dampen muscle
plantigrade). Pressure over calcaneus dampens contraction enough to affect functional performance (e.g.,
plantarflexor tone. Alternate applications include firm difficulty walking after prolonged kneeling).
patients who may not benefit from activity-based, task- BOX 2.15 Compensatory Intervention: Basic Principles
oriented interventions. Numerous examples of commonly and Strategiesa
used applications are presented in Part II, Interventions to
• The patient is made aware of movement deficiencies.
IlIlprOl'e FUllction. Exteroceptive, vestibular, visual, and
• Alternative ways to accomplish a task are considered,
auditory stimulation may be used for a smaller group of se- simplified, and adopted.
lect patients with sensory deficits who are candidates for • The patient is taught to use the segments that are
sensory retraining (e.g., the patient with stroke) or sensory intact to compensate for those that have been lost.
timulation for improving arousal (e.g., the patient with TBI • The patient practices and relearns the task; repeated
who is minimally conscious). The reader is referred to practice results in consistency and habitual use of the
Chapter 13 of O'Sullivan and Schmitz lO for a thorough dis- new pattern.
• The patient practices the functional skill in
cussion of these techniques.
environments in which function is expected to occur.
• Energy conservation techniques are taught to ensure
that the patient can complete all daily tasks.
Compensatory Intervention Strategies • The patient's environment is adapted to facilitate
practice and learning of skills, ease of movement,
Compensatory intervention strategies focus on the early re- and optimal performance.
sumption of function by using the less involved (sound) • Assistive devices are incorporated as needed.
body segments for function. For example, a patient with left
'Adapted from O'Sullivan and Schmitz."
hemiplegia is taught to dress using the right DE; a patient
with a complete TI-Ievel spinal cord lesion is taught to roll
using UEs, head/upper trunk, and momentum. Central to Red Flags: Several important precautions should
this approach is the concept of substitution. Changes are be noted with use of compensatory intervention
made in the patient's overall approach to functional tasks. A strategies. Focus on the uninvolved segments to accom-
second central tenet of this approach is modification of the plish daily tasks may suppress recovery and contribute
environment (adaptation) to facilitate relearning of skills, to learned nonuse of the impaired segments. For exam-
ease of movement, and optimal performance. For example, ple, the patient with stroke may fail to learn to use the
the patient with unilateral neglect is assisted in dressing by involved extremities.
color coding of the shoes (red tape on the left shoe, yellow In addition, focus on task-specific learning of com-
tape on the right shoe). The wheelchair brake toggle is ex- ponent skills may result in the development of splinter skills
tended and color coded to allow easy identification by the in some patients with brain damage. Splinter skills are skills
patient. that cannot easily be generalized to other environments
A compensatory approach may be the only realistic or variations of the same task (poor adaptability).
approach possible when improvement is limited and reaches
an early plateau or the patient presents with severe impair-
ments and functional losses with little or no expectation for SUMMARY
additional recovery. Examples include the patient with com- As patients recover. their functional abilities and needs
plete SCI and the patient recovering from stroke with severe change. Therapists must be attuned to the patient's changing
sensorimotor deficits and extensive comorbidities (e.g., se- status and recognize that anticipated goals and expected out-
vere cardiac and respiratory compromi e). The latter exam- comes may change along with the interventions likely to be
ple suggests severe limitations in the ability to actively move most effective. Interyentions to improve functional skills and
and participate in rehabilitation and to relearn motor skills. motor learning also need to promote adaptability of skills for
Box 2.15 presents basic principle and trategies of compen- function in real-\\orl environments. Goals and functional
satory intervention. activities practi ed mu, be meaningful and worthwhile to
CHAPTER 2 Intenention' tf Impro\~ \Iotor Control and Motor Learning 41
BOX 2. 16 Exo C 5S ,. icipoted Goals and Expected Outcomes' r ?,r e IS with Disorders of Motor Function°
the patient. Collaborating with the patient, the therapist must 6. Visitin. M, Hugues. B. Korner-Bitensky. . et 'II. A ne\\ approach to
retrain gait in stroke patients through body weight support and
select those activities that have the greatest chance of suc- treadmill stimulation. Stroke 29: 1122, 1998.
cess. The choice of interventions must also take into consid- 7. Behrman, A. Lawless-Dixon, AR, Davis, SB. et al. Locomotor
eration a host of other factors, including the availability of training progression and outcomes after incomplete spinal cord
injury. Phys Ther 85: 1356, 2005.
care, cost-effectiveness in terms of length of stay and number 8. Barbeau. H. Nadeau, S, and Garneau. C. Physical determinants.
of allotted physical therapy visits, age of the patient and emerging concepts. and training approaches in gait of individuals with
number of comorbidities, social support, and potential dis- spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 23 (2-4):571 (Review). 2006.
9. Sullivan. K. et al: Effects of task-specific locomotor and strength
charge placement. Examples of anticipated goals and ex- training in adults who were ambulatory after stroke: Results of the
pected outcomes for improving motor function are presented STEPS Randomized Clinical Trial. Phys Ther 87: 1580,2007.
in Box 2.16. 10. O'Sullivan, SB, and Schmitz, TJ. Physical Rehabilitation. ed 5.
FA Davis. Philadelphia, 2007.
1I. Schmidt, R, and Lee. T. Motor Control and Learning, ed 4. Human
REFERENCES Kinetics, Champaign, IL, 2005.
I. Taub, E. Uswatte, G, and Pidikiti, R. Constraint-induced movement 12. Fitts. P, and Posner, M. Human Performance. Brooks/Cole, Belmont,
therapy: A new family of techniques with broad application to physical CA. 1967.
rehabilitation: A clinical review. J Rehabil Re, De\' 36:237. 1999. 13. Voss, D. lonta. MK, Myers, BJ. et al. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular
2. Hakkennes. S, and Keating. J. Constraint-induced mO\'ement therapy Facilitation: Patterns and Techniques, ed 3. Harper & Row.
following stroke: A systematic revie" of randomi"ed controlled trials. Philadelphia. 1985.
Aust J Physiother 51 :221, 2005. 14. Adler. S. Beckers, D, and Buck. M. PNF in Practice. ed 3. Springer-
3. Page, S, and Levine, P. Modified conmaint-induced therap~ in Verlag, New York. 2008.
patients with chronic stroke exhibiting minimal mo\ement ablilt~ in 15. Bobath, B. The treatment of neuromuscular disorders by improving
the affected arm. Phys Ther 87:872.2007. patterns of coordination. Physiotherapy 55: I, 1969.
4. Taub, E, Uswatte, G, King, DK. A placebo-controlled mJ.! of 16. Howle. J. Neuro-Developmental Treatment Approach. Neuro-
constraint-induced movement therapy for upper e\trenur:- c..;:e; " e Developmental Treatment Association, Laguna Beach CA, 2002.
Stroke 37: 1045. 2006. I'...... merican Physical Therapy Association. Guide to Physical Therapist
5. Richards.. C. Malouin, F, Wood-Dauphinee. S. et al' T3.S· -'?C " .. Pra tice. ed 2. Phys Ther 81: 1. 200 l.
physical therapy for optimization of gait reco\e~ in ,,__ :e ,;:- • e
patients. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 74:612.1993.
Interventions to
Improve Function
rart II presents strategies and interventions to promote enhanced motor
function and independence in key functional skills. The interventions presented
in each chapter include a description of the general characteristics of each
activity (e.g., base of support provided, location of center of mass, impact of
gravity and body weight, and so forth) together with a description of required
lead-up skills, appropriate techniques, and progressions. Patient outcomes p A R T
l
consistent with the Guide to Physical Therapist Practice are described as well
JIll
as clinical applications and patient examples. Practice activities to enhance
student learning are provided.
The chapters are organized around a broad range of postures and
activities required for normal human function (e.g., functional mobility skills,
basic and instrumental activities of daily living). Postures and activities such
as rolling and sidelying are presented first, with progression through upright
standing and locomotion. Although the content is presented as a sequence
from dependent to independent postures and activities, it should not be viewed
as a "lock-step" progression. This means there are no absolute requirements
for how the activities are sequenced or integrated into an individual plan of
care. This has several implications for clinical practice:
• It will be the exception, rather than the norm. that an individual patient will
require or benefit from the entire sequence of interventions presented.
• Evaluation of examination data will guide ele tion and sequencing of inter-
ventions for an individual patient.
• Interventions may be organized in a different _equen e. u ed concurrently,
expanded, or eliminated (i.e.. deemed in ro ri e when developing a plan
of care.
• The content should be viewed and u ed - - eatment ideas based
on the desired functional outcome-an =''''''"'-.... -,.", sequence. For
example, if a patient requires improved in reased an-
kle range of motion, consideration is giYen r interven-
tions designed to address the specific impaL.-~---
n page 44)
43
• The interventions include suggested therapist positioning and h
ments. These suggestions reflect an effective strategy for the appli '3' 0
44
CHAPTER
I Interventionsto Improve Bed
35 Mobility and Early Trunk
Control
THOMAS J SCHMITZ, PT, PHD
45
46 PART /I Int~f\~ntion, to Impro\l' Function
not considered a lead-up activity, initiation of 1'01 m= -=. -. • • ~a' eatures of the environment constrain or
-:-::; ate movement?
functional ROM in the proximal and intermediate: ..::~ ~;
• :a~ adaptations be made to change environmental
spine, neck, shoulder, elbows. pelvis/hip. and knee . T;- _ .-;: -:-3 ds (e.g., closed versus open environment)?
focus of early interventions is on acquisition of inItJ.L 1
48 PART /I Intenenlions to ImproH Function
OBJECTIVE: To analyze rolling movements of healthy ... How is the movement executed?
individuals. • Segmental roll pattern? Log roll pattern? Other?
• Role of the trunk?
PROCEDURE: Work in groups of two or three. Begin by hav-
• Use of extremity movements?
ing each person in the group roll on the mat from supine
• Is the pattern changed (or altered) with change of
to prone and prone to supine several times in a row at
direction?
normal speeds. Then have each person slow the move-
• Is the pattern changed (or altered) with change of
ment down and speed the movement up. rolling in each
speed?
direction.
... How does rolling differ among the group members?
OBSERVE AND DOCUMENT Using the following questions to ... What types of pathology/impairments might affect a
guide your analysis, observe and record the variations patient's ability to roll?
and similarities among the different rollin", patterns rep- ... What com pen atorytrategies might be necessary?
resented in your group. ... What em'ironmental factor, might constrain or impair
... How and where is the mo\ement ini iated" rolling mO\'emel1ls'?
Terminated? ... What modifi 'a lOn, Jre needed'l
:;-4PTER 3 Intcncntion,> til lmpr Bed \Iobilit) and Earl) T,·un).. Control 49
a~ one unit together with the 10\\ ~r [run}.;. pehis (see Fig. 3.5).
During segmental rolling, th per trunk/shoulder moves
first, followed by the lower trunl pel IS. or \ ice versa (Fig. 3.6).
TECHNIQUES AND VERBAL Cl.ES (18 ',:JROVE
TRUNK CONTROL AND ROLL~'S)
Rhythmic Initiation Rh~ thmlc mitiation can be used to in-
struct the patient in the desired 11100ement. to hlcilitate the ini-
tiation of movement, and to promote relaxation. Movements
are tirst passive. then acti\'e-a,si,ti\e. and then approptiately
resisted (passive -7 acti\e-a,si,ti\e -7 resisted).~ Finally, the
patient performs the movement independently. Progression to
each phase of movement is dependent on the patient's ability
to relax and pat1icipate in the movements.
For the application of rhythmic initiation in sidelying, FIGURE 3.7 Logrolling using rhythmic initiation with manual
the therapist is heel-sitting behind the patient (Fig. 3.7). contacts under the axilla and on the pelvis. Movements are
first passive. next active-assistive. and then resisted (using
\lanual contacts are on the trunk (under the axilla and on the graded increments of appropriate levels of resistance),
pelvis). The patient is instructed to relax. The therapist first
moves the patient passively through the desired movement,
rolling either toward supine or toward prone and back into (active-assistive movement) and continues to provide passive
sidelying. The patient is then instructed to begin active return to sidelying. This sequence is repeated with gradual
participation in the movement while the therapist assists increments of appropriate levels of resistance (typically be-
ginning with light facilitative resistance). If necessary, quick
stretch can be used to facilitate the initiation of movement in
the desired direction.
in opposing direction. with YCs used to mark the initiation •I ~ments are slow and controlled \\ith empha-
of movement in the opposite direction (continuous mo\'e- , ;rading of resistance; progression is to
ment H resistance H YCs). Resistance is typically applied I of movement while maintaining control.
first in the stronger direction of movement. Dynamic rever- • :\ ~.~.: hold may be added in the shortened range
sals are used to increase strength and active ROM as well a :lInt of weakness within the range, The hold
to promote normal transitions between opposing muscle ~n ..u: pause for one count (the patient is in-
groups. A smooth reversal of motion is the goal. "Hold"); the antagonist movement pattern is
For using dynamic reversals in sidelying, the therapist is then -u'tlit ted. The hold can be added in one direction
heel-sitting behind the patient. Manual contacts for application onh or III both directions.
of resistance are selected to allow smooth transitions between • Careful attention must be directed to providing the patient
opposing directions of movement. For example. using dy- a preparator: \'C (such as "NOli; reverse") to indicate that
namic reversals in sidelying for a patient with stronger trunk a change in mO\ement direction is about to take place.
extensors, the therapist first places one hand on the posterior
upper trunk/shoulder and one hand on the posterior pelvis to Indications D) namic reversals using carefully controlled
resist extension (movement toww'd supine) (Fig. 3.8). The YCs and manual resistance can be used to improve cOOJ'di-
therapist's hands then move (hand contact is maintained) to the nation and timing (e.g .. patients with ataxia) and increase
anterior upper trunk/shoulder and anterior pelvis. strength and active ROM.
Verbal Cues for Dynamic Reversals in Sidelying Replication Replication is a unidirectional technique, em-
"Pull fOl'lvard" (the patient is moving toward prone); "nOlI' phasizing movement in one direction. c It is used to teach the
push back" (the patient is moving toward supine). When the end result of a movement as well as to improve coordination
patient is ready to move in the new direction, a preparatory and control. The patient is passively moved to the end of the
cue of "Now, reverse" is used to direct the patient's attention desired motion or available range (agonists are in shortened
to the new movement. At the same time as the YC to change range) and asked to hold against resistance (isometric con-
directions, the therapist repositions the hands to resist the traction); the patient then relaxes and is moved passively
new direction of motion. If a hold (isometric contraction) is through a small range in the opposite direction; and finally
added to dynamic reversals. the YC is "Pull for\\'ard and the patient actively returns (concentric contraction) to the ini-
hold; and no\\' reverse, push back and hold." tial end range position. Movement is through increments of
range until full range is achieved (passive movement to end
Comments range ~ active hold against resistance ~ relaxation ~ pas-
• Movements begin with small-range control (e.g.. one- sive movement in opposite direction ~ active return to ini-
quarter turn forward to one-quarter turn backward) and tial end range).
progress through increasing ROM (increments of ROM) to For using replication to promote rolling, the therapist is
full-range control (from full prone to full supine position). positioned in heel-sitting behind the patient. Depending on the
direction of movement. hand placements are on either the an-
terior or posterior sUlt'ace of the upper trunk/shoulder and
lower trunk/pelvis. From a neutral sidelying position (start po-
sition). the patient is passively moved forward (toward prone)
through one-quaner of range (shortened range for abdominals)
and asked to hold the position against resistance for several
counts. This is followed by active relaxation. The therapist
then passively moves the trunk backward (toward supine) one-
qUal1er of the range past neutral and asks the patient to contract
actively tlu'ough the range back to the original stw1 position
(Fig. 3.9).
With rhythmic initiation. movements are tirst passi\e. lI1It1atlng movement from thi. position. the hip
then active-assistive. and tinally resi~ted (passive ~ acti\'e- ay be flexed slightly with the knee supported
assistive ~ resisted). The therapist provides the return mo- e - ~r..lpl t's distal thigh (Fig. 3.1 I A): the hip remains
tion. Progression to each pha~e of movement is dependent 'eu The patient's UEs may be placed in shoulder tlex-
on the patient's ability to relax and participate in the mO\'e- i n \ 1 elbo\\, extended and hands clasped together. The
ments (recruit motor unit activity). Movement can also be ther~pl . po Ilion transitions from initial heel-sitting to
resisted using dynamic reversals. the iJ f the patient's moving LE to half-kneeling behind
the pa ient' mO\ lI1g pelvis/thigh during mO\'ement into side-
Verbal Cues for UE 01 F Pattern, Rhythmic Initiation lying Fig. 3.11 B). \ 10vements are first passive. then active-
in Sidelying Passive phase: "Relax. let lIIe 1II0\'e YOllr arlll a SI tl\ e. and finally resisted. The therapist provides the return
lip and across YOllr face. Tlim YOllr head and lI'atch YOllr motion. For the re-i ti\'e phase of rhythmic initiation. manual
hand." Active-assistive phase: "NOlI' begin 1I1000ing with lI1e. contact are on the dorsal/medial foot and the anterior/medial
lip and across. I will bring yOll back." Resistive phase: "Con- thigh: resi tance is applied to both the thigh and the foot as the
tinlle to 1II0l'e as I resist. plIII lip alld across. and let me bring LE mo\es up and across the body. During the other phases of
YOli hack." Finally, the patient is asked to move indepen- rhythmic initiation. manual contacts provide passive and assis-
dently: "NOlI'. plIII lip and across on your o\\'n and roll onto tive movement.
W)L(r side."
Comments
• The patient is instructed to turn the head and follow the
hand with the eyes. Having the patient watch the move-
ment promotes the use of visual sensory cues to improve
movement control and promotes imolvement of the head
and neck in the overall movement of rolling. Watching
the movement also prevents the limb from covering the
mouth and nose as it moves up and across the face .
• Rhythmic initiation is ideal for initial motor learning of
PNF extremity patterns. As the patient achieves some
control. a progression is made from active-assistive to re-
sisted movement. with the end result being independent
movement.
'0 lllOl'e as I resist; pIIII YOllr It c: lip (lilt! ocross. Let /Ill' bring
.011 back." Finally. the patient i a k.ed to mme independ-
ently: "NoII~ pull YOlll' ler<, up (lilt! OC/"(I\\ 011 your o\\'n and
/"')11 onto your side."
Comments
• Quick (phasic) stretch can be applied to facilitate
movement.
• Joint receptors are activated through the application of
traction (in combination with resistance) during initial
movement within the pattern.
rior upper trunk (scapular region) (Fig. 3.128 I. The pu h down with your foot, and roll onto YOllr side."
pist holds the right forearm (an open-handed. n
grasp should be used to allow rotation through the Comments
as it moves up and across the body in 0 I F: the ther...;:, _ " er promote rolling. the LE (on the side of the lead
other hand helps the patient roll to the left b) assist,,,,; . -. - ~~n be flexed at the hip and knee with the foot tlat
trunk in the scapular region. The patient rolls to the ~ ~.lt I modified hooklying position [see Fig. 3.12A]),
lying position hee Fig. 3.128). .l12ti\ely move in a 0 I F pattern.
54 PART 1/ Illtenelltion' to ImproH FlIndion
• Timing for emphasis may be used to facilitate movement ~ a"ume half-kneeling throughout. Application
by using stronger components of a pattern to facilitate ':: ~ ~'")rrolling from supine toward the right into side-
weaker ones. A maximal contraction is elicited from ~Hl; \c; e, the lead (right) UE moving in D2F: the pa-
stronger components of a movement to allow irradiation tie . le'-: hand grasps underneath the wrist of the lead limb.
from stronger components to facilitate weaker components. The "h::r..ipI t', manual contacts are on the right (lead) UE;
• Active-assistive and resistive movements occur in only on h.md gra"p, the patient's hand (dorsal surface) while the
one direction; movements in the opposite direction are other I po itioned on the forearm. An open-handed (not a
passive. tight gra p manual contact on the lead UE should be used
• The reverse chop pattern increases the amount of upper to allo\\ rotation through the pattern. Using rhythmic initia-
trunk rotation that occurs with rolling as compared to tion. mo\-emenh are first passive, then active-assistive, and
unilateral limb patterns; this results from closing of the la tl~ re i ted.
kinematic chain.
Verbal Cues for Lift Pattern Rolling From Supine to
Lift, Rhythmic Initiation The lift is a bilateral asymmet- Sidelying, Rhythmic Initiation Passive phase: "Relax;
rical UE pattern that combines UE flexion and neck and up- let me mO\'e YOllr al'lllS lip and to\l'ard me." Active-assistive
per trunk extension with rotation. Movement progresses phase: "No\l' hegin to mOl'e \I'ith me. lip and to\l'wd me. Let
from passive, to active-assistive, to resisted, and finally to me IIIO\'e YOll hac/.:." Resistive phase: "Start to mo\'e against
independent. The patient is supine. To begin, the therapist is my resistance, I(ft lip and to\\'wd me. Let me mOl'e yOlI
heel-sitting next to the patient's trunk on the side of the roll back." Lastly. the patient is asked to move independently:
(Fig. 3.13A); toward the end of the roiL the therapist may "No\l', br YOllrseft: tllm -"aliI' head, lift YOllr arms lip and to-
transition to a half-kneeling position to allow the UE to \l'ard me, and roll onto YOllr leji (or right) side."
move through full range (Fig. 3.13B). Alternatively, the
Comments
• To further promote rolling, the LE (opposite the lead
limb) can be f1exed at the hip and knee with the foot
nat on the mat (modified hooklying position), or it can
actively move in a D I F pattern.
• Active-assistive and resistive movements occur in only one
direction: movements in the opposite direction are passive.
• The pattern represents a closed kinematic chain.
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Mobility progressing to controlled
mobility.
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to roll
independently from supine to prone position.
Preface to Student Practice Act ity ... Supine to idelying rolling using LE DIF pattern and
rhythmic initiation
When first learning the strategie, to promote function
... Supll1e to sidelying rolling using reverse chop and
included in this text, one's initial reaction might be that rhythmic initiation
these approaches are too time consuming to use in a clini- ... Supine to sidelying rolling using lift pattern and
cal setting. This notion should be cautiously considered. It rhythmic initiation
speaks directly to the importance of careful understanding
and mastery of the content. Once skill in the application OBJECTIVE: Sharing skill in application and knowledge of
and knowledge of these interventions is achieved, their strategies to promote improved rolling.
use is generally no more time consuming than many other EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Platform mat.
types of therapeutic interventions. An important consider-
DIRECTIONS: Working in groups of four to six students,
ation is that these interventions provide a rich source of
consider each entry in the section outline. Members of
treatment ideas. For example, after the first section of this
the group will assume different roles (described below)
chapter has been read, multiple treatment ideas should be and will rotate roles each time the group progresses to a
available for addressing the needs of patients whose abil- new item on the outline.
ity to roll is impaired. Sound clinical decision-making will
... One person assumes the role of therapist (for demon-
guide identification of the most appropriate activities and strations) and participates in discussion.
techniques for an individual patient. ... One person serves as the subject/patient (for demon-
Another consideration is the foundation that these in- strations) and participates in discussion.
terventions provide for developing home management ... The remaining members participate in discussion and
strategies to improve function. Although portions of the provide supportive feedback during demonstrations.
interventions described clearly require the skiHed inter- One member of this group should be designated as a
vention of a physical therapist, many others can be "fact checker" to return to the text content to confirm
modified or adapted for inclusion in a home exercise elements of the discussion (if needed) or if agreement
cannot be reached.
program (HEP) for use by the patient (self-management
strategies), family members, or other individuals partici- Thinking aloud, brainstorming, and sharing thoughts
pating in the patient's care. should be continuous throughout this activity! As each
item in the section outline is considered, the following
Description of Student Practice Activity should ensue:
Each section of this chapter ends with a similarly chal- I. An initial discussion of the activity, including patient
lenging student practice activity titled Section Summary and therapist positioning. Also considered here should
Student Practice Actil'ity (followed by the section title). be positional changes to enhance the activity (e.g.,
A section outline for rolling to guide the activity is pro- prepositioning a limb, hand placements to alter the
vided that highlights the key treatment strategies, tech- BOS, and so forth).
niques. and activities addressed in the preceding section. 2. An initial discussion of the technique, including its
description, indication(s) for use, therapist hand
This activity is an opportunity to share knowledge and
placements (manual contacts), and Yes.
skills as well as to confirm or clarify understanding of
3. A demonstration of the activity and application of the
the treatment interventions. Each student in a group technique by the designated therapist and subject/
will contribute his or her understanding of, or questions patient. Discussion dUling the demonstration should be
about, the strategy, technique, or activity being discussed continuous (the demonstration should not be the sole
and demonstrated. Dialogue should continue until a responsibility of the designated therapist and subject!
consensus of understanding is reached. (Note: These patient). All group members should provide recommen-
directions will be repeated for each subsequent sec- dations, suggestions, and supportive feedback throughout
tion summary student practice activity, in the eyent the demonstration. Particularly impOitant during the
that content is considered in a sequence different demonstrations is discussion of strategies to make the
from that presented here.) activity either more or less challenging.
-+. If any member of the group feels he or she requires
Section Outline: Rolling practice with the activity and technique, time should
be allocated to accommodate the request. All group
ACTIVITIES AND TECHNIQUES members providing input (recommendations,
... Sidelying, logrolling, using rhythmic initiation ugge tions. and supportive feedback) should also
... Sidelying, rolling using dynamic reversals .:.- ompany this practice.
... Sidelying, rolling using replication
... Supine to sidelying rolling using UE 0 IF patteM
rhythmic initiation
56 PART" lntenentions to ImproYe Function
Verbal Cues for Stabilizing Reversals in Sidelying pelvis (pu,hmg fomard). Once the patient's maximum iso-
Resistance to trunk exten or,: D 'I r ler me plish rOll for- metlic re pon~e is a hieved, the therapist moves the left hand
Imrd." Resistance to trunk tle\lf' DOIl'r leT me pull -"Oll to begin re i ting postelior rotation of shoulder. As the patient
backlmrd." responds to the new resistance. the right hand is moved to re-
sist anterior rotation of the pelvis (see Fig. 3.16).
Comments
• The goal is maintained isotonic contractions and holding Verbal Cues for Rhythmic Stabilization in Sidelying
of the sidelying position. "Hold, dOll 't let me mo\,e you. Hold, hold. Now don't let me
• Therapist hand placements should provide smooth tran- mo\,e yOll rhe other way. Hold, hold."
sitions between applications of resistance in opposite
directions (this will prevent undesirable erratic or jerky Comments
movements). • Resistance may first be applied to stronger muscles to
• The patient is not allowed to relax between contractions. facilitate those that are weaker.
• If the patient experiences difficulty holding the posture. • Resistance is built up gradually as the patient increases
dynamic reversals can be used initially (prior to stabiliz- the force of isometric contraction.
ing reversals) working toward decrements of ROM until • During any isometric contractions, the patient should be
improved holding is achieved. encouraged to breathe regularly. Breath holding increases
intrathoracic pressures and can produce a Yalsalva effect.
Rhythmic Stabilization Rhythmic stabilization utilizes iso-
metric contractions of antagonist patterns against resistance Outcomes
\\ith emphasis on cocontraction; the patient does not attempt Motor control goals: Stability (static control).
movement. Resistance is built up gradually as the patient re- Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to stabilize
sponds to the applied force. The technique can be used to the trunk.
increase stability, strength, and ROM. Resistance is applied
imultaneously to opposing directions (e.g., anterior rotation Indications Indications include weakness of trunk muscles
of shoulder and postelior rotation of pelvis or posterior rota- and inability to stabilize the trunk. Both stabilizing reversals
tion of shoulder and anterior rotation of pelvis). Although no and rhythmic stabilization can be used in sidelying to promote
movement occurs, resistance is applied as if twisting or rotat- stability and increase strength. Used in this context, stabiliz-
ing the upper and lower trunk in opposite directions. ing reversals place emphasis on the stabilizing action of the
For the application of rhythmic stabilization in sidely- trunk flexors and extensors; rhythmic stabilization focuses on
ing, the therapist is positioned in heel-sitting behind the patient the stabilizing action of the trunk rotators.
(Fig. 3.16); the patient is asked to hold the position while the
therapist applies resistance. Resistance to isometric contrac- Position/Activity: Sidclying, Upper or Lower Trunk
tion is gradually increased until the patient's maximum is Rotation (Segmental Rolling)
reached. Resistance is then reversed. For example. using the Isolated upper or lower trunk rotation can effectively be pro-
left hand, the therapist applies resistance to anterior rotation of moted with the patient in sidelying position. In upper trunk
the shoulder (pulling backward); with the light hand. resis- rotation, the patient moves the upper trunk/shoulder forward
tance is simultaneously applied to posterior rotation of the and backward while keeping the lower trunk/pelvis station-
ary. The sequence is reversed for lower trunk rotation: The
pelvis/lower trunk moves forward and back while the upper
trunk/shoulder remains stationary. This segmental rolling
pattern is characterized by the shoulder/upper trunk segment
leading the activity while the pelvis/lower trunk segment fol-
lows. or vice versa. During initial sidelying with upper or
lower trunk rotation, the nonmoving segment is stabilized by
the therapist. The therapist heel-sits behind or in front of the
patient. Manual contacts are on the upper trunk and pelvis.
-::::::-'. QUES AND VERBAL CUES TO IMPROVE UPPER
- :::: LO."ER TRUNK ROTATION
Dynamic Reversals (SlOW Reversals) Dynamic rever-
u e i otonic contractions to promote active concentric
Position!Activity: Sidelying,
Trunk Counterrotation
PREREQUISITE REQUIREMENTS
Acquisition of segmental trunk patterns is a required lead-up
skill for trunk counterrotation. Sidelying with trunk counterro-
tation involves simultaneous movement of both the upper and
FIGURE 3.17 For the application of dynam c reversals in side-
lying for upper trunk rotation, one 0 - e -"8'aols' s hands is lower trunk in opposite directions. For example, the upper
placed on the stationary segmen (Io\', e' -, "K). The opposite trunk movesfonl'md at the same time the lower trunk is mov-
hand is on the anterior upper trun (be Co', one axilla) to resist ing back\\'Ufd. The mo\"ements are then reversed (i.e., upper
forward movement, Not shown' one -ne':::::: s- s hand is then
moved to the posterior upper -'"no( -c -eS5- one cpposite trunk moves bac/...\wd as lower tJUnk moves fonvard). The
movement, therapist heel·,it<; behind or in front of the patient. Manual
~ -.:. ;JTER 3 Intl'nention, til ImproH fhd \Iohilil~ and Early Trunk ("onlnll 59
contacts are on the upper trunk (under the axilla) and the lower mo\·emenh.. -ext is a gradual introduction of appropriate
trunk/pelvis. level of re i,tance. typically beginning with light resistance.
The final 'omponent of rhythmic initiation is progression to
TECHNIQUES AND VERBAL C_::: -: ';:<0.::
independent mo\·ement.
TRUNK COUNTERROTATION
Rhythmic Initiation Recall that rhythmic initiation is a
Verbal Cues for Rhythmic Initiation, Sidelying, Trunk
technique that involves mO\'ements that are first passive,
then active-assistive, and then appropriately resisted (pas-
Counterrotation YCs are timed with passive movements:
"ReiCLr: let me II/OI'e your shoulder fon\'(/fd (or backward) and
sive ~ active-assistive ~ resi ted): the patient is then asked
\"Our pell'is backll'(/}d (or fonwlld)." YCs are timed with
to move independently. For the application of rhythmic initi-
active-assistive movements: "NOH; 111O\'e with me: shoulder for-
ation in sidelying for trunk counten-otation. the therapist's
ward (or backward) and pelvis backward (or fon\'(/rd)." YCs are
manual contacts are on the upper trunk (below the axilla) and
timed with resisted movements: "NOH; against resistance, push
on the lower trunk/pelvis (Fig. 3.18). The patient is instructed
(or pull); shoulder fonvard (or backward) and pelvis bachrard
to relax while the therapist passively moves each trunk seg-
(or forward)." Alternative YCs: "Twist your slwulder/pelvis ill
ment in opposite directions (e.g., the lower trunk/pelvis is
opposite directions; now reverse alld twist again."
moved forward while the upper trunk/shoulder is moved
backward [see Fig. 3.l8A]). This movement continues until
passive movements are reasonably smooth and fluid. The Comments
patient is then instructed to begin active-assistive participa- • Resistance is used to facilitate muscle contraction.
tion in the movement. The therapist provides the return • YCs should be soothing, slow, rhythmic, and carefully
timed with all phases of movement (passive, active-
assistive. and resisted) and facilitation (e.g .. quick
stretches).
• Trunk counterrotation can be a challenging movement
to accomplish. Rhythmic initiation can be used to teach
the motion (an effective technique for facilitating motor
learning of difficult tasks). If resisted movement proves
too difficult initially, the technique can be modified by
using only passive to active-assisted movement, with
later progression to resisted movements.
• If necessary. quick stretches can be used to facilitate
movement in the desired direction.
• In combination with rhythmic initiation for sidelying trunk
rotation. active reciprocal extremity movements simulating
arm swing and stepping movements can be performed. ~
• Smooth reversal of direction of movement is the goaL
movements should be coordinated and the movement
sequence continuous.
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Skill-level control for the trunk.
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to perform
reciprocal trunk patterns required for gait.
Prone Extension (Pivot Prone) externally rotated, and partially abducted, the scapulae ad-
ducted, and the elbows flexed to 90 degrees (Fig. 3.19A);
General Characteristics or (2) the shoulders can be flexed overhead, the scapulae
The prone position is very stable with a large BOS and low
upwardly rotated, and the elbows extended (Fig. 3.19B).
COM. Isometric contractions in the shortened range against
In both UE positions. the LEs are extended through the
gravity are required as the patient lies prone and lifts the
hips and knees. Stability control of postural extensors is
head, UEs, upper trunk, and LEs off the mat in a total exten- the goal.
sion pattern (pivot prone position). No \\'eightbearing occurs
through the joints. The BOS of this posture \\ ill change rel- Position and .\cth ity: Phot Prone. Extremity Lifts
ative to the number of body segment'. raised from the sup- TREATMENT STRA EG ES A. :) CONSIDERATIONS
porting surface; the COM of individual limb segments can • The pattern of e\tremit~ lifts or combination of lifts can
also change based on positioning and the re ultant change in be varied to alter the challenge imposed or to meet spe-
lever arm (e.g., elbows flexed \ er u, e\tended). Two UE cific treatment g al e.g .. activation of specific trunk
positions can be used: (I) the ,houlder ma\ be extended, musculature. F r e\ample. ( I) both upper and LEs can
:;-.:. PTER 3 Interventions to ImproH Bed \Iohility and Early Trunk Control 61
o Hip flexor or lumbar spine tightness may limit assump- relax tone through active protraction movements. This is
tion and maintenance of the pivot prone position: some accomplished by having the patient push the elbows
patients with ROM limitations may benefit from a firm down into the mat and tuck the chin while lifting and
pillow support placed under the abdomenllower trunk. rounding out the shoulders and upper thorax. The patient
o Owing to respiratory muscle weaknes and/or ompres- lowers the chin and upper chest to the mat again by
sion of the chest wall, prone positions may be ontraindi- allowing the scapulae to adduct.
cated in patients with cardiopulmonaf} im ohement (e.g .. o Abnormal reflex activity may interfere with the patient's
cardiovascular disease, respiratory insufficienc~ or respi- ability to assume or hold the prone on elbows posture.
ratory muscle weakness (e.g., spinal cord inju0 : CI] . Rotation of the head may activate the ATNR response,
o Influence of the STLR will result in in rea-ed t e"or tone causing DE extension on the chin side and flexion, or
in prone and impair active lifting. collapse. on the skull side. Abnormal influence of the
STLR may cause an increase in flexor tone in the prone
PREREQUISITE REQUIREMENTS
position that can diminish head and trunk extension.
Head and neck control and functional DE and LE RO. ' r~
o Prone on elbows may be contraindicated in the presence
necessary.
of elbow pathology, recent chest surgery or trauma, and
'ardiopulmonary impairments.
Prone on Elbows
• I. the presence of initial low back discomfort, gradual
General Characteristics .i1~ rements of active holding in the posture may be
The prone on elbows posture is very stable \\ith a ~d '3red to improve prone extension in the lumbar
and low COM. The head and upper trunk are ele\ ;;,:e__ =-=
supporting surface, with weight distributed to t~e " :: • ~.::':mess in the hip flexors may limit extension into this
and forearms. However, weight is not actually borne '-- _ :: _ " e. This may be improved by stretching interventions
62 PART /I Intenention to Impro\(' Function
the shoulder; this can be repe :e~: .tlign the other side Verbal Cues for Assist-to-Position From Sidelying on
(e.g., if the right elbO'\ \\ere n : p ,illoned correctly, the Elbows to Prone on Elbows Position "On the COlillt of
patient would be laterall: ,h:;"tcd to \ ard the left). three. I lI'allt YOli to wm (rota/e) your upper body alld come
• As control increases. the patiel1l le.rrn, to lift the trunk dOlI'l1 011 YOllr eibOlI' so .\'Oll 're then slipported by both elboll's.
actively and weight shift from elbO'\ to elbow to pull Olle. t\l'O, three."
both elbows under the shoulder,.
Comments
ACTIVITIES, STRATEGIES, AND VE<B:'-. CUES: PRONE ON
• Influence of the STLR may cause an increase in flexor
ELBOWS, ASSISHO·POSITION FROt: SIDELYING ON ELBOWS
tone in prone position.
Activities and Strategies The patient may also be as-
• Rotation of the head may activate an ATNR response,
sisted to prone on elbows from sidelying on one elbow.
causing extension of the DE on the chin side and flexion
This movement transition begins with the patient in a
or yielding on the skull side,
sidelying on elbow position. The patient is supported and
• For the patient with UE spasticity (e.g., the patient with
assisted with upper trunk rotation (lower trunk follows
stroke), the limb is positioned with the hand open and flat
rotating toward prone) and movement into the prone on el-
on the mat with neutral rotation of the shoulder.
bows position (Fig. 3.2IA). The therapist is half-kneeling
in a straddle position over the patient or half-kneeling to
Outcomes
the side of the patient. Bilateral manual contacts are on the
Motor control goal: Mobility (active-assistive move-
lateral aspect of the patient's upper trunk, under the axil-
ments) progressing to controlled mobility (active
lae. The patient is assisted into the position by rotating the
movements).
trunk until both elbows are resting on the mat (Fig. 3.2lB).
Functional skill achieved: Lead-up skill to assumption of
If required, the position of the elbows is then adjusted for
the prone on elbows position independently.
bearing weight.
PREREQUISITE REQUIREMENTS
The prone on elbows position involves head and neck. upper
trunk, and shoulder control. Active holding of the posture
also requires scapular and shoulder stability (the selTatus an-
terior stabilizes the scapula on the thorax; the rotator cuff
muscles and pectoralis major stabilize the humerus under
the body). Active holding of prone on elbows also requires
midrange control of neck extensors.
Verbal Cues for Rhythmic Stabilization in Prone on Indications Indications include the inability to stabilize
Elbows "Hold, don't let me mo\'e (twist) yOLl. Hold. hold. the glenohumeral and scapular musculature. an important
No\\' don't let me mOl'e you the other way. Hold, hold." prerequisite for using the UEs in weightbearing positions.
These activities are effective for further improving head and
Comments upper trunk control in preparation for upright antigravity
• Isometric control (holding) is the goal. Resistance is built postures (sitting and standing).
up gradually and smoothly as the patient increases the
force of contraction: the hold should be stead). with no Position/Activity: Prone on Elbows, Weight Shifting
visible movement of the trunk. For this activity, the patient is positioned in prone on elbows
• Rhythmic breathing should be encouraged during an) with the head in midposition. Weight shifts are accom-
isometric contractions; breath holding hould be a\oided. plished in medial/lateral and Gnterio';posterior directions.
• Good body mechanics for the therapi ...t are important. The Weight shifting is usually easiest in a medial/lateral direction
back should be kept straight. and \Hi t h: pere'\tenion \\ ith progression to anterior/posterior shifts. This activity im-
should be avoided. pro\ es dynamic stability. as the posture must be stabilized
• Elastic resistive bands can be positioned aroun :. e ;:',,- \\ hile moving.
tient's forearms: the patient is instructed t h 1 ~ _':;..J. ; ~=::- , QUES AND VERBAL CUES
the tubing. keeping the forearms apart. Thl . .~, -e_ e Dynamic Reversals: Medial/Lateral Shifts Dynamic
the proprioceptive loading and stabililing at,.. r er al promote active concentric movement in one direc-
shoulder muscles especially the rotator cuft m . n "ollo\\ed by active concentric movement in the reverse
.... re Ion \\'ithout relaxation. Smooth reversals of motion
Outcomes J.l transitions between opposing muscle groups) are
Motor control goals: Stability (static control I -e = .J. \lovements are continuously resisted in opposing
trunk. _ -e' n.... with YCs used to mark the initiation of move-
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able t -~_. the opposite direction (continuous movement H re-
(actively hold) in prone on elbows. _ ,e --7 YCs).
66 PART /I Intencntion' to Imp,'o\t' Function
Comments
• Initially, movements are slO\\ and cOll!fCllled \\ ith empha-
sis on careful grading of resi tan e: rrogre' Ion is to
increasing range in one or both dIre, 'I :1
::--<~PTER 3 Interventions to Impro\e Bed \[obilit~ and Earl~ Trunk Control 67
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Controlled mobility function of the
upper trunk and shoulders.
Functional skill achieved: The patient has improved bed
mobility (proximal stability of the glenohumeral and
scapular musculature).
Clinical Note: An a -e'~8- .e activity involves ac- and progress to weight shifts in all directions (dynamic pos-
tive reaching alone (a, a IC 1mb), or in combi- tural control). The patient's limits of stability (maximum
nation with a cone-stacking -asp< -his activity requires a distance the patient is able to lean in prone on elbows with-
series of 5- to 7-inch (12- to 17-em) rigid plastic stacking out loss of balance) must be reestablished, which is among
cones; the cones typically have a nonslip textured sur- the first activities in a balance sequence. The patient learns
face. The therapist holds the target cone and asks the how far to shift in anyone direction before losing balance
patient to place another cone on top of it. Initially, the and falling out of the position. Additional activities that
therapist holds the target cone in front and diagonally to challenge balance control in prone on elbows include DE
the patient's side to facilitate weight transfer onto the
reaching and placing activities (cone stacking) and turn-
static limb. As control increases, the target cone can
at'ounds (head and upper trunk rotation to allow looking
be shifted to other locations to challenge control. This
from side to side).
task promotes dynamic stability as well as eye-hand
To challenge reactive balance control, the patient's
coordination.
forearms and elbows can be supported on a small inflatable
dome or equilibrium board. After initial balance control is
Outcomes
achieved on the dome or board, side to side weight shifts can
Motor control goals: Controlled mobility function and
be introduced; lateral curvature of head and upper trunk is a
static-dynamic control of the upper trunk and DE.
normal response to tilting (the head and upper trunk rotate
This activity is an important lead-up skill for bed
toward the elevated side).
mobility, as it promotes DE function in prone on
elbows position. Outcomes
Functional skills achieved: The patient is independent in Motor control goals: Static and dynamic balance control
maintaining the prone on elbows position with simulta- in prone on elbows.
neous performance of DE reach and grasp activities. Functional skill achieved: The patient demonstrates func-
tional balance skill in the prone on elbows posture.
Indications An indication is impaired controlled mobility
function (static-dynamic control) in prone on elbows. Indications Indications include severely disordered bal-
ance control (e.g., the patient with TBI) and diminished
Position/Activity: Prone on Elbows. Balance Activities proximal stability of shoulders and upper trunk. Balance
In prone on elbows, balance activities focus on improved activities in prone on elbows promote balance control in a
static postural control (biomechanical alignment and sym- stable posture with a large BOS. The patient is prepared for
metrical weight distribution) and dynamic postural control bed mobility on soft uneven surfaces (e.g" mattress).
(musculoskeletal responses to support movement). Balance See Box 3.6 Section Summary Student Practice Activity
activities begin with static holding (static postural control) on treatment interventions used in prone on elbows.
:. • • ..
Description of Student Practice Activity Section Outline: Prone on Elbows
Each section of this chapter ends \vith a similarly chal- MOVEMENT TRANSITIONS: ACTIVITIES AND STRATEGIES
lenging student practice activity titled Section SUlIlmary '" Prone to prone on elbows transitions using assist-to-
Student Practice Actil'ity (follOll'ed b,\ the ection position
title). A section outline for prone on elbo\\ = to .=uide the '" Sidelying on elbow to prone on elbows transitions
activity is provided that highlights the ' ~ treatment using assist-to-position
strategies, techniques. and acti\ltle, a dre ~.:i m the pre-
ACTIVITIES AND TECHNIQUES
ceding section. This activity is an op e '" Prone on elbows. holding using stabilizing reversals
knowledge and skills as well a_ to '- ;---- \,ith medial/lateral resistance
derstanding of the treatment intel"\ en,] '" Prone on elbows. holding using rhythmic stabilization
in a group will contribute his or her u;,,,e- ~ - - = :. ;- '" Prone on elbows. medial-lateral shifts using dynamic
questions about, the strategy. techmq e. -_ re\erals
discussed and demonstrated. Dialogue r. __ ~ '" Prone on elbows, anterior-posterior shifts using
until a consensus of understanding i re~,,- =-~ , mbination of isotonics
These directions will be repeated for ea ... Pr ne on elbows. upper extremity 0 I thrust and
section summary student practice acti\i~.· - " r~l\\ al pattern using dynamic reversals
event that content is considered in a seque ==".::=- .E Sharing skill in the application and knowledge
ent from that presented here.) - '-::'.1 ment interventions used in prone on elbows.
Ibox comill/les all page 70)
70 PART /I Intt'rHntion, to Impr(nc FlInl'lion
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Platform mat. I 'onal changes to enhance the activity (e.g.,
-nioning a limb, hand placements to alter the
DIRECTIONS: Working in groups of four to six students,
BO . and 0 forth).
consider each entry in the section outline. Members of
_. :\n initial di cussion of the technique, including its
the group will assume different roles (described below)
de ription. indication(s) for use, therapist hand
and will rotate roles each time the group progresses to a
pIa emem (manual contacts), and verbal cues.
new item on the outline.
3. A demonstration of the activity and application of the
... One person assumes the role of therapist (for te hnique by the designated therapist and subject/
demonstrations) and participates in discussion. patient. Di cussion during the demonstration should
... One person serves as the subject/patient (for be continuou (the demonstration should not be the
demonstrations) and participates in discussion . sole re pon ibility of the designated therapist and
... The remaining members participate in discussion and subject/patient). All group members should provide
provide supportive feedback during demonstrations. recommendations. suggestions, and supportive
One member of this group should be designated as a feedback throughout the demonstration. Particularly
"fact checker" to return to the text content to confirm important duri;g the demonstrations is discussion of
elements of the discussion (if needed) or if agreement strategies to make the activity either more or less
cannot be reached. challenging.
Thinking aloud. brainstorming, and sharing thoughts 4. If any member of the group feels he or she requires
should be continuous throughout this activity I As each practice with the activity and technique, time should
item in the section outline is considered, the following be allocated to accommodate the request. All group
members providing input (recommendations,
should ensue:
suggestions, and supportive feedback) should also
I. An initial discussion of the activity, including patient accompany this practice.
and therapist positioning. Also considered here should
count of three. t\\i,t. and rotates the lower trunk from side-
sitting into quadruped. The therapist is in the half-kneeling
straddle po,nion mer the patient's legs. Manual contacts are
on both hips. The therapist assists the movement of the hips
(lower trunk rotation) into quadruped (Fig. 3.288).
Comments
• During assist to quadruped position, maximum assis-
tance is required in the beginning of the movement; as
the hips move closer to the final position, less assis-
tance is given .
• Prepositioning of the limbs is a key element in achieving
the desired tinal position.
At the same time, I will (lSsist b\' Izfiing \,our hips one at a
time up and back, slarring on Ihe righl. Oka\', one, 1\\'0,
three; step back with YOl/r right elbOlI". ,\'0\\'. Ihe lefl side.
step back \\'ith your left elbOlI"." Thi ,equence i repeated
until the knees are under the hip" "SOil. pu~h lip \\ ilh
your hands and arms, and come up infO the hand -CInd-
knees position."
• A ball can be used to assist the movement of the hips ee pain (e.g., osteoarthritis) may find
while providing support for the trunk during early \ ell a kneeling activities uncomfortable.
quadruped activities. The ball si~e is important. It should elor mall pillow or cushion placed under
be large enough to support the trunk in quadruped, but ._ be u ed to increase comfort level.
not 0 large as to interfere with assumption of the posture -houlder pain and limited ROM (e.g.. a
or postural alignment in the position. xed houlder) may not tolerate the
• The therapist must be in a dynamic position to allow for qu drupe ure. In the e situations. sitting with
the required weight shifting while supporting and assist- \\ eight ann: on elbows using a stool placed next to the
ing the patient without losing balance. patient or on Ll: with elbows extended on a low table in
front of the patient rna) be used to achieve the benefits of
Outcomes earl) \\·eightbearing.
Motor control goal: Mobility (active-assistive move- • Quadruped po. ture rna) be contraindicated for patients
ments) progressing to controlled mobility (active with LE flexor pa ticit).
movements).
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to indepen- Quadruped: Interventions, Outcomes,
dently assume the quadruped position. and Management Strategies
Position and Activity: Quadruped, Holding
The patient is in quadruped, actively holding the posture. Ini-
Indications Weakness or diminished/disordered motor con-
tially, attention is directed toward postural alignment. The
trol is an indication. These activities are impOltant lead-up
hands are positioned directly under the shoulders, and weight-
skill for creeping and floor-to-standing transfers.
bearing occurs at the shoulders and through the elbows and
wrists, and on the hands. The head and spine are in midposi-
Comments
tion, and the back is flat. The knee are positioned under the
• The ability to hold this posture may be limited owing
hips; weightbearing occurs at the hips and on the knees.
to weakness and/or instability. Modified holding in
If scapular instability is present, some winging may
quadruped with limited weightbearing can be achieved by
be evident. Placing a hand (manual contact) over the mid-
positioning the patient over an appropriately sized ball to
scapular region and asking the patient to flatten the upper
support body weight.
back into the hand and then hold the position will activate
• The ability to hold in this posture may also be limited
the scapular stabilizers. Lumbar lordosis may also be
due to inhibitory pressure on the quadriceps and wrist
pre ent initially. especially if the trunk is heavy. Improved
and finger flexor tendons (firm maintained pressure
alignment can be achieved by placing a hand over the lum-
across tendons from prolonged positioning causes a
bar region and asking the patient to flatten the back into
dampening [inhibition] of muscle tone). An alternative is
the hand and then hold the back level (flat). This will
to position the hand over a sandbag, folded cuff weight,
activate the abdominal muscles to diminish the lordosis;
or the end of a platform mat (allowing fingers to flex), or
the back extensors contribute to holding the flat-back
weightbearing can occur on the base of a fisted hand to
position.
reduce inhibitory effects. Reducing the impact of in-
hibitory pressure on the quadriceps is more challenging. TECHNIQUES AND VERBAL CUES
Some patients benefit from kneeling on a more resilient Stabilizing Reversals Stabilizing reversals involve the
surface such as a small soft cushion under each knee. An application of resistance in opposing directions on the trunk
alternative is to include several shorter time intervals in in a relatively static quadruped posture; resistance is suffi-
quadruped over the course of a treatment session (to re- cient to prevent movement. The patient is asked to maintain
duce the effect of prolonged positioning). the quadruped position. Using bilateral manual contacts,
• Patients with LE extensor or DE finger flexor hypertonic- the therapist applies resistance first in the stronger direction
ity may benefit from the effects of inhibitory pressure of movement (agonists) until the patient's maximum is
inherent in this posture. Quadruped can be a useful reached. Once the patient is fully resisting with agonists,
lead-up activity to relax tone before tanding and walking one hand continues to resist while the opposite hand is posi-
or before UE hand and finger activitie . tioned to resist the antagonists. When the antagonists begin
• Prior to work on the assist-to-position mo\ ement transi- to engage, the other hand is also moved to resist antagonists.
tion, patients with UE spasticity accompanied by a re- The goal i small-range isotonic contractions progressing to
tracted scapula with shoulder internal rotation and ad- stabilizing (holding).
duction and elbow flexion (e.g .. the patient with troke) For the application of stabilizing reversals to the
may benefit from initial practice roundlll: the back and quadruped position. resi tance is applied at the scapula (upper
then hollowing; this require~ a l\e ~3 ular protraction trunk) and pelvis (lower trunk) in a medial/lateral, anterior!
movements. The UE should be po i ion d 1Il elbow ex- posteriOl; and diaf!.()/Ial direction (each is described below).
tension, forearm supination. and luer tlexion and Recall that stabilizing rever<;als use isotonic contractions to
external rotation. promote stabilir:. lIl-rea.,e 'trength, and improve coordination
~-:'PTER 3 IntH\Cntions to Impr(\" Bt'd \Iobilit~ and Earl~ Tt'unk Control 73
between opposing muscle group~. Thl IS a precursor to rhyth- move fol'\\ ard. the therapist's hands are positioned over the
mic stabilization utilizing isomeUl~ ontractions. top of the Ilia' re t (Fig. 3.30). As the patient attempts to
move backward. the therapist's hands are positioned over
Stabilizing Reversals, Medial/Lateral Resistance the lo\\er pel\·is/ischium/buttocks. Alternatively, one hand
For the application of stabilizing re\ersals with medial! can be on the upper trunk and one hand on the lower
lateral resistance in quadruped. the therapist is positioned in pel vis/i schi um/buttock.
half-kneeling at the patient's 'ide (Fig. 3.29). Resistance is
given in medialllateral directions. One of the therapist's Verbal Cues for Stabilizing Reversals, Anterior/
manual contacts is on the contralateral upper trunk (depend- Posterior Resistance in Quadruped As the patient at-
ing on the direction, over either the axillary or \'ertebral tempts to shift forward: "Don't let me pull you back." As the
border of scapula); the other hand is positioned on the ipsi- patient attempts to shift backward: "Don't let me push you
lateral lower trunk (either on the lateral aspect of the pelvis forward."
or at the midpelvic region). The hand positions are then re-
versed. For example, if the patient is shifting toward the Stabilizing Reversals: Diagonal Resistance For the
therapist, hand placements are on the vertebral border of the application of stabilizing reversals with diagonal resistance
contralateral scapula and the lateral aspect of the ipsilateral in quadruped, the therapist is in a half-kneeling position
pelvis (see Fig. 3.29). If the patient is shifting away from the diagonally behind the patient. The patient attempts to shift
therapist, one hand is on the axillary border of the contralat- forward over one UE and then diagonally backward over the
eral scapula and the opposite hand is cupped and "pulls" on contralateral LE. Movement is then reversed to the opposite
the ipsilateral midpelvic region. Alternatively, both hands UE and contralateral LE. Bilateral manual contacts are on
can resist on the upper and lower sides of the trunk, switch- the pelvis (either over the iliac crest or over the lower
ing from ipsilateral to contralateral. pell'is/ischium/buttocks) and on the contralateral upper trunk
(either over the top of the shoulder or at the vertebral border
Verbal Cues for Stabilizing Reversals, Medial/ of the scapula). Manual contacts change between resistance
Lateral Resistance in Quadruped As the patient at- applied in anterior diagonal and posterior diagonal direc-
tempts to shift toward the therapist: "Don't let me push you tions. As the patient attempts to move diagonally forward, the
away." As the patient attempts to shift away from the therapist: therapist's hands are positioned over the top of the shoulder
"Don't let me pull you toward me." and over the iliac crest. As the patient attempts to move diag-
onally backward, the therapist's hands are positioned over the
Stabilizing Reversals, Anterior/Posterior Resistance vertebral border of the scapula and the lower pelvis/ischium.
For the application of stabilizing reversals with anterior/
posterior resistance in quadruped, the therapist is positioned Verbal Cues for Stabilizing Reversals, Diagonal
in a half-kneeling position behind the patient (one knee may Resistance in Quadruped As the patient attempts to
straddle the patient's feet). Bilateral manual contacts are on shift diagonally forward over UE: "Doll't let me pull you
the pelvis (over either the iliac crests or the lower pelvis/ back toward me." As the patient attempts to shift diagonally
ischium/buttocks) and move between resistance applied in backward over LE: "Doll't let me push you forward and
anterior and posterior directions. As the patient attempts to away from me."
12:~:..-n c stabilization Rhythmic stabilization involves • T.,<,' <'. pi t's hands are moved smoothly during transi-
,:.;:.;:::::=::-:: I' metric contractions of agonist/antagonist pat- e patient should not be allowed to relax at any time.
- ; re~istance. The patient is asked to hold the • Rh, thml' breathing should be encouraged. Breath
- ~~ f- ""ition without moving; no movement occurs. hold 109 -hould be avoided by the patient during all
--:: - i-positioned in half-kneeling behind and to i-ometn \\ork.
'Ide. Resistance is built up gradually and ap- • Good bod~ mechanics for the therapist are important:
--= _·:.meously in opposing directions as if twisting The ba . hould be straight (not stooped or flexed), and
- ~"'d lower trunk in different directions. Resistance \\ ri~t hyperextension should be avoided.
""'"--- ...... : no relaxation occurs. Manual contacts are on the • Elastic re i tive bands can be placed around the patient's
- ~ .ower trunk. One hand is positioned on the upper arm (to increase lateral stabilization of the shoulders) or
~ -' cf m'er the axillary border of the scapula or over around the patient's thighs (to increase lateral stabiliza-
- _ cr using a cupped hand. The other hand is posi- tion of the hips). The patient is instructed to keep the
-~~ ,~ither the contralateral anteriorllateral or posteriori limbs apart, holding against the resistive band,
::-eli -. The therapist applies resistance by pushing
..:~ and downward on the upper trunk while pulling up- Outcomes
...: ~ J backward on the pelvis (as if "twisting" the upper Motor control goals: Stability and static control of the
~ er trunk in opposite directions). The patient resists head, upper and lower trunk, shoulders, and hips.
·-c .' r'e. holding steady (Fig. 3.31). When the patient is re- Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to stabilize
• 109 with maximal isometric contractions of the agonist independently in the quadruped posture.
".:. ern, one of the therapist's hands is moved to resist the an-
'",,=onist pattern. When the antagonists begin to engage, the Indications Dependent function due to weakness and dis-
therapist's other hand is also moved to resist the antagonist ordered motor control are indications. Kneeling on all fours
pattern. As manual contacts are reversed, their respective po- is an intermediate posture and lead-up skill for independent
Itions on the pelvis and upper trunk are maintained. assumption of floor-to-standing transfers.
Verbal Cues for Rhythmic stabilization in Quadruped Position and Activity: Quadruped, Weight Shifting
"Hold, don't try to mOl'e. Hold, hold. Now don't try to 11I00'e The patient is in quadruped position, with the head in midpo-
the other way. Hold, hold." Altemative YCs: "Hold, don't let sition and the back flat. Weight is shifted in medial/lateral,
me twist you. Hold, hold. Now don't let me twist you the other anterior/posterior, and diagonal directions. This activity pro-
lray. Hold, hold." motes dynamic stability, as it requires the patient to maintain
the posture while moving. Movement begins with small-
Comments range control and progresses to full-range control (through
• Isometric (holding) control is the goal. Resistance is built increments of ROM) .
up gradually. The hold should be smooth and steady, with
TECHNIQUES AND VERBAL CUES
no visible movement of the trunk.
Dynamic Reversals: MedialILateral Shifts Dynamic
reversals promote active concentric movement in the
quadruped position, first in one direction followed by active
concentric movement in the reverse direction without relax-
ation. Smooth reversals of motion (normal transitions be-
tween opposing muscle groups) are the goal. Movements are
continuously resisted in opposing directions, with YCs used
to mark the initiation of movement at the same time direc-
tion. The therapist's hands move at the same time the YC is
given to ensure smooth reversals of movement.
For the application of dynamic reversals with medial/
lateral shifts in quadruped, the therapist is half-kneeling at
the patient's side. The patient shifts weight first onto the
ipsilateral UE and LE and then shifts weight onto the con-
tralateral limbs. As the patient shifts weight toward the ther-
apist, manual contacts are at the side of the ipsilateral trunk.
FIGURE 3.31 Rhythmic stabilization in quadruped In this ex- One hand is on the upper trunk; the other hand is on the
ample, resistance is applied simultaneous'y opposing direc-
tions as if attempting to twist the upper a a, ver trunk in pelvis. As the patient moves away from the therapist, hand
opposite directions; hand placemer's a'e en ''''e axillary placements on the upper trunk and pelvis are moved to the
border of the left scapula and on' e r gr- c~'er or/Iateral side of the contralateral trunk to resist movement. Using
pelvis. Not shown: Hand placerrer's c';:; .~;:;~ reversed and
positioned over the shoulder (cucce:: -:;-:; ::nd on the an alternative hand position. the therapist maintains one
contralateral posterior/la era ce . 5 hand positioned on he ide of the contralateral upper trunk,
~ -..:. ;J~ER 3 Intenention, to ImproH Bed \Iobilit~ and Earl~ n'un" Control 75
resisting first the vertebral border of the ~capula and then the
axillary border (changed a the patient moves toward and
away from therapist): the other hand i positioned on the
ipsilateral pelvis, resisting fir t on the lateral pelvis (move-
ment toward therapist) and then on the midpelvis (move-
ment away from therapi n.
: : 33 0, nomic reversals, movement transitions from FIGURE 3,34 -~~ -5 - -g on ball. A small ball placed between
_~= -: oilateral heel-sitting position, Not shown: Start the pa- e~- s '~~. ~8, be used to provide a more grodual
=_::::r ped, The patient's hips, knees, and shoul- assumo- G~ c' '~e -ee -so Ing position, The therapist is guiding
- _:r -~, until the buttocks make contact with the moverre"'" ,', -~ ~8- vO contacts at the pelvis and contralat-
~ ::=-~"". s hands remain in contact with the mat, eral upper -r v~o( v~Cier -he axilla, Placement of the patient's
: ··::::·S are on the lower pelvis/ischium/buttocks to UEs on the -"erao s' s shoulders assists with initial stabilization
-- '=:: centric movement into heel-sitting, Not of the upper - l-no<.
~ _:: ::ontacts are then changed and placed over
_ ~~ -::J resist movement back up into the starting
-=-: ::::-on,
- :; quadruped position. To resist the concentric Dynamic Reversals, Movement Transitions From
..llllic reversals are used first in one direction Quadruped to Heel-Sitting on One Side Dynamic
: \ e concentric movement in the reverse direc- reversals promote active concentric movement in one direc-
-e ..l.\ation. The therapist's position transitions tion (agonist) followed by active concentric movement in
- -ee ing start position to heel-sitting on one side the reverse (antagonist) direction without relaxation. The
. - _:he patient. Bilateral manual contacts change technique involves continuous resisted movement in oppos-
.:e applied over the lower pelvis/ischium/ ing directions, with YCs used to mark the initiation of move-
- movement into heel-sitting) (see Fig. 3.33) ment in the opposite direction. For the application of
(rest (to resist movement back up into the dynamic reversals to movement transitions from quadruped
position). to heel-sitting on one side, the therapist transitions from a
half-kneeling start position to heel-sitting on one side be-
es for Dynamic Reversals, Movement hind the patient (on the heel-sit side). The patient begins in
om Quadruped to Bilateral Heel-Sit- quadruped and diagonally moves down into heel-silting on
. loving from quadruped into heel-sitting: one side and then returns to the start position. Bilateral man-
lI'ay onto your heels, push, push, push." ual contacts change between resistance applied over the
~- SOli'. reverse." Moving from heel-sitting lower pel,'is/ischiumlbuttocks (to resist movement into heel-
P I back up to (Ill fours, pull, pull, pull." silting on one side) and over the iliac crest (Fig. 3.35) (to
resist movement back up into the starting quadruped posi-
ote: Movements from quadruped into tion); no relaxation occurs. A foam cushion, firm bolster, or
--;; ::an be used to improve shoulder ROM; wedge may be placed next to the patient's hip on the heel-sit
- _-=-_ ','h unsuspecting patients who may side to decrease the range of movement required (compared
::~s about shoulder passive range of to full heel-sitting on one side). A footstool with appropriate
padding (towel or cushion) may also be used. If needed. the
footstool may be positioned closer to the patient by allowing
\ ith LE ROM limitations, those who re- it to straddle the patient's foot on the heel-sit side. Use of an
:; _~
al assumption of the heel-sitting posi- elevated support surface is helpful for patients who find it
- find it difficult to get up from the full difficult to get up from the full heel-sitting position.
n, a small ball may be placed between
- Fi:;. 3.34), This will decrease the range of Verbal Cues for Dynamic Reversals, Movement
compared to full heel-sitting}. Caution Transitions From Quadruped to Heel-Sitting on
- electing the correct size ball. If the ball One Side IvIm'ing backward toward heel-sitting on one
Impose excessive internal rotation at the side: "Push back (}I'eI' your (right or left) foot, push, push,
a sufficiently large stool ma~ be placed push." Transitional 'ue: ",VOIr re\'erse." Moving from heel-
; eels to sit on. sitting on one ~Ide to quadruped: "Pull back up to all fours,
:-~PTER 3 Interventions to Imprtl\~ Bed 'IIobility and Early Trunk « nlr
FIGURE 3.37 Quadruped upper extremity lifting (static- FIGURE 3.38 Quadruped s otic-dynamic control. upper and
dynamic control). The therapist moves the target cone into lower extremity Ilrnb I fts This example illustrates simultaneous
position and then actively reaches to place another cone on lifting of contrala;era upper and lower limbs to promote
top. The activity is repeated changing target cone position. static-dynamic con rOI
hand position. Active reaching can also be combined with a position. with the trunk in neutral alignment. The patient's
cone-stacking task (see Fig. 3.37). The therapist holds the head follows the extremity pattern. The therapist is half-
target cone and asks the patient to place another cone on top kneeling on the dynamic limb side (Fig. 3.39A). To resist
of it: the position can be varied with each trial. The initial motion of the dynamic UE, one of the therapist's manual
location of the target (e.g .. open hand or cone) should contacts is over the dorsal surface of the patient's hand with
facilitate weight transfer onto the static limb. As control fingers on the radial side. The opposite hand is positioned
increases. the target can be shifted to other location~ to chal- over the shoulder to emphasize proximal movement: how-
lenge contra!' ever. if needed. this hand may be used to apply approxima-
tion force over the shoulder of the static limb to increase sta-
QUADRUPED, LOWER EXTREMITY LIFTS bilizing responses. Dynamic reversals involve continuously
The patient is in quadruped position. with the head in mid- resisted concentric movement in opposing directions, with
position and the trunk in neutral alignment. The therapist is ves used to mark the initiation of movement in the opposite
to the side of the patient in a guard position. While maintain- direction. While maintaining the posture, the patient weight-
ing the posture, the patient is asked to weight shift onto one shifts onto the static UE and the dynamic UE is unweighted
side and extend the LE backward and up behind the body. (to instruct the patient in the desired movement, the therapist
Further challenges can be imposed by movement of the dy- may passively move the limb through the range once or
namic limb (e.g .. alternating from full hip and knee tlexion twice before resistance is applied). The dynamic UE begins
with ankle dorsitlexion to full hip and knee extension with in shoulder extension, adduction, and internal rotation with
ankle plantarflexion or by the application of manual or me- elbow flexion, forearm pronation, and wrist and finger flex-
chanical resistance (e.g., ankle cuff weights). The amount of ion (UE D2E): the fisted hand is placed near the opposite
resistance applied to the dynamic limb is determined by the pelvis. at the bel of the anterior superior iliac spine (ASlS)
patient's ability to hold the static limb and trunk steady. Var- (see Fig. 3.39A). The hand opens, turns. and lifts up and out,
ious combinations of static-dynamic activities can be used: moving the arm into shoulder flexion. abduction, and exter-
alternating lifts of one UE, then the other: alternating lifts of nal rotation with elbow extension, forearm supination, and
one LE, then the other; or Iifting the contralateral UE and wrist and finger extension (UE D2F) (Fig. 3.39B). The pa-
LE (Fig. 3.38). tient then reverses direction and brings the UE back down to
the start position. The d) namic UE is non-weightbearing at
Position and Activity: Quadruped. Static-[)~nalllie all times.
Control, Application of PNF Extrcmit~ Patterns
TECHNIQUES AND VERBAL CUES (To IMPROVE Verbal Cues for the Application of Dynamic Rever-
STATiC-DYNAMIC CONTROL) sals Using UE D2E and UE D2F "Shift ~\'eight opel' \'our
Dynamic Reversals, Upper Extremity Extension/ right (or lefr.\[{{f/( limb) ann." For UE D2F: "Against my
Adduction/Internal Rotation, D2 Extension CUE resistance. open your halld. till'll, alld lift your left (or right.
D2E) and Upper Extremity Flexion/ Abduction/ drll(lmic limb I /Il,nd up and OIlTIOII'wtlll1e (lnd straighten raul'
External Rotation, D2 Flexion CUE D2F) For the ap- elbOlt:" Tran-Hil1n.ll.:ue: "SOIl', rel'erse," For UE D2E: "Close
plication of dynamic reversals using CE D2E and UE D2F to \'our hand. !11m l,rJ pllil your hand dOH'n and across 10 your
improve static-dynamic control. the patIent i, in quadruped OpposiTe hip Btrd '.Ir < Ihml'."
~-;J.PTER 3 Intenentillns til ImprllH Bed \lllhilit~ and Ellrl~ Trun" Control 79
Comments
• Dynamic reversals are used to incre:l e
tive ROM as well as promote normd ' .....:-
opposing muscle groups: smooth rc\ er _
the goal.
• Initially, movements are slow and (omr
sis on careful grading of resistance: pro;rc
variations in speed in one or both directlo
• If an imbalance in strength is evident. re"I'- ~
cally applied first in the stronger direction ; -
E 3.40 Application of dynamic reversals using LE flexion
(irradiation from stronger components 10 fd~ • -::-:: '=-e~son patterns in quadruped. (A) Start position Is the
components). -= .:
~ x-ern; (8) end position is the LE D1E pattern,
80 PART /I Inten entions to ImproH Function
the patient in the desired movement, the therapist may pas- . - _- ..., ility. The patient advances onl) one limb at a
sively take the limb through the range once or twice before u-~ ~;. ~:-; hand. right knee; then right hand. left knee).
resistance is applied). The dynamic LE begins in hip flexion. TIJJ- -~~u -e he patient to shift weight to the static limb as
adduction, and external rotation with the knee flexed in a diag- the .:: "~J':- lImb is advanced. The sequence is repeated as
onal toward the opposite hand (LE DlF) (Fig. 3.40A). In the the ~r g--~ IOn continues.
reverse diagonal direction, the knee then moves back and up In ..l ".\ o-point creeping pattern, the patient advances
into extension, moving the hip into extension, abduction, and one hand d the opposite knee simultaneously (e.g., left
internal rotation (see Fig. 3.40B). The patient then reverses di- hand and nght knee are moved together; then right hand and
rection and brings the dynamic limb back down to the start po- left knee are mowd together). The sequence is repeated for
sition. The dynamic LE is non-weightbearing at all times. An continued progre sion. A two-point pattern allows for a
isometric hold may be added in the shortened range (either LE more continuou. movement sequence. Some patients may
D IF or LE D IE) to increase the challenge to the postural trunk adopt an ip ilateral pattern in which the hand and the knee
and static limb musculature. on the ame ide move together. This pattern should be dis-
couraged in fa\"Of of a contralateral pattern, with the oppo-
site hand and knee moving together.
Verbal Cues for the Application of Dynamic
Reversals Using LE D1 F and LE D1 E "Shift your weight
Position and Actiyit~: Quadruped. Creeping, Resisted
over your right (or left, static limb) leg." For LE DIF:
Progression
"Against my resistance, pull your foot up and across your
TECHNIQUES AND VERBAL CUES
body to your opposite hand." Transitional cue: "Now, re-
Resisted Progression This technique involves the appli-
verse." For LE DIE: "Push your leg back and up; straighten
cation of manual resistance to the pelvis in quadruped (creep-
your knee."
ing) to resist both forward progression and the pelvic rotation
that accompanies the advancement of the LEs (improved
Outcomes timing and control of pelvic rotation are the goals). A stretch
Motor control goals: Controlled mobility function and can be used to facilitate the initiation of pelvic and LE move-
static-dynamic control of the trunk and extremities. ments. During the application of resisted progression, the pa-
Functional skills achieved: The patient gains postural tient is in quadruped position, with the head in midposition
control and dynamic stability of the trunk in quadruped and the trunk in neutral alignment. The therapist moves with
position and is able to perform DE reaching and LE the patient and is positioned standing, with knees slightly
movements. flexed (partial squat position), behind the patient. Alterna-
tively, the therapist may be positioned in half-kneeling be-
Indications Impairments in static-dynamic control in hind the patient and slide forward as the patient progresses.
quadruped are indications. These activities are important Bilateral manual contacts are over the iliac crests (Fig. 3.41).
lead-up skills for function within the posture (i.e., creeping). A modification of this activity is for the therapist to as-
sume a squatting position behind the patient, moving for-
ward each time the patient moves; manual contacts are
Position and Activity: Quadruped, Creeping
ACTIVITIES AND STRATEGIES TO PROMOTE MOVEMENT
WITHIN QUADRUPED POSTURE
Movement Within Posture Movement within the quadruped
position (creeping) has several important functional impli-
cations. It requires trunk counterrotation and contralateral
limb movements, important prerequisites for locomotion.
Creeping can also be used to improve strength (resisted pro-
gression), promote dynamic balance reactions, and improve
coordination and timing. Movement within the quadruped
posture is also an important precursor to assuming a stand-
ing position from the floor (e.g., following a fall. the patient
can creep to a chair or other solid SUpp0l1 prior to again as-
suming an upright posture).
To initiate creeping, the patient is in quadruped posi-
tion, with the head in mid position and the trunk in neutral
alignment. The patient moves forward or backward using
the upper and lower limbs (hands and knees) for locomo- FIGURE 3.41 Quaaruped creeping, resisted progression. Bilat-
eral manual cor"o::::'S 0'6 over the iliac crests to provide re-
tion. Either a four- or two-point -equen e i used. A four- sistance during 'ceo'. 0'0 '"'lovement. Maintaining manual con-
point creeping pattern is often used iniI1all~. as it provides tacts, the therac S' -:::: . =S 'orword with the patient.
:::-~::JTER 3 Intcncntion., to Impr \ B~d \Iobilit~ and Earl~ Trunk <..
then placed on the patient' ..t r '1St forward pro- Position and :\lth ity: Quadruped, Balance Cc,nt
gression. The level of re~I't... e lr.Ided 0 as not to dis- Man~ of the a tl\ itie already presented addres \.li
rupt the patient's momentum. , r 1'1.1t1on. and velocity. pect of balan 'e control. However, patients \\ho ::
strate ignifi ant impairments in dynamic postural,
Clinicall'.ote: An a 'e'~;::' .e resls ed progression ma) be unable to ontrol their postural stability and ,,-
activity is the appi co' c~ ~~ 'es s ance uSing elas- tion \\ hile mm'ing . egments of the body. Anum' -
ic resistance bands wrappeo orona he patient's impairment.. either alone or in combination. may be
hips/pelvis and held from beh I'a b . +he therapist tributing factor. including imbalances in tone (e.g ... p..t .• -
(Fig. 3.42). Resistance can also be provided using wrist ity and ligidit)). limitations in ROM. impaired volun·~.
and ankle cuff weights. control (e.g .. ataxia and athetosis), inability to m '.-
smooth transitions between opposing muscle groups Ie.,;
Verbal Cues for Quadruped, Creeping, Resisted cerebellar dysfunction), and inability to stabilize pro\l-
Progression "On three. 'step 'j(m 1'0 rd. 1I101'ing your op- mally. Functionally, these patients may have difficult~
posite arm and leg togetheJ: One. t\\,o. three. and step. step." with movements that increase the demand for dynami
\lovements should be well timed with YCs. stabilization control owing to changes in the BaS or COM
such as weight shifting in any direction and static-
Clinical Note: Some patients may be resistant to dynamic control in quadruped. For these patients. greater
creeping as a treatment activity, feeling it is too emphasis will be placed on balance strategies to improve
childish. These feelings must be respected and explored; static and dynamic postural contra!'
such feelings may indicate the patient is not fully aware
of the rationale for the activity. The therapist should stress ACTIVITIES AND STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE BALANCE
the clinical relevance of creeping to other functional Balance Strategies Balance activities in quadruped can
activities. For example. the counterrotation pattern is begin with static holding (static postural control) and pro-
mportant for gait; patients may need this skill following a gresses to weight shifts in all directions (dynamic postural
fall to get to the nearest chair or support to pull control). An important early element of a balance sequence
themselves up. is for the patient to learn his or her limits of stability (LOS).
This requires the patient to learn how far he or she can shift
Outcomes in anyone direction before losing balance and falling out of
:\Iotor control goals: Development of skilled locomotion the quadruped posture. Balance practice begins with move-
pattern and trunk countelTotation with contralateral UE ments emphasizing smooth directional changes that engage
and LE movements. antagonist actions (e.g., weight shifts). As control improves.
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to mo\e in- the movements are gradually expanded through an increas-
dependently in quadruped using a reciprocal trunk and ing range (increments of range).
limb pattern. Although active movement is the goal. assistance may
be required during initial movement attempts for both the
Indications Indications are impaired timing and antrol dynamic movements and for stabiliLing body segments.
of limb and trunk/pelvic movemenh.
Dynamic movements can be facilitated using quick stretches,
manual contacts, and graded resistance. Task-oriented dynamic
movements (e.g., reaching) often hold more interest, espe-
iall)' if the task is impOitant to the patient. The patient's
anention should focus on performing the activity or task and
not on the stabilizing postural components. This redirecting of
'ognitive attention is an important measure of developing pos-
rural ontrol. as intact postural control functions largely on an
matic and unconscious level.
Additional activities that challenge anticipatory balance
nrrol 111 quadruped posture include arm lifts, leg lifts. and
ined arm and leg lifts as well as "'look-arounds" (the head
pper trunk rotate first to one side. then to the other)
Ilion from quadruped to side-sitting and back to
-..~d u ing pelvic/lower trunk rotation. PNF extremity
•- ~..:.n be u. ed to increase the level of difficulty.
FIGURE 3.42 Quadruped. creeping. reSisted pro;'=_ :- ...,' \ Hies that can be used to challenge reactive bal-
elastic resistance bands. For this activity. the the':;:: - nrr 'lll1c1ude side-to-side tilts on a large equilibrium
standing holding the ends of the resistance bara: :-:
moves forward with the patient. Greater resistance : '::': - ~ - or therapist-initiated). Lateral curvature of the
during forward movement of the dynamic 11mb per trunk is a normal response: the head and
82 PART /I lntenention., to Jmpnnc Function
trunk rotate toward the raised or elevated side. Progression -;:-> 3 ~. 7 Section Summary Student Practice Activity
is from four-limb support to three-limb to two-limb support --::_7"" ,Interyentions used in quadruped.
while balancing on the equilibrium board. Self-initiated tilts
challenge both anticipatory and reactive balance control. Hoo lying
Description of Student Practice Activity ... Quadruped. holding using rhythmic stabilization
... Quadruped. holding using dynamic reversals,
Each section of this chapter ends with a similarly chal-
anterior/posterior shifts
lenging student practice activity titled Section Summary
Student Practice Activity (followed by the section STATIC·DYNAMIC ACTIVITIES
title). A section outline for quadruped to guide the activ- ... Quadruped. holding. DE lifts using active movements
ity is provided that highlights the key treatment strate- and cone stacking
... Quadruped. upper and lower extremity contralateral
gies, techniques, and activities addressed in the preced-
limb lifts using active movements
ing section. This activity is an opportunity to share
knowledge and skills as well as to confirm or clarify un- EXTREMITY PATIERNS AND TECHNIQUES
derstanding of the treatment interventions. Each student ... Quadruped, holding, DE D2F and UE D2E patterns
in a group will contribute his or her understanding of, or using dynamic reversals
questions about, the strategy, technique, or activity being ... Quadruped. holding, LE D IF and LE DIE patterns
discussed and demonstrated. Dialogue should continue using dynamic reversals
until a consensus of understanding is reached. (Note: RESISTED PROGRESSION
These directions will be repeated for each subsequent ... Quadruped, creeping, resisted progression (manual)
section summary student practice activity, in the ... Quadruped, creeping. resisted progression using elastic
event that content is considered in a sequence differ- resistance bands
ent from that presented here.)
OBJECTIVE: Sharing skill in the application and knowledge
of treatment interventions used in quadruped.
Section Outline: Quadruped
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Platform mat, large ball, and elastic
MOVEMENTTRANSITIONS: ACTIVITIES, STRATEGIES,
resistance bands.
AND TECHNIQUES
... Prone on elbows to quadruped transition using assist- DIRECTIONS: Working in groups of four to six students,
to-position consider each entry in the section outline. Members of
... Quadruped from side-sitting transition using assist-to- the group will assume different roles (described below)
position and will rotate roles each time the group progresses to a
... Quadruped to bilateral heel-sitting transitions using new item on the outline.
dynamic reversals ... One person assumes the role of therapist (for demon-
... Quadruped to heel-sitting on one side transitions using strations) and participates in discussion.
dynamic reversals ... One person serves as the subject/patient (for demon-
... Quadruped to side-sitting transitions u lI1g a ball to strations) and participates in discussion.
support trunk ... The remaining members participate in discussion and
ACTIVITIES AND TECHNIQUES provide supportive feedback during demonstrations.
... Quadruped. holding using stabIllZln..; re\ er also One member of this group should be designated as a
medial/lateral resistance "fact checker" to return to the text content to confirm
... Quadruped, holding using tJ.blI.Zln..; re\ er,als. elements of the discussion (if needed) or if agreement
anterior/posterior resi stanLe cannot be reached.
- - ;:;-ER 3 Interventions to Impro'" B"d \Iobilit} and Early Trunk
... . -.
Thinking aloud, brain=' ~M;. and subject/patient. Discussion dUling the demon tr:
should be continuous thrOUei thi activity! As each should be continuous (the demonstration shoul -
item in the section outline i- - n:idered. the following the sole re ponsibiJity of the designated therapi.
should ensue: subject/patient). All group members should prO' I -
recommendations. suggestions, and supportive fe
1. An initial discussion of the activity, including patient
throughout the demonstration. Particularly imponar-
and therapist positionin!!..-\lso onsidered here should
during the demonstrations is discussion of strate!!ie
be positional change t; enhan e the activity (e.g.,
make the activity either more or less challenging~
prepositioning a limb. hand placements to alter the
4. If any member of the group feels he or she require
BOS, and so forth).
practice with the activity and technique, time should
2. An initial discussion of the technique, including its
be allocated to accommodate the request. All group
description, indication(s) for use. therapist hand
members providing input (recommendations,
placements (manual contacts). and verbal cues.
suggestions, and supportive feedback) should also
3. A demonstration of the activity and application of the
accompany this practice.
technique by the designated therapist and
midline (knee rocks); activation of the hamstrings allows the to extend. As mentioned, a heel-down position minimizing
patient to keep the knees flexed in the hooklying position. contact of the ball of the foot may need to be adopted,
FIGURE 3.44 Hooklying. lower trunk ro'o' C" sl"'g rhythmic ini-
tiation (resistive component). For apo c::r C 0' resistance. FIGURE 3.45 "::;C, , -::: ::; ... e' trunk rotation using a ball (pas-
manual contacts are on the mea 0 soe c' one knee and sive phase c"" .---:: -' ::non). The patient's hips and knees
the lateral side of the opposite K"ee '''6 --e'OOIST provides are flexed 'C c:cC':· ~ :::-e v 90 degrees and supported on
the return motion. Not shown f-o"::: 0 :::ce""en'S are then the ball Mo" _::: : :--::::::'5 o'e on the anterior aspects of
reversed for movement in e CCO:3'6 ::: 'SC' C" the legs.
- ... :::~=7 3 Inlerventions to lmpro\ c Bcd \lobilit~ and E01.-l) Trunk Contl"Ol 85
resistance ~ relaxation ~ p:b 1 movement in opposite di- • Active relaX3t10n i" important; the patient should not be
rection ~ active return to irutial end range I. passi\el~ mO\ed in the opposite direction until the con-
For the application of reph ation to promote lower traction i~ ompletely released (relaxation is achieved).
trunk rotation in hooklying. the ther pI t i~ positioned in half- • If needed. a quick stretch can be applied in the length-
kneeling to the side. Manual contact, for passive movements ened range to facilitate the return movement.
are on the tops of the patient"', knee,,: for resistive hold com- • Replication is a unidirectional technique, emphasizing
ponents, manual contacts are on the medial side of one knee holding and movement in one direction. The hold is built
and the lateral side of the oppo"ite knee (Fig. 3.46). The pa- up slo\\ ly. The patient is moved back through the range
tient's knees are passively mO\'ed to\\ard one side (e.g., away once relaxation is achieved.
from the therapist) one-quarter range. This is the initial start • Resistance (irradiation) can be used to facilitate weaker
position. The patient then hold~ this position against resis- muscles (e.g .. weak hip abductors on one side).
tance, and an isometric contraction is slowly built up. The
patient then actively relaxes. Next. the therapist passively Outcomes
moves the knees past midline through a small range (e.g., Motor control goal: Initiation of movement (mobility).
one-quarter range) in the opposite direction (e.g., toward the Functional skill achieved: The patient performs indepen-
therapist). The patient then actively contracts (concentric dent initiation of lower trunk rotation.
'ontraction) and moves through the range back to the initial
tart position. Movement is through increments of range; Indications Indications are to promote the initiation of
midrange control is achieved first. With successive replica- lower trunk rotation in the presence of muscle weakness
tion of movement, the range is gradually increased until full (e.g .. lower trunk rotators, hip abductors) and hypotonia.
range is accomplished. The patient should be instructed in the end result (outcome)
of the movement.
Verbal Cues for Replication in Hooklying "Let me
IIlOl'e your knees to one side. NOI\" hold this position against Position/Activity: Hooklying, Active Holding
lilY resistance. Don't let me move you, hold, hold, hold. Now ACTIVITY AND VERBAL CUES
relax completely, and let me move your knees back toward Holding Static postural stability (holding) in hooklying is
lIIe. Now pull all the way back to the starting position." the focus of this activity. For the application of holding in
hooklying, the therapist guards from a heel-sitting or half-
Comments kneeling position to one side of the patient's LEs. Manual
• Resistance to the isometric contraction (hold) is used to contacts are used to assist if initial holding of the posture is
recruit gamma motor neurons and enhance contraction; difficult. The patient actively holds the hooklying position.
resistance is built up gradually. Both of the patient's knees are stable (knees are not touch-
ing), feet are in contact with the mat sUli'ace, and biomechan-
ical alignment and symmetrical midline weight distribution
are maintained. As control increases, the position of the feet
can be moved more distally, decreasing the amount of hip
and knee flexion. Holding is imposed at each successive
repositioning of the feet as hip and knee flexion is gradually
decreased. This promotes development of selective knee con-
trol at different points in the range.
Comments
• Progre ion can be achieved by altering the activity from
FIGURE 3.46 Application of replication to promo-e c _ _ i:'~:::-eral to unilateral holding (modified hooklying) and
rotation in hooklying. The example illustrates the 'e::- ;3 :::- 2. ,olding for gradually longer periods with varying
metric) component. Following passive movemer- c' --;3 ::::- m of hip and knee flexion.
tient's knees through partial range to one side ( e';3 . -: ::
have been moved toward the patient's left away -:- -:- resistive bands can be placed around the patient's
therapist), the patient holds this position against res 5-::-:::- .- -- 0 enhance proprioceptive loading and contraction
and an isometric contraction is slowly built up. Man~:: abilizing hip abductors.
contacts for the application of resistance are on 7re -:-:::::
side of one knee and the lateral side of the oppos -e • - ::: -_ - .. ball may be placed between the knees to promote
Movement is through increments of range. • -- _ 'IOn of hip adductors.
86 PART /I Inlenention~ 10 ImproH Funt'lion
Clinical Note: Trunk (core) and hip stability con- Indications Indications include weakness and instability
trol (holding) is among the most critical elements of the 10\\ er trunk (e.g .. the patient with low back dysfunction
for successful functional task execution Initiated in or the patient \\ith a ymmetrical trunk control) and weakness
dependent postures. trunk and hip stability is eventually and instability of the hip muscles (e.g., the patient with abduc-
progressed to upright positions and skill level activities. tor \veakness and a Trendelenburg gait). Independent static
Trunk stability provides the foundation and support for postural control in hooklying is an important lead-up skill for
extremity function as well as the individual's ability to lower trunk/pel\'ic stabilization during locomotion.
interact with the environment.
Comments
Position/Activity: Hooklying, Resisted Holding • Resistance is first applied in the stronger direction (to
TECHNIQUES AND VERBAL CUES promote irradiation to weaker muscles) and then in the
Stabilizing Reversals This technique utilizes small-range opposite direction.
isotonic contractions progressing to stabilizing (holding) in • Greater challenges can be imposed by gradually decreas-
the posture to promote stability, increase strength, and im- ing the amount of hip and knee flexion (e.g., from 60 to
prove coordination between opposing muscle groups. There 40 to 20 degrees).
is no relaxation with directional changes. For the application • Stabilizing reversals may also be applied diagonally; the
of stabilizing reversals in hooklying, the therapist is posi- manual contacts and position of therapist vary based on
tioned in half-kneeling to one side of the patient's LEs. The the desired direction of diagonal force. For example, di-
patient is asked to hold the hooklying position while the ther- agonal resistance at the knees can be applied with manual
apist applies resistance to the knees (Fig. 3.47). Resistance is contacts alternating between the distal anterior medial
applied in a side-to-side direction; the therapist's manual side of one knee and the distal anterior lateral side of the
contacts alternate between the medial side of one knee and opposite knee. The hand placements are then reversed to
the lateral side of the opposite knee. The hand placements the proximal superior medial side of one knee and the
are then reversed to resist holding in the other direction. proximal superior lateral side of the other knee to resist
Resistance is applied until the patient's maximum is reached holding in the opposite direction.
and then reversed. This sequence is repeated with gradual • Resistance can be applied to the ankles. Distal resistance
introduction of appropriate levels of resistance, typically can be used to further promote trunk stability. In addition,
beginning with light resistance. this variation shifts the focus more distally and can be
used to recruit more activity of the knee muscles, espe-
cially the hamstrings.
• Therapist hand placements should provide smooth
transitions between applications of resistance in opposite
directions.
• Steady holding of the hooklying posture is the goal.
Depending on the ROM available. the knees may move all Verbal Cues for Dynamic Reversals in Hooklying
the way down to the mat on one side and then the other. The As knee mo\ e a\\ a) from the therapist: "Pull your kllees
therapist is positioned in half-kneeling slightly to one side a\l'ay (/5 1 resist, DOll't let me stop you, pull, pull, pull."
of the patient's LEs. Resistance is applied as the knees move Transitional cue: " SOl \', re\'erse." As knees move toward the
in a side-to-side direction, with the therapist's manual con- therapist: "SO\\, push back !O\mrd me. DOll'! Ie! me stop
tacts alternating between the medial side of one knee and the you. IJUsh. push. push." If a hold (isometric contraction) is
lateral side of the opposite knee. The hand placements are added to d) namic reversals at the end range or point of
then reversed to resist movement in the other direction. For weakness. the YC is "Hold,"
example, as the knees move toward the therapist, hand
placements are on the lateral side of the knee closest to the
Outcomes
therapist and the medial side of the knee farthest from the
Motor control goal: Controlled mobility function.
therapist (Fig. 3.48). The hands then move to the opposite
Functional skills achieved: The patient masters controlled
sides of the knees to resist movement away from the thera-
lower trunk rotation. Control of lower trunk/pelvic
pist. Manual contacts should allow sillooth transitions be-
movements is an important prerequisite requirement for
tween opposing directions of movement. An isometric hold
standing and gait.
may be added in the shortened range or at any point of
weakness within the range. The hold is a momentary pause
Indications Indications include weakness and instability
(the patient is instructed to "Hold"): the antagonist move-
of the lower trunk and hip muscles, impaired coordination
ment pattern is then facilitated. The hold can be added in one
and timing (e.g., patients with ataxia), and limitations in
direction only or in both directions.
ROM. Lower trunk rotation in hooklying is an important
Dynamic reversals may be combined with repeated
lead-up skill for upright antigravity control in standing
stretch if weakness exists. The purpose of repeated stretch
and gait.
(manual stretch or tapping over muscle) is to elicit the stretch
reflex to suppOl1 active movement. The repeated stretch is
performed in the lengthened range and carefully timed to Comments
coincide with the patient's volunta.r) effon. For example. if • Resistance is typically applied first in the stronger
the hip abductors were weak on the right side. the knees direction of movement.
would be moved down to the Illat on the left placing right hip • Movements begin with small-range control (e.g.,
abductors in lengthened range). From thl~ lengthened posi- one-quarter range movement in each direction) and
tion, the patient's knees would be repe..ltedl) pulled back progress through increasing ROM (increments of ROM)
down to the mat on the left (repeated 'trekhe \\ hile J) namic to full-range control (the knees move all the way down to
YCs ("Pull up, allc! pHil up (/gwll. pu tp., 1•• p.t! lip ') are the mat on each side).
given to facilitate the movement. Rep J'e " e ,h m ) also • Initially. movements are slow and controlled. with emphasis
be superimposed on an existing contr..!,,'! I'OlIlt on careful grading of resistance.
of weakness within range. or applied h _;~ - - r;.;n;e • The successful application of dynamic reversals requires
with progression to full range (respon e . ,ed h\ careful timing and coordination of the transitional YCs
the relative length of the muscle bell1g , re', e~ with changes in manual contacts between opposing direc-
tions of movement.
• Dynamic reversals are used to increase strength and
active ROM as well as promote normal transitions
between opposing muscle groups.
'.-\ mooth reversal of motion is the goal.
Bridging
Ge eral Characteristics
_ hookJ) ing position, bridging involves extending the
~levating the pelvis from the suppOl1 surface with the
"'one in a neutral position (initial instruction in pelvic
. be required to identify the neutral position). Bridg-
FIGURE 3.48 For application of dynamic reverse 0 rtant prerequisite requirement for moving in bed
ing. resistance is applied as the knees move in Co::=-' .....·..0·-··, ...... " ~hanges) and for moving to the edge of the bed. It
direction, In the example shown, manual contac: :: ,;- .
lateral side of one knee and the medial side of '- '" -: _ - - I'Onant lead-up for later functional activities, such
knee as the knees move toward the therapist, _ -:1= sit-to-stand control and stance phase control of
88 PART /I Intenentions to Improve Funttion
.. • ...
Description of Student Practice Activity '" n umes the role of therapist (for demon-
,u.41(Hb' and participates in discus ion.
Each section of this chapter ends with a similarly challeng-
'" rson erves as the subject/patient (for demon-
ing student practice activity titled Section Summary Student " D. and participates in discussion.
Practice Activity (followed by the section title). A section '" Th r~m 'ning members participate in discussion and
outline for hooklying to guide the activity is provided that p I e :upporrive feedback during demon trations.
highlights the key treatment strategies, technjques, and One member of this group should be designated as a
activities addressed in the preceding section. This activity ."fa ~ he ker" to return to the text content to confirm
is an opportunity to share knowledge and sblls as well as to element of the discussion (if needed) or if agreement
confirm or clarify understanding of the treatment interven- annat be reached.
tions. Each student in a group will contribute his or her un- Thinbng aloud. brainstorming, and sharing thoughts
derstanding of, or questions about, the strategy, technique, should be ontinuous throughout this activity! As each
or activity being discussed and demonstrated. Dialogue item in the section outline is considered, the following
should continue until a consensus of understanding is should ensue:
reached. (Note: These directions will be repeated for I. An initial di cussion of the activity, including patient
each subsequent section summary student practice and therapist positioning. Also considered here should
activity, in the event that content is considered in a be positional changes to enhance the activity (e.g.,
sequence different from that presented here.) prepositioning a limb, hand placements to alter the
BOS, and so forth).
Section Outline: Hooklying 2. An initial discussion of the technique, including its
ACTIVITIES AND TECHNIQUES description, indication(s) for use, therapist hand
'" Hooklying. lower trunk rotation using rhythmic placements (manual contacts), and verbal cues.
initiation 3. A demonstration of the activity and application
'" Hookly ing. Il)\\er trunk rotation using a ball. passive of the technique by the designated therapist and
mo\cments subject/patient. Discussion during the demonstration
'" Hooklying. 100\er trunk rotation using replication should be continuous (the demonstration should not be
'" Hoo\...ly ing. holding. w.,ing stabilizing re\ersals the sole responsibility of the designated therapist and
'" Hoo\...ly ing. lower trunk rotation using dy namic subject/patient). All group members should provide
rc\crsals recommendations, suggestions, and supportive
feedback throughout the demonstration. Particularly
OBJECTIVE: Sharing skjll in the application and knowledge important during the demonstrations is discussion of
of treatment interventions used in hooklying. strategies to make the activity either more or less
challenging.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Platform mat and large ball.
4. If any member of the group feels he or she requires
DIRECTIONS: Working in groups of four to six students, practice with the activity and technique, time should
consider each entry in the section outline. Members of be allocated to accommodate the request. All group
the group will assume different roles (described below) members providing input (recommendations,
and will rotate roles each time the group progresses to a suggestions, and supportive feedback) should also
new item on the outline. accompany this practice.
gait as well as for stair climbing. The posture is very stable, 60 degrees and the feet flat on the mat. The patient is in-
with a large BOS and low COM (although compared to hook- structed to raise the hips/pelvis from the mat (concentric con-
lying, the BOS is smaller and the COM is higher). Bridging is traction) until the hips are fully extended (0 degrees), the
similar to hooklying in that it primaJily im'olve the lower pelvis is elevated and level, and the lumbar spine is in neutral
trunk, hip, and knee muscles. The lower trunk muscles and hip position (isometric contraction). For the return motion, the
abductors and adductors stabilize the hip and lower trunk. The patient slowly controls lowering (eccentric contraction) of
low back and hip extensors elevate the peh i . The hamstrings the hips/pelvis back down to the mat; collapsing back to the
keep the knees flexed and the feet po itioned for weightbear- mat using body weight and gravity should be avoided.
ing. During bridging, the gluteu ma\.imu is primarily respon-
sible for hip extension because knee tle\.lOn places the ham- Red flag: DUring h[p/pelvis elevation, the pelvis
strings in a position of active in ufficlen'y. should ' r 'a e Patients with unilateral weakness
To begin bridging activities. the patient i. positioned in of the gluteus OX""" s ( or example, the patient recover-
hooklying with the hips and knee, tle\.ed to approximately ing from a [0 "oc'u'e) oy be unable to hold the pelvis
~~~PTER 3 Inlcnenlion, I" Impr B d lobilil~ and EarJ~ Trunk Conlrol 89
level and the pelvis will drop or -~e '/eaker side. The Bridging: Interventions, Outcomes,
therapist can hold a wand or a'dsilc across the pelvis and Management Strategies
to demonstrate this rotation VIS a lathe patient. Position! -\L th it~' Bridging. Resisted l\Iovement.
Additional strengthening of the gluteus maximus or Resisted Holding
increasing the BOS through positioning (see the following PRERE~~ S'" <,,;;:;~ ,,,"'E TS
paragraph) may be indicated until pelvic control Static postural ontrol and controlled lower trunk rotation in
improves. hookl: ing a \\ ell as dynamic stability of the upper trunk
and neck are neces'ary.
The BOS in bridging may be altered to increase or
decrease the challenge imposed. Initially. the activity may TECHNIQUES A D VERBAL CUES
be made easier through positioning to increase the stability Combination of Isotonics Recall that combination of
(BOS) of the posture. This is accomplished by extending isotonics is a technique that utilizes concentric, eccentric, and
the elbows, abducting the shoulders with forearms pronated stabiliLing (holding) contractions without relaxation. Against
and hands flat on the mat, and/or moving the feet apart. continual resistance. the patient first moves to the end range of
Reducing this stabilization can increase the difficulty. This a desired motion (concentric) and then holds and stabilizes
is achieved by gradually adducting the shoulders (bring- (isometlic) in this end position. When stability is achieved. the
ing the UEs closer to the trunk) with progression to the patient is instructed to allow the body segment to be slowly
UEs folded across the chest, or the hands clasped together moved back to the start position (eccentric). Combination of
with shoulders flexed to approximately 90 degrees and isotonics allows the application of resistance to the hip exten-
elbows extended. The LEs can be brought closer together, sors using several types of contractions. This is an important
the feet may be moved farther from the buttocks (decreas- lead-up activity for the patient with poor eccentric control dur-
ing knee flex ion), or static dynamic activities may be ing stand-to-sit transitions.
introduced. For the application of combination of isotonics to
The therapist can also facilitate pelvic elevation by bridging, concentric contractions are used first (the direction
placing manual contacts on the patient's lower thighs and and type of desired movement determine whether the tech-
pushing down on the knees, pulling the distal thighs toward nique is begun with concentric or eccenlric contractions).
the feet (this may also be performed unilaterally). Tapping The patient is in the hooklying position. The therapist is in a
(quick stretch) over the gluteus maximus can be used to half-kneeling position to one side (Fig. 3.49). Bilateral man-
stimulate muscle contraction. ual contacts are on the anterior pelvis (over anterior superior
iliac spines): hand placements do not change during appli-
Treatment Strategies and Considerations cation of the technique. The hip extensors are resisted
• Bridging allows early weightbearing at the foot and ankle throughout. Resistance to concentric contractions is applied
without the body weight constraints of a fully upright as the patient raises the pelvis from the mat until the hips
posture. It is an appropriate early posture for patients re- are fully extended. When end range is reached. resistance
covering from ankle injury. continues to isometric contractions as the patient holds the
• Breath holding is common during bridging acti\ itie .
This may present problems for the patient \\ ith h~ perten-
sion and cardiac disability: breathing should be closel~
monitored. Patients should be encouraged to breathe
rhythmically during all bridging activities.
• Elevating the hips higher than the head ma~ be 'on-
traindicated for patients with uncontrolled h: perten lL n
or elevated intracranial pressures (e.g .. the patient \ nh
acute TEl).
• As with hook lying. abnormal reflex acti\ it: ma: m-e ,e e
with assumption or maintenance of the bridging: r " .~
Influence of the STLR may cause the LEs to e\ten
Pressure to the ball of the foot may elicit a POjt1\ e
port reaction (a heel-down weightbearing po iuo£: •
adopted).
• Bridging promotes selective control (out-of-. ~ ner=.
combination of hip extension with knee flexion _._ :,,~ e 3.49 Combination of isotonics. bridging. resisted
-: =-=~- C)olding. Biiateral manual contacts are on the an-
may be indicated for patients recovering from or e -=-:. := . S ond do not change during the application of the
who demonstrate the influence of the mass mo\ei"'e- _= ')
-=: - - ::: thiS illustration. resistance to concentric con-
synergies (when hip and knee extension mal be -::::- :-: S opplied as the patient raises the peivis (and then
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Controlled mobility.
Functional skills achieved: The patient acquires eccentric
control of hip extensors.
FIGURE 3.51 Stabilizing reversals in bridging. medial/lateral FIGURE 3.52 Application of rhythmic stabilization in bridging.
resisted holding. In this example. the resisted movement is The patient is asked to hold the bridge position while rota-
toward the therapist with hand placements on the lateral tional resistance is applied to the pelvis. Manual contacts are
aspect of the ipsilateral ASIS and on the medial aspect of the on opposite sides and opposite surfaces of the pelvis. In this
contralateral ASIS. Hand placements change to the opposite example, the therapist's left hand is on the anterior pelvis
sides of the ASIS to resist movement away from the therapist. pushing downward. and the right hand is on the opposite
posterior pelvis pulling upward.
Indications Indications include poor lower trunk and pelvis Verbal Cues for Rhythmic Stabilization in Bridging
stability. weakness of the lower trunk and hip muscles. and "Hold. don't let me Mist you. Hold, hold, hold. NOlI', don't
impaired coordination between opposing lower trunk Illuscle let me Mist YOU the other II'({Y. Hold. hold. hold."
groups.
Outcomes
Comments 10tor control goal: Stability of lower trunk and pelvis.
• Medial/lateral resistance applied with bilateral manual Functional skills achieved: The patient is able to stabilize
contacts on the lateral pelvis is effective for facilitating the lower trunk. and pelvis in all directions. These are im-
hip abductors and adductor~. pOltant lead-up skills for stabilization needed dUling up-
• Therapist hand placements <;hould prO\ide mooth tran~i right antigravity activities (e.g.. standing and locomotion).
tions between applications of resi~tance in oppo ite
direction .. Indications Indications include lower trunk and pelvis in-
• The patient is not allowed to relax bet\\een contraction,. ~tability. weakness of the lower trunk and hip and ankle mus-
• Elastic resistive bands can be placed around the eli -tal cles. and impaired coordination between opposing lower
thighs to facilitate contraction of the lateral hir mu, Ie, trunk muscle groups.
(gluteus medius).
Comments
• Resistance is built up gradually as the patient increases
Rhythmic Stabilization Rhythmic ,tabilIz..ltJ n U IlIze-
isometric contractions against resiqance: no mo eme " the force of contraction.
curs. [t can be used to increase lower trunk -I • During any isometric contractions. the patient should be
en ouraged to breathe regularly.
strength. Resistance is applied simultaneou l~ r
muscle groups. Although no movement occur. re- " ee Box 3.9 Section Summary Student Practice Activity
applied as if twisting or rotating the lo\\er Irun 111 :' k analysis and the selection and application of tech-
.1
directions. ue and activities in blidging.
Similar to stabilizing reversal<;. a prerequi ',> -_~ -e-
_
ment for the application of rhythmic ~tabili7ation P ition! \cthit): Bridging, Weight Shifting and
is the ability to hold (maintain) the posture. The Ih r.:~ d anced Stabilization Acti\ Hies. \cthe '\Io\{'ment
~itioned in half-kneeling to the side of the patient. The - - :- -::5 A D STRATEGIES
i~ asked to hold the bridge position while rotation.,l re ctive Pelvic Shifts This controlled mobility activity in-
is applied to the pel vi,. Manual contact~ for the apr movement in which the distal part is fixed (feet on
rotational resistance are one hand on the anterior/h hi Ie the proximal segment (pelvi,) is mO\ ing. Weight
ing dOlt'I1II'{//'(1 and one hand on the opposite pOSh r are important because they promote the simultaneous
pulling upword. A~ resistance is reversed. manual (Ii' of 'ynergistic muscles at more than one joint. From a
main on the same ,ide of the pelvis but shift to the - - _;ed position, the patient actively shifts the pelvis from
sUlface (Fig. 3.52). _= :") ,ide (medial/lateral shifts). The focus of this activity
92 PART 1/ Inlt'r\cnlions 10 ImproH Function
OBJECTIVE: Task analysis and selection and application of d quick (e.g., movement strategies used,
techniques and activities in bridging. 1 ontroL musculoskeletal alignment)?
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Platform mat. II. G u G QUESTIONS
DIRECTIONS: Working in groups of four to six students, \\ r' n;; \\ ith the whole group of four to six students,
complete the following task analysis activity and answer one per en hould erve as a subject (for purposes of
the guiding questiollS. demon -tration). For each question, rotate the position of
I. TASK ANALYSIS the ubje t. Di cuss your ideas with group members as
you formulate an weI's. (Note: Not all questions require
Divide into two groups (subjects and therapists), com- demonstration. )
plete the task analysis activity, and then reverse roles.
1. What individual component skills are needed to
SUBJECT GROUP: Position yourself in a hooklying accomplish bridging (i.e., what prerequisite skills does
position on a mat. a patient need prior to the application of activities and
... One at a time. each person performs four repetitions of technique in bridging)?
bridging at a comfortabLe pace. 2. Demonstrate on the subject how you could use
... Taking turns. each person performs four repetitions of extremity positioning both to reduce and to increase
bridging slowly. the challenges imposed by the activity (i.e., easier or
... Finall~. one at a time. each person performs four more difficult) .
repetitions of bridging quickLy. 3. Identify the functional implications of bridging; that
is, for what activities of daily living is bridging a
The subject group should remain positioned on the mat prerequisite requirement?
to repeat any of the above movements as requested by 4. Assume you are working with a patient who presents
members of the therapist group. with poor eccentric control of low back and hip
THERAPIST GROUP: From your observations of the subject extensors. Demonstrate on the subject how you would
group performing bridging, answer the following task address this clinical problem. Your demonstration
analysis questions. If required to answer the questions, should include position/activity, technique(s), therapist
you may request that bridging movements be repeated. positioning, manual contacts, and verbal cues. Provide
Once you have completed the questions. you should a rationale for the position/activity and technique(s)
assume the role of subject (reverse roles). After both selected.
groups have completed the task analysis questions. 5. For each of the techniques listed below, demonstrate
reconvene into one group to discuss your answers and on the subject their application in bridging. Your
observations. demonstration should include position/activity,
technique. therapist positioning, manual contacts, and
TASK ANALYSIS QUESTIONS verbal cues. Identify a motor control goal for each
Compare and contrast the movement strategies used for technique .
bridging: • Stabilizing reversals (demonstration should include
I. What differences were observed among the subject application of both anterior/posterior and medial!
group during initiation (e.g., start position, alignment, lateral resistance)
use of UEs), execution (e.g., timing. force. direction of • Rhythmic stabilization
movement). and Termination of the bridging activity')
2. What performance differences were observed among
the different speeds or movement: con!!ortable pace.
i on control of small-range weight shifts. \\'eight shifting in = Clinical Note: Bridge and place is a valuable ac-
ridging is an important lead-up acti\it~ for the pelvic lat- tivity for the patient in the early stages of recovery
eral control required for gait. from stroke. Movement of the pelvis toward the more af-
fected side stretches and elongates the trunk muscles on
that side. This counteracts the common problem of short-
Bridge and Place This is al 0 a ontrolled mobility ac-
ening of the lateral trunk flexors on the stroke side. The pa-
ti\ ity that involves movement in \\ hi h the distal part is tient's hands may be clasped together with the shoulders
tixed (feet on mat) while the prO\im_l segmelll (pelvis) is flexed and the elbows extended. This positioning effec-
mo\·ing. From a bridged position. t ~ ;:'_llen a ti\'ely shifts tively counteracts he common flexor and adductor pos-
the pelvis laterally to one side ~n "e"; \\er<, the pelvis turing of the UE fOllOWing stroke. The functional carryover
dO\\n to the new side position FI; :-:: .-\ prerequisite of bridge and place activities is to bed skills such as
requirement for this acti\ it~ Is he ~ ~ . _ : ..1Lti\·ely shift the scooting side ·0 s ae and scooting to the edge of the
his medially and laterall~': _ ~-_=C'.: position. bed prior to s -~:;; vC
CHAPTER 3 lntenentiom to Impro\< Btd \[obility and Early Trunk Control 93
tated with tactile (e.g .. tapping) or verbal cueing. 1:- • ~ •. ard extension. The ball will roll upward along the
t Imp,·()\ (' Function
'enter of the trunk until the head and shoulders are resting on
the ball (Fig. 3.57). The patient maintains the hips in the ex-
tended position with the pelvis level. Initially. fingertip or hand
touch-down support may be necessary; as control develops.
hand contact is removed. Alternatively. additional stability can
be accomplished by "locking" the elbows against the ball
(with elbows flexed and shoulders extended and adducted
.lgainst the ball). The progression would be to the UEs folded
,,~ross the chest to the more difficult position of ~houlder tlex-
n to approximately 90 degrees and elbows extended with
- :lj, clasped together.
single-limb bridge position on the ball is writing alphabet Indications :\d\'anced stabilization activities in bridging
letters with the foot (or great toe) of the dynamic limb. funher prvmole d~ namic stability required for upright anti-
gra\'il) ael!\ ilie uch as standing and locomotion,
Outcomes See Box: ,10 Section Summary Student Practice Activ-
Motor control goals: Controlled mobility function and ity on treatment inten'entions used in bridging,
static-dynamic control.
Functional skills achieved: The patient is able to stabi-
lize the hip/pelvis/ankle during upright antigravity
activities.
...
Description of Student Practice Activity DIRECTIONS: Working in groups of four to six students,
consider each entry in the section outline. Members of
Each section of this chapter ends with a similarly challeng-
the group will assume different roles (described below)
ing student practice activity titled Section Summary
and will rotate roles each time the group progresses to a
Student Practice Activity (followed by the section title). new item on the outline.
A section outline for bridging to guide the activity is pro-
... One person assumes the role of therapist (for demon-
vided that highlights the key treatment strategies, tech- strations) and participates in discussion.
niques, and activities addressed in the preceding section. ... One person serves as the subject/patient (for demon-
This activity is an opportunity to share knowledge and strations) and participates in discussion.
skills as well as to confirm or clarify understanding of the ... The remaining members pal1icipate in discussion and
treatment interventions. Each student in a group will con- provide supportive feedback during demonstrations.
tribute his or her understanding of, or questions about, the One member of this group should be designated as a
strategy, technique, or activity being discussed and demon- "fact checker" to return to the text content to confirm
strated. Dialogue should continue until a consensus of un- elements of the discussion (if needed) or if agreement
derstanding is reached. (Note: These directions will be cannot be reached.
repeated for each subsequent section summary student Thinking aloud, brainstorming. and sharing thoughts
practice activity, in the event that content is considered should be continuous throughout this activity! As each
in a sequence different from that presented here.) item in the section outline is considered, the following
should ensue:
Section Outline: Bridging I. An initial discussion of the activity, including patient
ACTIVITIES AND TECHNIQUES and therapist positioning. Also considered here should
... Bridging, assumption of posture u ing "om illation of be positional changes to enhance the activity (e.g.,
isotonics prepositioning a limb, hand placements to alter the
... Bridging, holding, using stabilizing re er I. an"erior/ BaS, and so forth) .
posterior resistance 2. An initial discussion of the technique, including its
... Bridging. holding, using stabilizing re\er description, indication(s) for use, therapist hand
lateral resistance placements (manual contacts), and verbal cues.
... Bridging. holding, using rhythmic ,tabillZ_" 3. A demonstration of the activity and application of the
... Bridge and place using active-assi'l!\e technique by the designated therapist and subject/
... Bridging, holding, single-leg lifts u 111= ~. patient. Discussion during the demonstration should
movements be continuous (the demonstration should not be the
'ole responsibility of the designated therapist and
BRIDGING, ADVANCED STABILIZATION ACTIVIT ES ubject/patient). All group members should provide
... Bridging, mobile BaS using a medium-:,::-~ re ommendations, suggestions, and supportive
support legs with knees extended fe dback throughout the demonstration. Particularly
... Bridging. mobile BaS using a small ball : l ponant during the demonstrations is discussion of
feet with knees flexed -"~,1tegies to make the activity either more or less
... Sit to modified bridge position on therap~ _ .- 'lenging.
movement transitions using ball .- ~ member of the group feels he or she requires
... Modified bridge position on therapy ball. Ie; --_.:ke \\ ith the activity and technique, time should
active movements -; ~aled to accommodate the request. All group
OBJECTIVE: Sharing skill in the application and: --:'~ r" providing input (recommendations,
of treatment interventions used in bridging. _=;::- lions. and supportive feedback) should also
___ "'iiCany this practice.
EQUIPMENT NEEDED. Platform mat and small and ~
sized balls.
96 PART I Intencntions to ImproH Function
movement transitions between and within postures are ad- - - _ -' "d range of both basic and instrumental activ-
dressed. The collective treatment value of these activities is I mg.
their importance as critical lead-up skills for independenr
positional changes in bed (e.g., pressure relief), LE dressing. C ES
.\-~-. ~. .~ -:l1erap\ Association. Guide to Physical Therapist
independent supine-to-sit transfers, reciprocal UE and trunk Pr.;... .~ ~_: .' Ther ';1:9-744. 2001 (revised June 2003).
movements required for gait, and independent creeping and : -\~.~~:::::: __ • C"" D. and Buck. M. PNF in Practice: An Illustrated
floor-to-standing transfers. Enhancing the importance of G~;.::~ ~_: :--- ;~r. '\e\\ York. 2008.
CHAPTER
Interventions to Improve
4J Sitting and Sitting Balance
Skills
SUSAN B. O'SULLIVAN, PY, EoD
97
98 PART /I Intcncntion ... to ImprlHC Function
Although not all-inclusive. deficits in sitting can be broadl~ i head/upper trunk alignment:
grouped into those involving alignment, weightbearing. and -E: ,,--': ',: extensor weakness typically
extensor muscle weakness. Changes in normal alignment re- :,,-::-:;:-E:e a forward head position, rounded
:-:-E: -:::: e kyphosis), with a flattened lumbar
sult in corresponding changes in other body segments. For ex-
::_ ~:; = ~ ':.2.
ample, malalignment (e.g.. slumped sitting posture or sacral
• Defk' s in pelvic position: Excessive posterior
sitting) results in increased passive tension on ligaments and : : -" :-" De is results in flattening or reversal of
joints (Fig. 4.2). Box 4.1 presents common impaiJments in :; ~-::Ja' c rYe and sacral sitting. The typical
sitting alignment and seated weightbearing. cause ::: sacral sitting is tight or spastic hamstring
uS es E cessive anterior tilt of the pelvis results
'n' c easeo lordosis and increased lateral rotation
a aa c:ion of the hips.
Treatment Strategies for Improving • Deficits in seated weightbearing: Patients may
Sitting Control demo s a e asymmetrical alignment with
increased eightbearing on one side (e.g., the
Patients with impairments in static postural control benefit pa ien v. ith stroke).
from activities that challenge sitting control. Progression is
obtained by varying the level of difficulty. For example,
greater challenges can be incorporated into sitting activities
by modifying the BOS, the support surface, the use of upper Initial practice requires the patient to focus full attention
extremities (UEs) or lower extremities (LEs), and sensory on the ta k and its key elements. With repeated practice, the
inputs. See Box 4.2 for a description of varying postural sta- level of cognitive monitoring decreases as motor learning pro-
bilization requirements and level of difficulty. gresses. With an autonomous level of learning, postural re-
sponses are largely automatic, with little conscious thought for
Red Flag: The use of mirrors to improve postural routine postural control. This level of control can be tested by
alignment is contraindicated for patients with introducing dual-taskillg (e.g., the patient is required to sit
visual-perceptual spatial deficits (e,g .. vertical disorienta- without UE support and carryon a conversation, read aloud. or
tion or position-in-space deficits seen in some patients pour water from a pitcher into a glass). Progression to the next
with stroke or traumatic brain injury [161]), level of difficulty should not be attempted until the patient can
safely petform the prerequisite task. For example, patients
should demonstrate sitting stabi lity on a stationary sLlltace
(e.g., a platform mat) before attempting sitting on a ball.
-.
Clinical ~ote: Patients who are unstable in sitting
are likely to demonstrate increased anxiety and
fear of falling when first positioned in sitting. It is important
for the therapist to demonstrate the ability to control for
instability in order to instill patient confidence. Two thera-
pists may be needed to assist severely involved patients
(e,g., the patient with 161), In this situation, one therapist
sits immediately in front of the patient, and one is posi-
tioned behind the patient, if positioned in front, the thera-
pist can lock his or her knees around the outside of the
patient's knees and firmly stabilize them (Fig. 4,3), This
assists the patient by extending the BOS. If positioned
behind the patient, the therapist can sit on a ball, The
bail is used to support the lumbar spine and maintain
the upright posture, The patient's arms can rest on the
therapist's knees for support (Fig, 4,4),
BOX 4.2 Varying Pas ,.1':: STabilization Requirements and Level of Difficulty
Base of Support (BOS) • Moving from sitting on a stationary, fixed support
A wide-based sitting posture (LEs abducted and surface to sitting on a mobile surface (e.g., an
externally rotated, UEs used for support) is a inflated disc, wobble board, or therapy ball)
common compensatory change in patients with increases the difficulty.
decreased sitting control. Postural control can be • Moving from feet flat on a stationary surface to feet
challenged through altering the BOS by moving from: on a mobile surface (e.g., a small bailor roller)
increases the difficulty.
• Long-sitting to short-sitting
• Bilateral UE support to unilateral UE support to no
Sensory Influence
UE support
Sensory support and modification can influence
• Hands positioned on the thighs to arms folded
postural alignment and control.
across the chest
• Both feet flat on the floor to no foot contact with the • Eyes open (EO) provides maximum orientation to
floor (e.g., sitting on a high seat) the environment; eyes fixed on a target directly in
front of the patient helps to stabilize posture.
Support Surface Progression is to eyes closed (Ee).
The type of support surface can influence postural • Visual support can be increased by using a mirror to
alignment and control: assist the patient in perceptual awareness of vertical
and postural symmetry. Vertical lines improve
• A firm surface (e.g., a platform mat) provides a
awareness (e.g., the patient wears a vertical line
stable base and promotes upright alignment.
drawn or taped on the front of a shirt and matches
• A soft, compliant surface (e.g., a bed or upholstered
it to a vertical line taped on a mirror).
chair), a low seat, or a wheelchair with excessive
• Sitting against a wall can be used to provide feedback
seat depth encourages a flexed posture (kyphosis
about alignment.
and forward head position) with sacral sitting.
• Somatosensory inputs from the feet can be
• A chair with a firm surface and back support or
maximized by having the patient wear flexible-soled
sitting with the back against a wall maximizes
shoes and maintain foot contact with a fixed support
somatosensory cues and support to the trunk,
surface. Progression is to sitting with feet placed on
while sitting on a stool or mat with no back is
a foam cushion, an inflated dome, or a roller.
more difficult.
FIGURE 4.3 In sitting. the therapist stabilizes the pa- s-- ;..::- E 4 4 In sitting. the therapist stabilizes the patient from
the front by locking both knees around the patier- 5 • -::::: :::-:- -:: 5 -+Ingon a therapy ball. The ball is used to provide
The patient's arms are cradled and held by the the'::::::- :_::::::::- -0 he lumbar spine. The patient's arms are resting
Note the improvement In erect posture comparea -:: :- --s --erapist's knees (as shown) or can be foided across
Figure 4.2.
100 PA RT /I I nlcn cnlion, 101m pl"(n c Function
BOX 4.3 Suggested Verbal Instructions and Cueing ._;: Ide (Fig . .+.5A). This is a useful position to
r-adductor spasticity common in the pa-
• "Sit tall, hold your head erect, and keep your chin - ~ '11 'troke or TBl. Initially, the technique
tucked with your shoulders over your hips."
, 11 (RRo) can be used to move the UE into
• " Look up and focus on the target directly in front
-:~~ ,timulation (tapping or stroking) over
of you."
• "Tuck your stomach muscles in and flatten your -ed to assist the patient in maintaining
stomach." fingers are extended with the thumb
• "Keep your weight equally distributed over both = - .-B The dorsum of the hand can also be
buttocks and feet." ~- .~ ~ t'_nd open.
• "Keep your feet flat and in contact with the floor."
• "Breathe normally and hold this posture as steady as lini aJ _- te: --e patient with shoulder instability
as you can."
~;: --~ :::;- ~_. ecovering from stroke who has
• "Imagine you are a puppet with a line from the top of
:: -:::::::: : ~:: _xea shoulder) also benefits from
your head pulling you straight up."
weightbearing and comp'ess c~ -~'8ugh an extended posture elongates the trunk on the weightbearing side, this is
UE. The proprioceptive 1000 r~ .r::;' occurs Increases the a useful acti\'ity for the patient recovering from stroke. The
action of stabilizing musc es ::;.::;~ra 're shoulder. The position provides stretch and inhibition to spastic lateral
therapist can add additloro s' - ~ ~r on by lightly com- trunk muscles. The more affected DE can be extended and
pressing (approximation) -he -00 o' t e shoulder down- weightbearing (Fig. 4.7), or both DEs can be held in front in
ward while stabilizing the elbo .., as needed. a hands-clasped position (hands clasped together with both
elbows extended and shoulders flexed), which imposes
Clinical '\ote: The pa e.,+ .. +h elbow instability greater challenge.
due to paralysis (e g rhe patient with a complete
C6 tetraplegia who has no TrIceps unction) can be
Sitting, Resisted Holding
assisted to maintain an extended UE position using shoul-
Generally extensor muscles demonstrate greater weakness
der girdle musculature The patient tlrst "tosses" the UE
and the patient may benefit initially from assistance to as-
behind with the shoulder in external rotation and exten-
sume and maintain the correct upright position.
sion with the forearm supinated. Once the base of the
Light resistance to the head and upper trunk can be
hand makes contact with the mat the humerus is flexed
used to facilitate and engage the extensor muscles to hold.
forward by contracting the anterior deltoid. causing the
elbow to extend (closed kinetic chain). This is followed by As extensor control increases, resistance/assistance is grad-
rapid shoulder depression to maintain elbow extension. ually removed and the patient actively holds.
This technique will stabilize the UE in extension and exter-
nal rotation. It is important to remember that this patient Clinical Note: Light approximation (joint compres-
will need to keep the fingers flexed (interphalangeal sion) through the spine can be used to stimulate
flexion) during weightbearing for protection of tenodesis postural stabilizers; the therapist places both hands on
grasp. the shoulders and gently compresses downward. Approxi-
mation is contraindicated in patients with spinal defor-
mity or an inability to assume an upright position (e.g.,
Sitting, Active Holding in Long-Sitting Position
the patient with osteoporosis and kyphosis) and in
Long-sitting is an impor1ant posture for developing initial sit-
patients with acute pain (e.g., disc pathology or arthritis).
ting control in patients with spinal cord lesions. Initially, the
The therapist may have the patient sit on a ball and
hands are positioned behind the patient to maximize the BOS
(shoulders, elbows. and wrists are extended with base of hand
bearing weight). As control develops, the position of the hands
can be varied by placing them in front and finally at the sides
of the hips. Sitting then progresses to ShOl1-sitting activities,
with the knees flexed over the side of a mat. Adequate range of
the hamstrings (90 to 110 degrees) is required in order for
the patient to sit with a neutral or slightly anteriorly tilted
pelvis. Decreased range results in a posterior pelvic tilt with
sacral sitting and overstretching of low back muscles (Fig. 4.6).
gently bounce up and down to activate extensor mus- ~nh. The position of the therapist will vary
cles and promote upright sitting via activation of joint -~ I ne of force that needs to be applied.
propriocepters in the spine.
S' ing, Rhythmic Stabilization
Sifting, Holding, Stabilizing Reversals ili:..atioll (RS), the patient is asked to hold the
In stabilizing reversals, the patient is asked to hold the sit- \ lie the therapist applies rotational resis-
ting position while the therapist applies resistance first in one r 'runk. One hand is placed on the postel;or
direction and then in the opposite direction. During mediaU e the lower axillary border of the scapula)
lateral (M/L) resistance, the therapist applies resistance as if , '. hlle the other hand is on the opposite side,
pushing the upper trunk sideward away from the therapist an en r _-r ~ 'run , pulling back (Fig. 4.9). The therapist's
(Fig. 4.8), then pulling the upper trunk toward the therapist. hand -~." r re\er,ed for the opposite movement (each
During anterior/posterior (AlP) resistance, the therapist ap- hand rem T.' moned on the same side of the trunk). No
plies resistance as if pushing the upper trunk backward and motion I ..lll \ ed \'C, for RS include "Don't let me move
then pulling the upper trunk forward toward the therapist. yOIl. SCI < I' It I me 1II00'e YOU the other 11'01'."
Manual contacts are varied. first on one side of the upper
trunk and then on the other. The resistance is built up grad- Clinical, 'ote: Interventions to promote stability
ually, starting from very light resistance and progressing to are a Important lead-up for many ADL (e.g.,
more moderate resistance. Initially, only a small amount of dreSSing groo Ing toileting, and feeding) as well as for
motion is allowed, progressing to holding steady. Yerbal later transfer training
cues (Yes) include "Push against my hands" and "Dol/'t let
me push vou." The therapist provides a transitional com- Outcomes
mand ("NoH' don't let me pull vall the other way") before Motor control goals: Improved stability (static control)
sliding the hands to resist the opposite muscles. This allows and postural alignment in sitting.
the patient the opportunity to make appropriate anticipatory Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to maintain
the sitting position independently with minimal sway
and no loss of balance for extended times.
lary border of scapula, while the rig t ha'la S positioned on across the chest -~e -ne'co st s applying resistance with the
the vertebral border of the scapula or 'ne other side of the left hand on the a"'-e' C' ",coer runk pulling backward. while
trunk. Hand placements are then reve'sed '0 aoply resis- the right hand IS 0'" one C ',e' scapula pushing forward. The
tance in the opposite direction patient resists a I o-e~c-~ "or ovement, holding steady.
C HA PTE R 4 Inten ell t ion to I Il1p r. \l "itt ing and Sitti ng Balance SId '" 103
Sifting, Active Weight Shifts With Upper =;: -=.:. -:: -;: 'nion for three counts and performs an in-
Trunk Rotation - of repetitions. If the patient starts to lose
Upper trunk rotation (UTR) is a difficult movement for man~ -;: :-.;: i, directed to reduce the speed or range of
patients (e.g., the patient with Parkinson's disease who has dif- ;:-~-- ~ 2. r=gain control before continuing on with the
ficulty with all rotation activities). The patient holds the DEs
folded across the chest in a cradle position and is instructed to ~'\amples of voluntary limb movments in
"Turn slowly first to one side and then the other." The head si 1::>5 '-::._':;: j-;: following:
also begins to tum with this activity. The patient is then in-
• Ra.J::L'·E: i'"= r th CEs to the forward or side horizontal
structed to "Turn your head and look over your shoulder." The
• Rai_in= oc;: or both CEs overhead
therapist monitors the position and directs the patient to keep
• Sta .' n= -on;:.
both hips down in contact with the support surface allowing
• Rea hing do\\ n to touch the floor or pick up objects from
only small-range trunk flexion (Fig. 4.12).
the floor
• Raising orh CEs diagnonally from the floor from one
Sifting, Active Weight Shifts With Voluntary side to o\'erhead on the opposite side or lifting a ball
Limb Movements (Static-Dynamic Control) diagonally up and across the body
Active movements of the UE or LE can be used to promote • Extending one knee out to horizonal and returning
controlled mobility function. Postural adjustments are re- • Marching in place. alternating lifing one foot up, then the
quired during each and every limb movement. Movements other
can be performed individually or in combination (bilateral • Performing toe-offs and heel-offs in sitting
symmetrical or alternating from one limb to the other). The • Holding one foot off the floor and performing toe
therapist can provide a target ("Reach out and touch my circles or "writing" the letters of the alphabet with
hand"), or a functional task like cone stacking can be used the great toe
(Fig. 4.13). Progression is to increased range and speed of • Crossing one limb over the other, then repeating with the
movements and increased time on task. The patient holds the other side (Fig. 4.14)
and then the other. Smooth re\ er 31 of antagonists is facili- D J E: the hand of the assist limb holds on from on top of the
tated by well-timed Yes. wrist/distal forearm (Fig. 4.18A). The limbs move down and
across the body with head and trunk rotation and flexion
Sitting, PNF Unilateral l'E D1 Patterns (Fig . .+.18B). In the reverse chop pattern, the lead limb is po-
sitioned in D IF (Fig. 4.19A) and the limbs move up and
D2F, FLEXION-ABDUCTiON-ExT:: .:. Rc-- - ON, DYNAMIC
across the face (Fig. 4.19B). In order to resist this pattern, the
REVERSALS
therapist is positioned slightly in front and to the side of the
The hand of the dynamic limb i. po~itioned across the body
patient (wide, dynamic BOS) in the direction of the chop.
with the DE extended, adducted. and internally rotated on
the opposite hip, with hand closed and thumb facing down
(Fig. 4.17 A). The patient is in. tructed to open the hand, Sitting, With PNF Lift/Reverse Lift, Dynamic Reversals
turn, and lift the hand up and out while following the move- This is an upper trunk extension and rotation pattern that
ment with the eyes (Fig. 4.178). involves both UEs moving together. The lead limb moves
in D2F: the hand of the assist limb holds on from under-
D2E, EXTENSiON-ADDUCTiON-INTERNAL ROTATION, DYNAMIC neath the wrist/distal forearm (Fig. 4.20A). The limbs
REVERSALS move up and out with head and trunk rotation and exten-
In the return pattern, the patient closes the hand, turns, and sion (Fig. 4.208). In the reverse lift pattern, the lead limb
pulls the hand down and across the body toward the oppo- begins in D2E (Fig. 4.2IA); the limbs move down and
site hip. across the body (Fig. 4.218). To resist this pattern, the
therapist is positioned slightly behind and to the side of the
Red Flag: UE PNF D2 patterns are contraindicated patient in the direction of the lift.
for patients recovering from stroke who are in early
to mid recovery and firmly locked into abnormal synergy , Clinical Note: The therapist selects either a chop
patterns. or lift pattern. One is not a progression from the
other, and there is no need to use both in order to im-
Sitting, PNF Chop/Reverse Chop, prove sitting control. PNF patterns. especially chop/
Dynamic Reversals reverse chop and lift/reverse lift, promote crossing the
This is an upper trunk flexion and rotation pattern that in- midline, an important activity for patients with unilateral
volves both UEs moving together. The lead limb moves in neglect of one side (e.g., the patient with stroke),
FIGURE 4.17 Sitting, resisted PNF UE )2 =~ :- ::::-~-- (A) -r')e patient begins with the left UE
extended, adducted, and internally ':::-::;-~::: ::::-:.:.: -~ ::::0y (8) The patient is instructed to
open the hand, turn, and lift the let- ~:: _::: :::-::: : _- -- ~ ::: ~ ent's right UE is used for support,
The therapist provides light stretch o~::: .~: :-::-:~ -: -~ -:::vement while weight shifting
backward to allow for full limb excurs c-
CHAPTER 4 lntenentions 10 Impro\f Sitting and Sitting Balance Skills 107
and then the other. Smooth reversal of antagonists is facili- DIE: the hand of the assist limb holds on from on top of the
tated by well-timed Yes. wristldi tal forearm (Fig. 4.18A). The limbs move down and
across the body with head and trunk rotation and flexion
Sitting, PNF Unilateral UE D2 Patterns (Fig. -U8B). In the reverse chop pattern, the lead limb is po-
sitioned in D IF (Fig. 4.19A) and the limbs move up and
D2F, FLEXION-ABDUCTION-ExTERNAL ROTATION, DYNAMIC
across the face (Fig. 4.19B).ln order to resist this pattern, the
REVERSALS
therapist is positioned slightly in front and to the side of the
The hand of the dynamic limb is positioned across the body
patient (wide. dynamic BaS) in the direction of the chop.
with the UE extended, adducted, and internally rotated on
the opposite hip, with hand closed and thumb facing down
(Fig. 4.17 A). The patient is instructed to open the hand,
Sitting, With PNF Lift/Reverse Lift, Dynamic Reversals
turn, and lift the hand up and out while following the move- This is an upper trunk extension and rotation pattern that
ment with the eyes (Fig. 4.17B). involves both UEs moving together. The lead limb moves
in D2F; the hand of the assist limb holds on from under-
D2E, EXTENSION-ADDUCTiON-INTERNAL ROTATiON, DYNAMIC neath the wrist/distal forearm (Fig. 4.20A). The limbs
REVERSALS move up and out with head and trunk rotation and exten-
In the return pattern, the patient closes the hand, turns, and sion (Fig. 4.20B). In the reverse lift pattern, the lead limb
pulls the hand down and across the body toward the oppo- begins in D2E (Fig. 4.2IA); the limbs move down and
site hip. across the body (Fig. 4.21 B). To resist this pattern, the
therapist is positioned slightly behind and to the side of the
Red Flag: UE PNF D2 patterns are contraindicated patient in the direction of the lift.
for patients recovering from stroke who are in early
to mid recovery and firmly locked into abnormal synergy I Clinical Note: The therapist selects either a chop
patterns. or lift pattern. One is not a progression from the
other, and there is no need to use both in order to im-
Sitting, PNF Chop/Reverse Chop, prove sitting control. PNF patterns. especially chop/
Dynamic Reversals reverse chop and lift/reverse lift, promote crossing the
This is an upper trunk flexion and rotation pattern that in- midline, an important activity for patients with unilateral
volves both UEs moving together. The lead limb moves in neglect of one side (e.g., the patient with stroke).
A 4::"
FIGURE 4.17 Sitting, resisted P\ =_:: :.::. --= ) -"'e patient begins with the left UE
extended. adducted. and ir-e--:: == - -= ::::::. (8) The patient is instructed to
open the hand, turn, and lift -e ~- _:: _ ::r:: =.- ---= ::::-e t's right UE is used for support,
The therapist provides light stre-c- ::-:: = T -,;- -: - '" -::. ement while weight shifting
backward to allow for full limb e·:: _0, =.
108 PART" IlltcrHlltioll' to Il1lprOH l'ullctioll
FIGURE 4.18 Sitting, resisted PNF chop pattern. (A) The pa- FIGURE 4,19 Sitting, resisted PNF reverse chop pattern.
tient's lead left UE moves in the Dl extension pattern; the as- (A) The patient's lead left UE moves in the Dl flexion pattern;
sist arm holds onto the top of the wrist/distal forearm. (B) The the assist arm holds onto the top of the wrist/distal forearm.
patient is then instructed to open the hand. turn and push (B) The patient is instructed to close the hand, turn, and pull
both UEs down and out to the side. The therapist resists the both UEs up and across the face. The therapist resists the
movement. ensuring that trunk flexion with ro ation and movement. ensuring that trunk extension and rotation with
weight shift to the left side occurs. weight shift to the right side occurs.
CHAPTER 4 Inlenenlions 10 ImproH Sitting and Sitting Balance Skills 109
FIGURE 4.20 Sitting, resisted PNF lift patter~ (A) --~ ::=-~-- : F GURE 4.21 Sitting, resisted PNF reverse lift pattern, (A) --e
lead left UE moves in the D2 flexion po er~ -~ _-:::- -:::- ::::::- e • s lead left UE moves in the D2 extension po-err -e
holds onto the bottom of the wrist/distal fo'e::::'- (6 ---= ::50:- orm holds onto the bottom of the wrist/dista 'ore::::'-
patient is instructed to open the hand, uri' 8-:: -:::- == (B) --e patient is instructed to close the hand. turn, c~c ::_
up and out to the side, The therapist resis s' ~ - : ~--=- :::- '-=s down and across the body, The therapis' res s's -e
ensuring that trunk extension and rotation w .~ ~ ;-- - - -:: e-en. ensuring that trunk flexion and rotation ". -
to the left occurs, e ;_. >" '- 0 the right occurs, Note that the therap S' _~: ::
::-= ::::.'lomic BOS that allows weight shifting for co--- _::_:
x::: ::::::-0'" of resistance throughout the pattern,
110 PART /I Intrnrntion' 10 Impro\C Function
Sitting. Bilateral SJmmetrical (BS) Pl\ F D I Thrust - ~-~ Ii,- up and out. As the DEs move up and out,
and Withdrawal. Dynamic Rc\ crsals "1 I ' promoted (Fig. 4.238). The therapist is
In the thrust pattern, the hands are closed. the elbO\\ ,., nd the patient to resist the UEs as they move.
flexed and forearms supinated. and the shoulders extended position manual contacts on the proximal
(Fig. 4.22A). The DEs move together up and across the face. ,1bo\e the elbow on the arm, depending on
with hands opening, forearms pronating, elbows extending. " u e arm. A hold may be performed in the D2F
and shoulders flexing above 90 degrees (Fig. 4.22B). This is a "t!,",,",-,,' -' ;-;her emphasize trunk extension.
protective pattern for the face and promotes actions of shoul-
der tlexion and elbow extension with scapular protraction. In lini al . 'ote: This is a useful activity for the pa-
withdrawal or reverse thrust, the hands close, the forearms -n, ohosis and rounded, forward shoulders
supinate with elbow tlexion, and the shoulders extend. pulling (e;1 --e c:::-e n
I'
- Parkinson's disease). The patient is
"
the arms back and to the sides. Holding in the withdrawal rs-' ~::-e-::.:: -:; '5 C\" breathe in' during BS D2F and to
pattern is a useful activity to promote symmetJical scapular 5 c,'.. c'e-:;--e 0:,[ during BS D2E. This helps to enhance
adduction. trunk extension. and upright sitting posture. reso '::'::- en sc olle Imlted with restrictive lung conditions.
Sitting. Bilateral Symmetrical lBS) P"IiF D2F, Sure: The technique of rhythmic initiation (Rl) can
Dynamic Reversals al ,0 be u. ed \\ ith any of the above DE patterns. The patient
The patient moves both UEs together in a BS D2F pattern. is pas i\'ely mo\'ed through the patterns for several repeti-
The pattern begins with the UEs in extension. adduction. tiom. The patient is then asked to actively move with the
and internal rotation (Fig. 4.23A). The hands open and the therapist through the range (active-assistive movements).
10\ements are then lightly resisted. Progression to the next
phase is dependent on the patient's ability to relax and par-
ticipate in the active and resistive phases. This is an ideal
technique to use with the patient who has difficulty with
initiation of movement (e.g., the patient with Parkinson's
disease or with dyspraxia).
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Improved controlled mobility
(dynamic control).
Functional skills achieved: The patient demonstrates
appropriate functional balance in sitting, allowing
independence in reaching and ADL (e.g .. bathing,
grooming, and dressing).
and hold. lead\," and "Don't let the ball roll in any direc-
tion." Sitting off to one side will result in instability and
mO\'ement off the ball. Approximation can be given during
early sitting b: ha\'ing the patient gently bounce up and
down. An impro\'ement in posture (i.e.. the patient sits
up straight) is often seen with this stimulation. Initially
the hands can rest on the knees (a position of maximum sta-
bility). As control develops, the patient is instructed to
hold the UE in a forward position with the elbows ex-
tended and the hands clasped together (hands-clasped
position). Alternatively, the patient can hold the arms out to
the sides. with shoulder abduction and elbow extension
(Fig. -f.26B). The patient should also be instructed to focus
on a visual target.
o Lateral weight sh(fts. The patient rolls the ball from side
to side (Fig. 4.28) with medial/lateral weight shifts, holds
for three counts, and then returns to neutral position.
o Pelvic clock. The patient rotates the ball by using hip
FIGURE 4.30 Sitting on ball. knee extension. The patient prac- FIGURE 4.31 Sitting on ball. side steps. The patient practices
tices lifting one foot up and extending the knee while main- stepping out to the side, moving one LE into hip abduction
taining stable sitting on the ball. The UEs are held out to with knee extension while maintaining stable Sitting on the
the sides in a guard position. The activity can be progressed ball. The UEs are held with both hands clasped together in a
by having the patient trace letters or numbers with the forward position (elbows extended and shoulders flexed).
dynamic foot
balloon in a variety of directions. The ball can be inflated ~ m unilateral to bilateral limb movements.
or weighted (Fig. 4.33). "lI1ation. of limb movements: UE, LE,
o Kicking a ball. A small ball is rolled toward the patient. - - ur-limb activities.
who then kicks it back to the therapist. umber of repetitions .
. eIght of the extremity lifts.
Red Flag: Patients with vestibular insufficiency may peed of the activity.
experience increased dizziness, nausea, or anxiety it~ u;,ing rhythmic timing devices (a
during activities on the therapy ball. This should be T~ ~ r mu"ic).
carefully monitored and the level of challenge decreased Ime a position is held.
to tolerable levels. For some severely involved patients. • ln re - e \\ eight or size of the ball during catching
ball activities may be contraindicated. .1nJ hr \ lI1g a ti\ ities.
• Chan=e he dIrection of the throw. The ball is thrown at
Clinical Note: During episodes of instability, ball or near he LO or toward the side of an instabi Iity.
activities should be modified to ensure patient • .-\Jd re i tan e. Ela"tic resistive bands can be applied to
safety (e.g .. decrease range or speed of movements, in- the hip to prO' ide resistance during pelvic shifts or to
crease BOS). The therapist should be attentive and utilize
the knee~ to trengthen hip abductors. Resistance can be
appropriate guarding techniques. For some patients
adJed to lE or LE movements using resistive bands or
(e.g .. the patient with TBI and cerebellar ataxia), this may
light\\eight cuffs.
mean utilizing a safety belt.
o Use dual-tasking. The patient performs two tasks simula-
ring holder; change from a hard floor to dense foam. environment (quiet room) to an open environment
o Modify the BOS. Change from feet wide apart to feet (busy treatment area).
together to one leg crossed: change from hands on thighs
to hands folded across the chest. Outcomes
Motor control goal: Improved sitting balance control.
Functional skills achieved: The patient demonstrates
appropriate functional balance ski lis in sitting for
independence in ADL.
activity for patients who lack symmetrical weightbearing in -= ._.-= --= '_-llled intervention of a physical therapist, many
standing (e.g., the patient recovering from stroke who demon- ~ ~ied or adapted for inclusion in a home exercise
strates asymmetIical weightbeaJing; this requires the patient EP for use by the patient (self-management
to stand on the more affected LE). Proper height of the treat- , .;.;=gl= . --.:.JTllly members, or other individuals participat-
ment table is important to facilitate standing posture; thus an in~ I:' ''-= ;:' -ient"s care.
adjustable-height table is required for this activity. - __ ue i pra tice activities provide an opportunity to
_hare -n \\ e ge and skills as well as to confirm or clarify
unden~dmg of the treatment interventions. Each student in
Student Practice Activities in Sitting a grou ~ontn utes his or her understanding of, or questions
about. the -t.rategy. technique, or activity, and participate in
Sound clinical decision-making will help identify the most the a ti\ it: mg discussed. Dialogue should continue until
appropriate activities and techniques to improve sitting a consensu= of understanding is reached. Box 4.5 Student
and sitting balance skills for an individual patient. Many of Practi e :\ ti\it: presents an activity that focuses on task
these interventions presented will provide the foundation for analy is of -itting. Box -+.6 Student Practice Activity presents
developing home management strategies to improve func- acti\ities that focus on techniques and strategies to improve
tion. Although some of the interventions described clearly sitting and itting balance control.
EQUIPMENT NEEDS: Adjustable-height platform mat or ~ What is the person's normal sitting alignment?
treatment table and a dome-shaped wobble board. ~ What changes are noted between short- and
long-sitting postures?
PROCEDURE: Work in groups of two or three. Begin by
~ During weight shifts exploring LOS, are the shifts
having each person in the group sit on the mat, first in
symmetrical in each direction?
short-sitting (knees flexed, feet flat on the floor) and
~ During sitting on a wobble board, how successful is
then in long-sitting (knees extended). Then have each
the person at maintaining centered alignment on the
person practice weight shifts to the LOS in both pos-
board (no touch down support)? What is the position
tures. Finally, have each person sit on a dome-shaped
of the UEs? What changes are noted when one leg is
wobble board placed on a hard sitting surface. Have each
crossed over the other? When both feet are off the
person practice sitting centered on the board (no tilts);
ground using a high seat?
then have each person sit on the wobble board with
~ What types of pathology/impairments might affect a
reduced BaS (one leg crossed over the other; sitting
patient's ability to sit?
on a high seat without contact of the feet on the floor).
~ What compensatory strategies might be necessary?
OBSERVE AND DOCUMENT: Using the following questions to ~ What environmental factors might constrain or impair
guide your analysis, observe and record the variations sitting? What modifications are needed?
and similarities observed among the different sitting pat-
terns represented in your group.
OBJECTIVE: To provide practice oportunities for develop- ~ One person assumes the role of therapist (for
ing skill in interventions designed to improve sitting and demonstrations) and participates in discussion.
sitting balance control. ~ One person serves as the subject/patient (for
demonstrations) and participates in discussion.
EQUIPMENT NEEDS: Platform mat, treatment table, therapy
~ The remaining members participate in task analysis
balls (inflated, weighted), cones, balloons, water pitcher,
of the activity and discussion. Following the demon-
and glass.
stration, members provide supportive and cOlTective
DIRECTIONS: Work in groups of three or four students. feedback. One member of this group should be
Practice and demonstrate the activities and techniques designated as a "fact checker" to return to the text
presented in the outline below (titled Outline of Activities content to confirm elements of the discussion (if
and Techniques for Demonstration and Practice). Mem- needed) or if agreement cannot be reached.
bers of the group will assume different roles (described
below) and will rotate roles each time the group pro-
gresses to a new item on the outline.
CHAPTER 4 Intervention, to Impro\ e Sitting and Sitting Balance Skill, 119
• ..
Thinking aloud, brainstorming, and sharing thoughts should • Sitting. application of PNF DE patterns, using dynamic
be continuous throughout this activity! As each item in the rever al
section outline is considered, the following should ensue: E D I flexion and extension
E D2 flexion and extension
l. An initial discussion of the activity, including patient
and therapist positioning. Also considered here should • Chop and reverse chop
• Lift and reverse lift
be positional changes to enhance the activity (e.g.,
• Bilateral symmetrical D I thrust and withdrawal
prepositioning a limb, hand placements to alter the
BOS, and so forth). • Bilateral symmetrical D2 flexion, rhythmic initiation
2. An initial discussion of the technique, includin o its • Sitting, manual perturbations
description, indication(s) for use, therapist hand • Sitting, ball activities
• Pelvic shifts (anterior-posterior, side to side, pelvic
placements (manual contacts), and YCs.
clock)
3. A demonstration of the activity and application of the
• DE lifts (unilateral, bilateral symmetrical, bilateral
tec~nique by the designated therapist and subject/
asymmetrical, reciprocal with marching)
patIent. All group members should provide supportive
• LE lifts (hip flexion, knee extension, with ankle
and corrective feedback, highlighting what was correct
circles or writing letters, side-steps, heel-lifts,
~nd providing recommendations and suggestions for
toe-offs)
Improvement. Particularly important is a discussion of
• Head and trunk rotation (lateral rotations, diagonal
strategies to make the activity either more or less
rotations)
challenging for the patient.
4. If any member of the group feels he or she requires
• Marching in place (contralateral DE and LE lifts)
• Jumping jacks (bouncing with DE lifts overhead)
additional practice with the activity and technique,
• Catching and throwing a ball (inflated ball, weighted
time should be allocated to accommodate the request.
ball); batting a balloon
Outline of Activities and Techniques • Kicking a rolling ball
for Demonstration and Practice • Dual-task activities: simultaneously sitting on the ball
and pourIng a glass of water; counting backward from
• Sitting, holding
100 by 7s
• Stabilizing reversals
• Scooting in short-sitting or in long-sitting, assisted
• Rhythmic stabilization
• Scooting off a high table into modified standing
• Sitting, weight shifts, cone stacking
• Sitting, weight shifts, dynamic reversals
SUMMARY
This chapter has presented the requirements for ining and sit-
ting balance control. Multidimensional exerci e that promote
static and dynamic control as well as rea ti\e. anti ipatory.
and adaptive balance skills have been addre: ed. En-uring pa-
tient safety while progressively challengin_ ontrol u-ing a
variety of exercises and activities is ke\~ to- im roin_ fu~~-
tional performance. . -
CHAPTER
Intervent' s to Improve
/§I Kneeling a Half-Kneeling
Control
THOMAS J. SCHMrTZ, PT, PHD
Kneeling Postures
Kneeling
In kneeling, the 80S is decreased compared to quadruped.
The COM is intermediate; it is higher than in supine or
prone positions and lower than in standing. The BOS is B
influenced by the relative length of the leg and foot and FIGURE 5.1 (A) Kneeling posture. Both hips are extended. with
is positioned largely posterior to the COM. Thus, this bilateral weightbearing occurring at the knees and legs; the
BOS is narrow. (8) Half-kneeling posture, One hip is extended.
posture is more stable posteriorly than anteriorly. Owing
with weightbearing at the knee and legs, The opposite hip
to this relative anterior instability. any forward shift in and knee are flexed to approximately 90 degrees with slight
the COM must be compensated for by trunk and hip ex- abduction; the foot is forward and placed flat on the support
surface, The BOS is wide and angled on a diagonal between
tensors. This is an important safety issue. Without the the posterior and anterior limbs.
ability to compensate (e.g .. trunk and hip extensor weak-
ness), anterior displacement may cau e the patient to fall
forward.
Kneeling involves head. trunk. and hip muscles for
upright postural contro!' The head and trunk are maintained
vertical in midline orientation. with normal spinal lumbar
and thoracic curves.
120
CHAPTER 5 Intervention, to Impro\e I-.neeling and Half.Kneeling Control 121
pain from prolonged positioning may oe-s" -::- /10.\ lifl -'"0111' Il1l1lk up ([lid bring .vour hipslol'\l'{{rd; come lip
Comments
• During initial activities in kneeling, the patient with insta-
bility may benefit from additional SUppOlt provided by
placing hands on the therapist's shoulders (see Fig. 5.2B).
• Elastic resistive bands can be placed around the distal
thighs to increase proprioceptive input and contraction of
the lateral hip muscles (gluteus medius).
• The patient may be positioned with the knees in the step
position (with one knee slightly in front of the other) and
resistance applied on the diagonal.
FIGURE 5.3 Stabilizing reversals: anterior/posterior resistance in Rhythmic Stabilization Rhythmic stabilization utilizes
kneeling, The therapist's hands are positioned to apply poste-
alternating isometric contractions of agonist/antagonist pat-
riorly directed resistance on the upper trunk and contralat-
eral pelvis: note that the posterior BOS is comparatively large, terns against resistance. The patient is asked to hold the
Not shown: Hands are then reversed to the posterior aspects kneeling position without moving (no movement occurs) as re-
of the pelvis and contralateral shoulder/upper trunk to apply
sistance is applied simultaneously to opposing muscle groups
anteriorly directed resistance: because the anterior BOS is
minimal, only slight resistance is applied, (e.g.. upper trunk flexors and lower trunk extensors or upper
trunk extensors and lower trunk flexors: trunk rotators are also
activated). With bilateral manual contacts, resistance is built up
gradually as the patient responds to the applied force. When
anterior instability of the posture, the patient will be able the patient is responding with maximal isometric contractions
to withstand relatively little resistance directed in an ante- of the agonist pattern, one of the therapist's hands is moved to
rior direction and greater resistance directed posteriorly. resist the antagonist pattern. When the antagonists begin to
As the patient holds the posture, posteriorly directed re- engage, the therapist's other hand is also moved to resist the
sistance is applied from the front, as if pushing the trunk antagonist pattern. The technique can be used to promote
and pelvis away from the therapist. Manual contacts then cocontraction and increase stability, strength. endurance. and
reverse and an anteriorly directed resistance is applied ROM. Although no movement occurs, resistance is applied as
from behind, as if pulling the trunk and pelvis toward the if twisting or rotating the upper and lower trunk in opposite di-
therapist. rections. No relaxation occurs as the direction of resistance is
changed.
For the application of rhythmic stabilization in kneel-
Verbal Cues for Stabilizing Reversals, Anterior I ing, the patient is asked to hold the position while the thera-
Posterior Resistance in Kneeling As the patient attempts pist applies rotational resistance to the trunk. One hand is on
to shift toward the therapist: "Doll'llel me plish YOli (/\I'(IY." As the anterior upper trunk/shoulder to resist the upper trunk
the patient attempts to shift away from the therapi t: '·SOlI". flexors, while the other hand is on the contralateral posterior
don '1 let me pull you toward me." pelvis to resist the lower trunk extensors (Fig. 5.4). Resis-
Directed by the goals of the intenention.. e\eral \'ari- tance is then reversed so that one hand is on the posterior up-
ations in manual contacts can be used for appli 'ation of ta- per trunk/shoulder to resist upper trunk extensors, while the
bilizing reversals in kneeling. Some example- follo\\: other hand is on the contralateral anterior pelvis to resist
• Bilateral manual contacts alternating bet\\een h lower trunk flexors. Alternatively, rotational resistance may
anterior and posterior surfaces of the peh i. can be be applied with both hands on the pelvis or both hands on
used for application of anterior/posterior re i,'a.nc;;, the upper trunk/shoulders.
• Bilateral manual contacts alternating bet\\'een' e
anterior and posterior surfaces of the upper trur~ Verbal Cues for Rhythmic Stabilization in Kneeling
shoulder can be used for application of anterior Hold. dOIl'1 let me twist yOll. Hold, hold. NoH', dOli '1 leI me
posterior resistance. ... h YOli the olher wo.\'. Hold, hold."
• Bilateral manual contacts on the lateral aspe h c: -~
pelvis allow application of medial/lateral re~i,t.1r;.:~ Outcomes
Iotor control goals: Stability (static postural control).
fun tional skill achieved: The patient is able to indepen-
Outcomes ~~ __; ~ 'tabilize during upright kneeling.
Motor control goals: Stability (static postural on'
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to._ ~ cations Diminished postural stability of the lower
during upright kneeling. , ; i, and weakness of the trunk and hip muscles are
124 PART /I Intcncnlion~ 10 ImproH Function
Outcomes
FIGURE 5.5 Dynamic reversals, diagonal shifts in kneeling. In
step position, the patient alternates between shifting weight
Motor control goal: Controlled mobility (dynamic pos-
diagonally over the forward knee (shown here) and back- tural control).
ward over the posterior knee. Resistance is applied to active Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to weight
concentric movement in each direction without relaxation,
shift independently in kneeling position.
(Fig. 5.7 A). If needed, the therapist may assist or guide I: - ~ -~. 0 ensure success in assuming the upright
movement for one or two repetitions to ensure that the pa- .. ,=" ":= '".Hlon and should be verbally cued. The therapist
tient knows the desired movements. The patient initially :t .::e the patient to control lowering of the body
flexes the trunk forward and concentrically moves up into :1 \. _''1;;"r than "plopping" or collapsing down.
the kneeling position by extending both hips to achieve full Re- at ombination of isotonics is a technique that
upright extension (Fig. 5.7B). The patient then holds the u . izes ~ n -entri . eccentric, and stabilizing (holding) con-
kneeling position against resistance (isometric phase). When tra 0 - IthoUl relaxation. I For the application of this tech-
stability is achieved, the movement transition is reversed. niqu;;" 0 mo "ement transitions between bilateral heel-sitting
From the kneeling position with the knees in a comfortable and the . eeling po ition, the patient begins in the heel-sitting
stance position, the patient then flexes the trunk forward position :ae Fig. -.7A). The therapist's bilateral manual con-
(shifting the COM anteriorly) and eccentrically controls ta IS are on the anterior pelvis; hand placements do not
lowering as the hips and knees flex until the buttocks make chall~e during application of the technique. The therapist ap-
contact with the heels (see Fig. 5.7A). The UEs may be po- plie re i tan e as the patient first moves up into kneeling
sitioned with both shoulders flexed to approximately 90 de- (con entri phase) and then stabilizes (isometric phase) in the
grees, elbows extended, and hands clasped together. This is kneeling position ( ee Fig. 5.7B). When stability is achieved,
an important lead-up activity for the patient with poor the patient is in true ted to slowly move back to the heel-
eccentric control who has difficulty sitting down slowly or sitting position (eccentric phase).
going down stairs slowly.
As with transitions between sitting and standing, for- Verbal Cues for Combination of Isotonics, Move-
ward trunk flexion (i.e., instructing the patient to lean forward) ment Transitions Between Bilateral Heel-5ifting and
Kneeling Position During concentric movement toward
kneeling: "Nm~; push up to kneeling, push, don't let me stop
you." During the middle holding phase: "Now, don't let me
move you, hold." During eccentric controlled lowering:
"Now, go down slowly, very slowly. Make me work at pushing
you down."
Comments
• Resistance is variable in different parts of the range. As
the patient moves from heel-sitting toward kneeling,
resistance is minimal through the early and middle range
where the effects of gravity are maximal. Resistance then
builds up by the end of the transition to kneeling, as the
patient moves into the shortened range to emphasize hip
extensors. In the reverse movement, resistance is greatest
initially, as the patient starts to move down into heel-
sitting, and minimal during middle and end ranges,
where the maximum effects of gravity take hold.
• If difficulty is experienced in achieving full hip extension in
kneeling, the therapist may verbally cue the patient or tap
over the gluteal muscles to facilitate muscle contraction.
• For patients who require a more gradual assumption of
the heel-sitting position, or those who find it difficult to
get up from the full heel-sitting position, a small ball may
be placed between the feet to sit on (Fig. 5.8). This will
decrease the range of movement required (compared to
full range heel-sitting).
to provide a dynamic BOS (Fig. 5.1 OA). To resist motion of :;- --~ ::: :-::: ::'~s.
just above the elbows). In addition, UE
the UEs. the therapist's bilateral manual contacts are typicall~ ~_= -:-:: ~c
udes movement of the patient's fisted
positioned over the patient's forearms: however. positioning -:::-::: -: :;':; --e opposite pelvis. In the reverse move-
for this activity may require placement over the distal arm~ -:;-- -:::-: -:::- gOing from kneeling to heel-sitting, the
(see the Red Flag below). To begin. the patient's UEs are =:-~:; ~:::~:;: ::::-""ally move toward the opposite knees,
b({ckll'{/I"d, beginning witII YO/{I" !eli kn('('. One, tH'O. /hl"(,(, ({nd
step, ste!I, step."
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Skill.
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to move in-
dependently in kneeling by using a reciprocal trunk and
limb pattern.
ACTIVITIES AND STRATEGIES TO IMPRO,r B.:. w':"-JCE IN FIGURE 5.13 (A) Kree ng act've holding of posture, This ac-
KNEELING tivity promotes pes- u'O s·oo Iity control (ability to maintain a
Some of the activities ah'ead~ presented prO\ ide strategies position with the CC': :::, e' -he BOS with the body at rest),
(8) Kneeling me;:; 0 :::-e'o Nelght shifts. This activity pro-
for improving balance. Ho\\e\er, patlenh \\ ho demonstrate motes dynam (" :-0::- - os ·"Ie kneeling posture must be sta-
significant impairmenh in dl'llwll/( p '"ru! rClponses may bilized dUring ... e :;;-- -- ~-a
~HAPTER 5 Intenentiolh II Impn\t Kneeling and Half.Kneeling Control 131
General Characteristics
The posture is more stable than kneeling. Half-kneeling
iJl\oh e, head. trunk. and hip muscles for upright postural
control. The head and trunk are maintained on the vertical in
midline orientation with normal spinal lumbar and thoracic
cur\'es. The peh'is is maintained in midline orientation with
the hip fully extended on the posterior stance limb. As with
kneeling. static postural col/trol is necessary for the main-
tenance of upright posture. Dynamic postural control is
necessary for control of movements performed in the posture
(e.g .. weight shifting or reaching). Reactive balance control
is needed for adjustments in response to changes in the COM
(perturbation) or changes in the SUpp011 surface (tilting). An-
ticipatory balance control is needed for preparatory postural
adjustments that accompany voluntary movements.
Clinical Notes:
FIGURE 5.15 Prone to kneeling on a ball from a quadruped
position (not shown). (A) The patient moves forward on the o Holding in the posture and weight-shifting activities in the
hands; as the patient rolls forward on the ball, the hips and half-kneeling position provide an early opportunity for par-
knees extend. (8) Once the ball is under the thighs, the tial weightbearing on the forward foot; the position can
patient flexes both hips and knees to bring the ball under also be used to effectively mobilize the foot and ankle
the legs.
muscles (e.g., for the patient with ankle injury) .
. As in kneeling, prolonged compression provides inhibitory
influences on the stance-side quadriceps; there is no in-
(knees moving on a diagonal toward one shoulder as if mov- hibitory pressure on the quadriceps of the forward limb.
ing toward a side-sitting position on the ball). o The asymmetrical limb positioning (one stance limb
and one limb forward with foot flat) can be used to dis-
Outcomes associate (break up) symmetrical limb patterns. Half-
Motor control goals: Static and dynamic balance control. kneeling is a useful actiVity for the patient with spastic
Functional skill achieved: The patient demonstrates func- diplegia (cerebral palsy).
tional balance in the kneeling position, o As with kneeling, half-kneeling may be contraindicated in
some patients, such as individuals with rheumatoid or os-
Indications Indications include impaired lower trunk con- teoarthritis affecting the knee, patients with knee joint in-
trol and impaired balance in movement transitions from kneel- stability, or patients recovering from recent knee surgery.
ing to standing.
Position and \cth it~ : Half-Kneeling. Assist-to-Position
Assist-to-position mo\ement transitions into half-kneeling
Red Flag: Kneeling activities uSing a ball represent
can be effectivel) accomplished from a kneeling position.
very challenging activities that require a great deal
This movement transition is an important lead-up skill to in-
of lower trunk flexibility and postural control It IS important
to observe the patient's responses carefully and use ap-
dependent floor-to-standing transfers.
propriate safety precautions, guarding 'le patient while
ACTIVITIES, STRATEG tS, ANL:l VERBAL CUES FOR HALF-
on the ball.
KNEELING, Assis·- -O-P::;S - ON FROM KNEELING
Activities and Strategies From a kneeling position. the
Half-Kneeling patient blings one lImb up into the forward position with
In half-kneeling. the COM is the ,Jme:1' III kneeling (interme- the hip and knee tle\ed :1nJ the foot placed flat on the mat. The
diate); however. the 80S is \\ ider and on a diagonal between opposite stance knee remains in a weightbearing position. The
:: - .:. PTE R 5 Inll'l'H'n I i Oil 10 In (l I'll' l' h n~el i ng and II al f-h net'l i ng (onlrol 133
therapist is in a half-kneellO_ '110 tront and slightly For the application of holding in half-kneeling, the ther,
to the side of the patient Tlk 1ll,lIlual contacts are apist is in half-kneeling in front of the patient in a reverse
on the pelvis (Fig. 5.161. TI'" I t ma~ assist weight mirror-image position (patient and therapist use opposite
shifting toward the stance 110' ;en ~ mtming the pelvis limb for the stance and forward positions) (see Fig, 5.16).
backward on that side. Thi p 1., ~ u'1lnads and facilitates Manual contacts are used only if contact guard is required or
movement of the fomard IIll '1' P )~ltl()n. To reduce the to assi. t if initial holding of the posture is difficult. Therapist
postural stability demand dU.lOg Initial practice. the pa- hand placement on the stance side is on the posterior upper
tient's hands may be placed ,In the therapist's shoulders (for trunk pa~sing under the axilla and on the lateral hip/pelvis on
light support) with a progl"(" I \11 to no L E support. During the forward limb side. Alternatively, each of the therapist's
initial learning of the mm<?mert tran ilion. Illo\ement of hands mal be cupped around the lateral aspect of the hip/
the patient's forward IJmh ldn be ti"isted by the therapist pelvis on both ~ides (see Fig. 5.16). To reduce the postural
sliding an assist hand under the upper thigh and moving the stability demands during initial practice, the patient's hands
manual contact from UppLi tn 100\er thigh as the patient lifts may be positioned on the elevated forward knee for support.
the LE. Practice in half kneeling "hould include alternating Alternatively. both hands may be placed on the therapist's
the LEs between the stance dnd for\\ard position. shoulders for light support. A progression is made to using
only one hand, then to touch-down suppol1 as needed, and fi-
Verbal Cues for Assist to-Position From Kneeling nally to no UE SUpp0l1. A~ with kneeling. to provide touch-
to Half-Kneeling The therapist provides the patient with down support, the therapist remains in front of the patient with
assistance to the half-knecling position on a count of three. elbows flexed, forearms supinated, and hands open to provide
"On Ihe cOllll1 of Ihree. I'hi/i .1'0111' \\'eighl onlO Ihe lefi knee ~upport as needed while postural stability is established.
and bring the right knee III) aw! place yourf()()t{l(l/ on Ihe
lI1at. I will help. One. tlI'O, three, nOlI' shi/i and bring YOllr Verbal Cues for Active Holding in Half-Kneeling
right knee up and place yOIl I' foot fO/'\l'{/rd onto the 111(1/." "Hold the position. Keep your head and trunk upright and
your weight e\'enly distributed between your knee behind
Half-Kneeling: Interventions, Outcomes, and the foot infi'o!1f. Hold, hold, keep holding the position."
and Management Strategies
Position and Acthih: 1I111'-h.neeling, Holding Stabilizing Reversals: Anterior I Posterior Resistance
Ac IVITIES AND STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE POSTURAL STABILITY IN Since the 80S in half-kneeling is on a diagonal. resistance
HALF-KNEELING is used only in the direction of the BOS. Resistance is ap-
Active Holding This actiVIty focuses on static postural plied on a diagonal in opposing (anterior/posterior) direc-
stability (holding) in a functional position (half-kneeling). tions within a relatively static half-kneeling posture: the
The patient is in half-kneeling. actively holding the posture technique utilizes isotonic contractions progressing to stabi-
with weight equally distributed between the posterior stance li/.ing holds to promote ~tability.
knee and the foot of the forv..ard limb. Postural alignment is For the application of stabilizing reversals with anterior/
maintained with the head and trunk upright and the COM posterior resistance, the patient is asked to hold the half-
kept over the BOS with the body at rest (no motion). kneeling position. The therapist is also half-kneeling. facing
the patient. The therapist's manual contacts reverse position
between the (Interior and posterior aspects of the pelvis.
Immediately before the hands slide to the opposite surfaces. a
transitional cue is given such as "NoII; re\'erse." Resistance is
applied to the pelvis. tirst as if pushing the pelvis diagonally
back toward the posterior stance knee (Fig. 5.17 A) and then
reversed as if pulling the pelvis frontward toward the 1'01'-
\\ ardly placed limb. Resistance is applied until the patient's
maximum is reached and then reversed. Resistance is applied
onl~ diagonally. in the direction of the BOS, The challenge of
this acti\ it) may be progressed by placing the foot of the for-
\ard limb on an inflated disc (Fig. 5.17B). This increases the
~ ntrol demands imposed on the forward knee and ankle.
Outcomes
Motor control goals: Stability (static postural control),
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to stabilize
independently in the half-kneeling position.
Outcomes
Motor control goals: Controlled mobilit] (static-dynamic
control).
Functional skill achieved: ImprO\'ed ~tatic-dynamic con-
trol during weight shifting in half-kneeling position.
OBJECTIVE: Sharing knowledge and skill in the application ... \Yhat in igh did this activity provide that can be
of treatment interventions used in kneeling and half- applied lini ally')
kneeling. 3. Thi a ti\-ity involves the application of manual
EQUIPMENT NEEDS: Platform mat, large ball, and perturbation (gentle nudges) and observation of
inflatable disc. reacti"e balance control. Recall that manual
perturbation initiated by the therapist involve gentle
STUDENT GROUP SIZE: Four to six students. displacement of the COM from over the BaS.
Part I: Postural Stability and Reactive Balance Reactive balance control allows for rapid and efficient
Control: Kneeling and Half-Kneeling respon e to environmental perturbations required
during tanding and walking. One or more group
1. Using a platform or floor mat, each member of the members will assume the role of subject. One member
group should alternate between the kneeling and half- will serve as the therapist for the application of
kneeling positions; while in each position, practice perturbations. The subject will begin in kneeling with
holding for at least 45 seconds. Next, repeat the same an inflated disc (or BOSU® dome) under the knees.
activity, but this time superimpose a gentle postural The therapist will also assume a kneeling position.
sway in all directions (medial/lateral, anterior/ The therapist's manual contacts alternate between a
posterior, and diagonally). During the postural sway, guard position and application of displacing forces
start with small-range movements and work toward (manual contact perturbations) to the trunk. If more
increments of range. Be careful to maintain the than one person is serving as a subject, the therapist
trajectory of postural sway within your LOS. While should provide gentle anterior, posterior, and lateral
transitioning between postures, focus your attention on perturbations to the trunk of each subject individually
the postural stability demands required of each (not simultaneously) to allow careful observation of
position. When the activity is complete, convene the movement responses.
whole group to compare and contrast your individual
perceptions of the relative stability of each posture. Guiding Questions
... What movement responses were used to return the
Guiding Questions COM over the BaS? Were the movements direction-
... Which position was most stable? specific?
... Within each position, which directions of postural ... Were any DE protective extension responses noted? If
sway did you feel were most and least stable? they were, what does this indicate about the position of
2. Again alternate between the kneeling and half-kneeling the COM with respect to the BaS?
positions and focus your attention on postural stability ... With posterior displacements, what muscle groups
demands. Within each position, alter the UE positions were activated (this question requires input from
as follows (hold each DE position for a minimum of subjects)?
20 seconds): (l) resting at sides, (2) folded across chest, ... With forward displacements, what muscle groups were
(3) shoulders abducted to 90 degrees with elbows activated?
extended, and (4) shoulders flexed to 90 degrees with ... What compensatory responses were observed during
elbows extended and hands clasped together. Alter the lateral displacements?
visual input from eyes open (EO) to eyes closed (EC). Part II: Interventions in Kneeling and Half-Kneeling
When the activity is complete, convene the whole group
to compare and contrast your individual expetiences DESCRIPTION OF STUDENT PRACTICE ACTIVITY
with altering the UE position. A chapter outline is provided below to guide the activity.
The outline highlights the key treatment strategies, tech-
Guiding Questions
niques, and activities addressed in the chapter. This ac-
... What did you learn about changes in postural stability
demands when altering the DE po_ ition·J tivity is an opportunity to share knowledge and skills as
... Within a given position. which l'E positions provided well as to confirm or clarify understanding of the treat-
the greatest and least challenges to tability? ment interventions. Each student in a group will con-
... What did you learn about changes in postural stability tribute his or her understanding of, or questions about,
demands when altering the \ isual input from EO to EC? the strategy. technique. or activity being discussed and
:>~APTER 5 lntcnentions to ImproH Kneeling and Half-Kneeling Control 137
. -.
demonstrated. Dialogue should continue until a consen- Weight shifting
sus of understanding is reached. ... Kneehng. medial/lateral shifts. using dynamic
reversals
Directions: Working in groups of three or four students, ... Kneeling. diagonal shifts (knees in step position).
consider each entry in the outline below. Members of the using dynamic rev'ersals
group will assume different roles (described below) and ... Kneeling. diagonal shifts with rotation (knees in step
will rotate roles each time the group progresses to a new position). using dynamic reversals
item in the outline.
... One person assumes the role of therapist (for Movement tranSitions
demonstrations) and participates in discussion. ... Movement transitions between kneeling and bilateral
... One person serves as the subject/patient (for heel-sitting positions using combination of isotonics
demonstrations) and participates in discussion. ... l\lovement transitions between kneeling amI side-
... One remaining member of the group should be sitting positions using combination of isotonics
designated as a "fact checker" to return to the chapter ... Movement transitions between kneeling and hil,lteral
content to confirm elements of the discussion (if heel-sitting positions using PNF lift and reverse lift
needed) or if agreement cannot be reached. patterns and dynamic reversals
... All remaining group members participate in discussion ... Kneel-walking using reSisted progression
and provide feedback after the demonstration. • Forward progression
Thinking aloud, brainstorming, and sharing thoughts • Backward progression
should be continuous throughout this activity' As each item Activities and strategies to improve balance
in the outline is considered, the following should ensue: ... Kneeling. manual perturbations (nudges)
1. An initial discussion of the activity, including patient ... Kneeling on an intlated disc. active holdin!!
and therapist positioning. ... Sitting on ball to half-kneeling. active mov~ements to
2. An initial discussion of the technique, including its each side
description, indication(s) for use, therapist hand HALF-KNEELING
placements (manual contacts), and verbal cues. Assist-to-position and holding
3. A demonstration of the activity and application of the ... Half-kneeling, assist-to-position from kneeling
technique by the designated therapist and subject! ... Half-kneeling, holding using stabilizing reversals.
patient. Discussion follows the demonstration. All group anterior/posterior resistance
members should provide recommendations, suggestions,
and supportive feedback about the demonstration. Weight shifting
Particularly important is discussion of strategies to make ... Half-kneeling. diagonal shifts using dynamic revers,lis
the activity either more or less challenging. Advanced stabilization activities
4. If any member of the group feels he or she requires ... Sitting on ball to half-kneeling. active movements to
additional practice with the activity and technique, each side
time should be allocated to accommodate the request.
All group members should provide input Movement transitions
(recommendations, suggestions, and supportive ... Half-kneeling to standing, assist-to-position
feedback) during the practice. ... Half-kneeling to standing, active movements
SUMMARY and reciprocal trunk and limb patterns. The inherent patient
This chapter explored strategies, activities, and te hnique, ~afety provided by the relatively low COM and reduced de-
to enhance posture and balance control using the . eeling = ees of freedom of these postures (compared to standing)
and half-kneeling postures. These postures provide a urn; c cnhan e their importance as effective transitional postures
opportunity to enhance stability without the control re II- veen prone progressions and upright standing.
ments of standing. Kneeling and half-kneeling are ide ' ~- ~
developing critical lead-up skills required for standin~ ~"1':
i)~i:ERENCE
gait, including pelvic rotation, static and dynami upn.::-: ... ~~r. S. Beckers, D, and Buck, M. PNF in Practice: An Illustrated
postural control, reactive and anticipatory balance 0 &~.j~. cd 3. Springer, New York. 2008.
CHAPTER
Interventions to Improve
@! Transfers and Wheelchair
Skills
GEORGE D. FULK, PT, PHD
FIGURE 6.1 A patient with stroke (.e<r 8"'lloaresls) transfers FIGURE 6.2 A pa- e-- ... -~ (: -12 incomplete SCI transfers from
from sitting to standing. a wheelchair -c ::; ~::;-
138
CHAPTER 6 Intenention- to Impro\e Transfers and \\heelchair Skills 139
breakdown into two distinct ph a",> , i, done to organize the the hips and ankles." The thighs come off the seat (Fig. 6.3C).
clinical analysis of the mo\ement. ~ormally. the movement During the extension phase, the greatest muscle force occurs
occurs in one smooth motion. to lift the body mass up off the sitting surface. During the rest
Initially, the majority of the bod~ mass is resting on the of the extension phase (Fig. 6.30), the hips and ankles con-
thighs and buttocks in a stable ,itting posture (Fig. 6.3A). tinue to extend together with the knees to bring the body to
During the pre-extension phase. the upper body (head and an upright posture.
trunk) rotates forward at the hip joint and the lower legs ro- DUling the pre-extension phase, the iliopsoas and tibialis
tate forward over the ankle joinh (dorsitlexion) (Fig. 6.3B). anterior are the primary muscles activated to propel the body
Once the trunk and head rotate forward. causing the body mass forward. The trunk extensors and abdominal muscles
mass to translate horizontall). the extension phase begins, contract isometrically to stabilize the trunk while it rotates for-
with extension at the knees, closely followed by extension at ward at the hips. During the extension phase, the hip (gluteus
c
FIGURE 6.3 (A) Initial sitting posTve ::.: .. : -::- :-e--;; -0 s·anding. Note that the upper trunk
is erect and the pelvis is in a neu"::; :::::-:- 3 =_.-;; -"e pre-extension phase, the body
mass is shifted horizontally as the -.~-. ':-:::-e: -:- . ::.:: :::- - e hips and the lower legs rotate
forward at the ankles. Keeping' e _:::::-e' - _-. e -e- ::6:: and the pelvis in neutral is important
for translating the body mass horz:--:: : e' -e -::::- (C) T e extension phose begins as
the thighs come off the seating sv'::;:e 0 : _'-;; -;:; 6 rension phose, the hips and knees
extend to bring the body to a STa"::; -;; ::::: -::-
140 PART /I Intenentions to Improve Fnnction
maximus), knee (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, and vastus mornen m-transfer strategy requires less force because the
medialis), and ankle extensors (gastrocnemius and soleus) are bod~ i= in motion as the legs begin the lift. However, there
activated to lift the body up to standing. is a trad -off with stability. The person is less stable during
People generally utilize two basic strategies to transfer the ran,i ion period.
from sitting to standing: momentum-transfer strategy and The motion (angular displacement) of transitioning
zero-momentum strategy.3 The momellfllm-tram!er strategy from standing to sitting is similar to the motions that occur
involves generating forward momentum as the trunk and during -it-to-stand. only in reverse! However, the timing
head translate in a horizontal direction (flexion at the hips) and type of muscle contraction are different. While transi-
causing the center of mass (COM) to shift toward and over tioning from tanding to sitting, the body mass is moving
the feet. The trunk extensor muscles then contract eccentri- backward and downward. Flexion of the hips, knees, and an-
cally to brake the horizontal motion. This is followed by a kle i controlled by eccentric contraction of the LE exten-
strong concentric contraction of the extensor muscles of the sor mu cles. Additionally, the patient cannot directly see the
LEs to lift the body vertically. surface upon which he or she is about Lo sit.
The zero-momentum strategy entails forward flexion
of the trunk until the COM is within the base of support
Task Analysis of Sit to and From
(BOS) of the feet. Then there is a vertical lift of the body
Stand Transfers
mass into a standing position. The zero-momentum strategy
is more stable than the momentum-transfer strategy but re- Movement tasks can generally be broken down into four
quires greater muscle force to perform. Individuals with stages: initial conditions, initiation, execution, and termina-
LE weakness who utilize this strategy may also require arm- tion (Table 6.1 ).1 Critically examining the initial conditions
rests to push off of with their upper extremities (UEs). The encompasses the patient's posture and the environment in
• •
Sit-to-Stand Initial Initiation of Execution of Termination of
Transfer Conditions Movement Movement Movement
C I"1I"1on • Initial foot place- • Delay in initiation • Lack of strength/ • Over- or undershoot
l),fflc.Jltles ment too far for- • Multiple attempts to power termination of
Exhlb t d/ ward (e,g., de- initiate movement • Muscle activation movement
1=('1 ou tered creased ankle
• Movement initiated not in optimal se- • Unsteady on com-
'J 10 vioJals Wi h ROM) quence (e.g., begin pletion of move-
too quickly
i1e.Jrologlcal • Sitting in posterior extending too early) ment transition
Jisorders • Direction of move-
pelvic tilt position • Forward weight shift
ment not efficient
• Increased thoracic not complete
kyphosis • Anterior weight shift
• Sitting too far back by thoracic flexion
on the seating instead of hip flexion
surface • Too much weight
• Seat surface too shift onto less
low or too soft affected side
• Speed too slow,
does not build suffi-
cient momentum to
assist with exten-
sion phase
• Fear of falling
CHAPTER 6 lntenention to lmpro\c Transfers and Wheelchair Skills 141
FIGURE 6.6 The patient does not place his left foot back far
enough. This will make it difficult to translate the body mass
horizontally during the pre-extension phase and to effectively
utilize the left LE to push up during the extension phase, The
inability to position the foot farther posterior could be due to
a contracture of the gastrocnemius-soleus complex or to
hamstring weakness,
Environment
During the initial stages of motor learning (cognitive stage),
the physical therapist should set up the transfer practice en-
vironment to allow the patient to succeed, while minimizing
FIGURE 6.7 The patient with stroke (left hemiparesis) has not compensatory movement strategies. This usually entails the
shifted his weight forward enough during the pre-extension use of a firm, raised surface. A high-low treatment table
phase. He compensates for this by using his right UE to push
up from the chair. (Fig. 6.9) or mat is ideal for initial practice sessions. It al-
lows the physical therapist to set the height at a point that is
challenging for the patient, but not so challenging that the
patient cannot successfully complete the transfer without
strategy) upon reaching standing to reestablish the COM
excessive compensatory movements. Additionally, the inter-
within the BOS.
vention sessions should take place in a quiet, closed environ-
ment that is well lighted. Verbal cues can be used to provide
Student Practice Activities: Task Analysis
knowledge of results and knowledge of performance, but
of Sit-to/From-Stand Transfers
they should be faded over time or summarized after a certain
Although it is not possible to exactly replicate the effech of number of trials. Verbal cues can also be used to direct the
different types of patient impairments on the sit-to/from-stand patient's attention to the task.
transition in healthy individuals. the activities presented in During the later stages of motor learning (associative
Box 6.1 Student Practice Activity may prO\ ide further insight and autonomous), as the patient's ability to perform the move-
into some of the difficulties that patients may encounter. ment improves, the environment should more realistically
A B c
FIGURE 6.8 Sit-to/from-stand +'ars"e's '. - r , ; ) ' . ng ankle positions: (A) 15-degree arK e dorsiflexion, (8) 15-degree ankle
plantarflexion, and (C) With or c""_-re-sre" o'lkle foot orthotic (AFO).
CHAPTER 6 lntenention' tn Impro\e Transfers and Wheelchair Skills 143
(standard) seat height and then to various types c' 5'· _~ ;ictice multiple times a day. If the patient does not have
ting surfaces (sofa, bed, toilet, stool. and so forth) --e ~-;: _lent hamstring strength to position the feet, a task-
environment should be progressed from a c10sea .::; ::;:- :-~ :ed trengthening program can be implemented. A
open environment. ~I under the foot can be used to reduce friction. or a
144 PART /I InIH\{'lIlion, 10 Illlpro\{' Function
FIGURE 6.9 A high-low treatment table (or mat) may be FIGURE 6.11 Positioning the ankles slightly posterior to the
used to vary the height of the seating surface, As the knee will allow the patient's weight to be translated
patient improves, the table can be lowered to make it horizontally during pre-extension,
more challenging,
small skateboard (Fig. 6.13) can be used as part of a task- Executing the Movement
specific strengthening program. Tape on the floor can be
used to provide a target for the patient to position the fool. The initial motion in transferring from sitting to standing is
Chapter 4 provides a variety of interventions designed the forward translation of the upper hody by flexing at the
to enhance sitting posture and balance that can be used to hips. Patients \\ ho sit \\ ith a posterior pelvic tilt (sacral sit-
improve the initial sitting posture for transfers. As men- ting). ha\e increased thoracic \...yphosis. and have a fear of
tioned, the ideal sitting posture includes an erect. extended falling when leaning for\\ ard may try to bring their hody
upper trunk, the pelvis in neutral alignment or slight anterior weight forward by increasing thoracic kyphosis as they flex
tilt, and the feet placed behind the knee (with the ankle in the hips. This brings the head forward but does not effec-
approximately 15 degrees of dorsiflexion). tively translate the body mass hori/Olltally (Fig. 6.1"+). From
A B
FIGURE 6.10 Practice of sit-to/fro..,....-s·c::~c ":J0sfers using a variety of seating surfc:::~:. c-+-"" simulate a patient's home and
community environment
CHAPTER 6 Intel'\( nlion III In prll\l' [ran,fl'rs and \\ heelt-hair Skills 145
A B c
FIGURE 6.12 Both the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles should be stretched: (A) sitting soleus stretch; (8) standing gastrocne-
mius stretch with knee extended; (C) standing soleus stretch with knee flexed,
FIGURE 6.13 Using a skateboard under the foo' /. -e::L::::e FIGURE 6.14 The patient has brought her head forward by
friction between the foot and the floor, making - eo: e' '::::' "creasing thoracic kyphosis and posterior pelvic tilt. The
the patient to initially practice placing the foot ~ -~e ::::::::"e::::- ootlent would likely lose her balance posteriorly and fall
position. The patient could also practice this act r. -:::e- oClcKward into the seat if she attempted to stand up from
pendently as a component of a home exercise prcg-:::~ -~ 5 oosltion,
this position, it is difficult to transfer to standin; be __ ~ ard and backward (Fig. 6.16) or on a large therapy ball
; )f\\
much of the body weight is too far posterior and re tn~ Fl;. 617). Care should be taken to protect the integrity or
sion primarily to the floor. ~ houlder joint when performing these interventions. par-
An important element of practice is mo\ In:: '-~ .if ~ \\ ith patients who have experienced stroke and
upper body forward O\'er the feet (i.e., hip flexion \\ :'h _-'- ubluxed shoulder. This can be done by manually
per trunk extension). Hm ing the patient cross the .lfT mng the shoulder (Fig. 6.18).
front while guided to flex forward at the hips .1"; , The patient's feet may also need to be stabilized ini-
keeping the upper trunk extended and minimize '-F-"'- hat the lower leg rotates rorward over the root. As
trunk flexion (Fig. 6.15). Alternatively, the patient' ~ _ -_' .~n progresses. assistance from the physical therapist
can be supported on a rolling tray table that can be ;_ ~ __ '" '" ~d and eventually removed.
146 PART /I In(cncntiol1' (0 Impro"C Function
yi
Therapist positioning should not be '0 clo,e to the patient that Other ,trategies to increase loading on the more af-
anterior rotation of the 10\\ er leg h blocked (Fig. 6.20). fected LE include the following:
A visual target on \\ hich to foeu ,hould be provided
• Placing the Ie " affected LE slightly ahead of the more
for the patient while mO\'ing to 'tandlllg. The target should
affected LE
be in front and at eye level (\\hen tanding). Use of a target
• Placing the less affected LE on a slightly elevated surface
helps the patient keep the upper trunk extended when the
such as a small block or step (Fig. 6.21)
weight is shifted forward a, \\ ell as prO\ ides a sense of pos-
• Using a force platform to provide visual feedback about
tural alignment and vertical orientation and discourages
the amount of weightbearing on both LEs
looking down at the feet.
Comments
• A higher seating surface may be used initially for patients
with weakness to promote symmetrical weightbearing.
• Manual assistance at the more affected knee will assist
with extension.
• Therapist positioning should not block forward weight
translation when assisting or guarding.
• A visual target can be used to promote upper trunk
extension.
Skill Practice
Once patients have mastered the basic skill of transferring
and are in the associative or autonomous stage of motor
learning, interventions should be designed to promote skill
acquisition. A "transfer course" can be set up that requires
the patient to transfer to and from many types of seating sur-
faces in a random order. The course can be set up such that
the patient must walk a short distance to the different seat-
ing surfaces (Fig. 6.24).
To progress the complexity of the task to better reflect
the patient's real-world environment, a dual- or multitask
paradigm can also be introduced. In this scenario, the patient
is required to hold an object while practicing transfers.
Either unilateral or bilateral use of the DEs can be incorpo-
rated. For example. the patient may be asked to hold a cup
(Fig. 6.25A) or hold a tray filled with objects (Fig. 6.25B)
while transferring. The patient can also be asked to perform
a cognitive task such as counting backward from 100 by 7s
or provide the name of an animal that starts with a given
FIGURE 6.22 The patient practices s-ep-Llps. The height of the letter. To make it more challenging, the patient can be asked
step can be increased as the patlen s _E strength increases.
Practice has direct functional carryover -0 improved stair to perform both the CE task and the cognitive task at the
and curb climbing. same time \\ hile practI'ing the movement pattern.
~"APTER 6 Inlcncnllon I) Imp ,HC I ran,lc" and \\ hcl'Ichair Skill, 149
Comments
• Practice ,hould include random transfeITing to and from a
\'ariet~ of ,eating surfaces.
• Other motor and cognitive tasks may be incorporated
\\hen practicing.
• Practice \trategie\ should include modifications to the
em ironment. including lighting and 1100r surface.
8 '--
FIGURE 6.25 Transferring to stand,ng " - ". -: :: - ,,( )::;;;;:::55 of water or (B) a plate with
obJeCTS on it. Dual-task performance ::-:: ".- ;;;".: -'= ::::;- e~- s control in order to prevent the
co 'e0-S from spilling from the glass ::-:: :--". -- _: :".-,e, -0 make the transfer more auto-
ma- c as t e patient's attention IS c ~ -: :: - " - =__ -= :;, :: o'e and not spilling the contents
ano ~o' on the act of the transfer -,e'
150 PART 1/ Inll'rH'nlion, 10 Imllr()\f FlIlI<:lion
• Sit tall, keep back straight. aintained in extension by contracting the ante-
• Lean forward with nose over toes. ulder external rotators, and pectoralis major.
• Push to stand up. and hips from this position to transfer, the
• Turn 90 degrees toward other surface; feel surface on -illd depresses the scapulae. The fingers should
back of legs. x ,- e ~~. ~-;: er\'e the tenodesis grip during all activities in-
• Sit down slowly and safely. = ;: ;'i:xanng on the hands with the wrists extended.
'- ~ toto-stand transfers. there is very little re-
A similar generic list can be developed for use with all
- \ people with SCI (or other similar disorders)
sit-to-stand transfers, without the information about manag-
I ot transfers to and from their wheelchair.
ing the wheelchair, as a way to remind the patient of the nec-
I e...tgues III identified three components to the sit
essary steps.
pi\ ; ',ar. ·'er preparatory phase, lift phase, and descent
phase Dunn; the preparatory phase, the trunk flexes for-
Sit Pivot Transfers
\\ ard. I Lterall~. and rotates toward the trailing arm
Individuab who use a wheelchair as their primary method of (Fig. 6.26-\ . The lift phase starts when the buttocks lift off
mobility in their home and community. such as those with SCI. the 'itting urface and continues while the trunk is lifted
multiple sclerosis. or spina bifida. often must transfer into and half\\ a~ bet\\ een the t\\'o surfaces (Fig. 6.26B). The descent
out of their wheelchair using only their UEs (sit pivot trans- phase denotes the period when the trunk is lowered to the
fer). For a person with a complete SCI. the level of injury gen- other eating urface. from the halfway point until the but-
erally dictates the functional capacity for transfers. The lower tocks are on the other surface (Fig. 6.26C).
the level of injury, the easier and more diverse the transfers will The preparator; phase includes shifting body weight
be. Factors other than level of preserved motor function will from the buttocb onto the hands by flexing the trunk for-
also influence the ability to independently pelt'onn sit pivot ward so that the shoulders are in front of the hands. I I The
transfers, including body weight, spasticity. pain. ROM. and ability to flex the trunk forward so that the shoulders are in
anthropometric characteristics. front of the hands is a key component of the movement. The
Preservation of triceps function is a key element for in- trailing hand is placed close to the upper thigh, anterior to
dependence with transfers. However, even individuals with a the hip joint. The leading hand is placed farther away from
C6 level of injury can transfer to even (level) surfaces inde- the upper thigh to provide a space into which the buttocks
pendently. Without triceps function the elbow can be locked and thighs can transfer. The upper trunk rotates toward the
in extension by positioning the shoulder in external rotation. trailing hand. away from the target transfer surface. Initially,
the elbow and wrist in extension. and the forearm in supina- this Illay be difficult, as patients often want to see the surface
tion. To accomplish this, the patient first tosses the shoulder they are transfening toward.
into extension with the forearm supinated. Once the base of the In the lift phase, the trunk and hips are lifted off the
hand is in contact with the mal. the humerus is flexed to cause seating surface. The lower trunk is shifted toward the leading
the elbow to extend, since the arm is in a closed kinetic chain. hand. The upper trunk rotates toward the trailing hand. Owing
A B c
FIGURE 6.26 Sit pivot transfer from >t. 'lee chair 0 mat. (A) During the prepara orv ohase • e patient with incomplete SCI (T6)
has the trailing hand on the wheelc C' and the lead hand on the surface to ",h c" she s going to transfer. She flexes her trunk
and begins to rotate her trunk oward the railing hand. (8) During the lift phose ..... :::r:ler·um from the farward trunk flexion
and rotation with triceps extenslor and scapular depression serve to lift the'r -, :;-C oe /IS off the wheelchair. (C) During the
descent phase. eccentric muscle con"ac Ion serves to lower the body to' e ..... ::;'
CHAPTER 6 Intcnenlion- t Impr IH Trarl',fters and Wheelchair Skills 151
the descent phase, the trunk and hips continue to be lifted off before ~ umlllg long-sitting and performing these activities.
the seating surface and the trunk rotates toward the trailing Ta k-onen e ' a.:ti\ Hies that may be performed in long-sitting
hand while the body is lowered onto the seating surface. Peak include.
force generated at the trailing hand generally occurs right be-
o Pu'h-up' \\ ith bars or blocks (weight cuffs instead of
fore the buttocks are lifted off the seating surface and while
blod. can be used for individuals lacking full hand
the buttocks are in the air for the lead hand. 11 Greater force is
fun lIOn) Fig. 6.?7)
generated by the trailing than the lead UE. suggesting that
o Push-up and scoot to the left and right
the weaker UE or one that has a painful shoulder should be
o Lo\\ er limb management: lifting and positioning LEs
the lead. 111,1 I
\\ hi Ie in long-. itting
• Dips in parallel bars in a long-sitting position (Fig. 6.28)
Comments
o Head and upper trunk should flex forward and rotate
Lead-Up Skills
away from the lead hand.
1an~ lead-up skills are required in preparation for transfer-
o If one DE is painful or weak, it should be the lead UE.
ring into or out of a wheelchair. Table 6.2 provides informa-
tion on these skills.
Clinical Note: Many individuals who use a sit pivot
transfer to and from their wheelchair are at risk of
developing skin breakdown. During transfers. shearing forces
on the skin should be avoided. Patients should be instructed
to lift their body rather than sliding along the surface. Multi-
ple small lifts and pivots are better than sliding along the
surface. Early in a rehabilitation program. individuals with
traumatic SCI may have orthopedic precautions that
include avoiding excessive stress on healing, unstable
fracture sites in the spine. These precautions need to be
strictly adhered to. As described above, individuals with a
C7 level injury and above should keep their fingers flexed
when weightbearing on their hands with an extended wrist
and elbow in order to preserve tightness in the longer finger
flexors to maintain the ability to use a tenodesis grasp.
Position wheelchair Wheelchair should De s: "ed at a 20°-30° angle from the target
transfer surface. Cas e S::J s: oned backward provide more stability to
the wheelchair.
Set wheel locks Different wheel loc s are 2 a ab e e.g., push to lock, pull to lock, or
scissor locks).
Remove and replace armrests Armrest styles vary; some ing away, while others may be
removed completely.
Remove and replace leg rests Some individuals transfer by eeping the feet on the footplate; others
remove the leg rests and place their feet on the floor. To provide stability,
the thighs should be parallel or angled slightly higher in relation to the
surface the individual is transferring to.
Manage transfer board Individuals with high-level SCI may require the use of a transfer board to
transfer into and out of the wheelchair safely and independently.
Manage lower extremities This includes moving LEs on and off footplates. Some patients may prefer
to transfer with the LEs positioned on the surface he or she is transferring
toward (i.e., in a long-sitting position).
Manage body position in wheelchair Scooting to the edge of the seating surface and positioning the buttocks
in front of the wheel are important lead-up skills.
Backward Approach
Using the backward approach. the individual sits slightly in
front of and between the casters of the wheelchair, with
hands on the edge of the seat facing away from the wheel-
hair (Fig. 6.33A). This hand position requires a great deal
of houlder ROM. Some individuals may not have sufficient
flexibility in the shoulders to be able to use this technique.
On e in this position, the patient lifts up his or her buttocks and
crunk by pushing down forcefully using the UEs (Fig. 6.33B).
\ hen the buttocks are over the edge of the seat, the patient
:-:e,e the trunk forward, causing the buttocks to rise farther
_~ .:J1d into the wheelchair (Fig. 6.33C).
Fo ard Approach
r ard approach. the individual is initially side-sitting
-e -'p in front of the wheelchair. The knees are between
'l~ in front of the casters; one hand is on the floor
FIGURE 6.31 Seated push-ups using push-up bars C'~ - : = he edge of the wheelchair (Fig. 6.34A). The in-
=_=-:
challenging in short-sitting compared to iong-sl ~;;;
the buttocks off the floor by pushing down with
the smaller anterior BOS and lack of lengthened "C-:-
providing pelvic stability, JJ1d comes up into a kneeling position facing
154 PART /I Inll'ncnlion, III 11I11l("(l'C I'unction
FIGURE 6.33 Floor-to-wheelchair transfer using a backward approach. (A) Starting position for backward approach with hands
on the wheelchair and knees flexed. (8) The patient lifts herself off the floor uSing forceful extension of the elbows. (C) Once
the buttocks clear the seat, the head and trunk are flexed slightly forward and t e scapulae depressed to lift herself up and
Into the wheelchair.
FIGURE 6.34 Floor-to-wheelc c' -,::::ns'e' ~S ~g a forward approach. (A) The starting position for the forward approach is
side-sitting in front of wheelc .... -n c;ne nand on the floor and one on the wheelcha r (8) Next, the patient lifts herself into
a kneeling position facirg -ne ~ee :::~::::. (C) The patient lifts herself as high as poss b e using the wheels or armrests on the
wheelchair and then (0) reTes ~e' ::: :::::, -::; "urn into a sitting position in the w ee c a'
CHAPTER 6 Intcr\l'nlion to Impnnt Iran .. rcr .. and \\ht'l'1fhair Shill .. 155
Sideways Approach
The sideways approach requires a great deal of skill and
hamstring flexibility but does not require as much strength
as the other two techniques. To start. the individual sits di-
agonally in front of the wheelchair. with one hand on the
seat of the wheelchair and one on the floor (Fig. 6.35A). The
individual next lifts the buttocks up onto the edge of the seat
by rotating the head and upper trunk down and away from
the wheelchair (toward the hand on the floor) (Fig. 6.35B).
This motion must be done quickly and forcefully to lift the
buttocks up onto the wheelchair. Next. the individual places
the hand that is on the floor onto the leg (progressing to the
thigh) and "walks" the hand up the lower limb until he or
she is sitting upright in the wheelchair (Fig. 6.35C).
Strengthening to Improve
Transfer Skills
Strengthening of key muscle groups using cuff weights. elas-
tic resistive bands, free weights, pulleys, or other exercise
equipment is another important component of a comprehen-
sive POc. In general. strengthening exercises should be com-
pleted two or three times a week. Patients should perform
two or three sets of 8 to 12 repetitions at their IO-repetition
maximum. Key targeted muscle groups include elbow exten-
sors, pectoralis major, deltoids, shoulder external rotators.
scapular depressors, and serratus anterior.
ability is the sit-to-stand test."o-", There are two basic vana- \ ard on the handrims and pulls back. Patients
tions of this test: One measures the amount of time it take o ha\e the ability to grasp the handrim will place
the patient to transfer five times in succession from sitting to on the wheel behind their hips and push back-
standing, and the other measures how many times the patient \\ d"" ~ tending their triceps or depressing their scapulae.
can transfer from sitting to standing in 30 seconds. .-\ \ e~ .:n:m with a rigid frame is more energy efficient to
pro I 0 one \\ ith a folding frame.
The te..::hnique used to turn depends on how quickly
Foundational Manual Wheelchair the patient need~ to turn as well as the size of the turning ra-
Mobility Skills diu". To m 'e a large radius or slow turn, the patient pushes
harder on a ingle handrim using one arm (e.g., if turning to
For individuals who use a manual wheelchair, the ability to the right. the patient pushes harder with the left arm). To
propel and maneuver over and around various obstacles and make a tight and/or quick turn. the patient pushes forward
telTains in their home and community is essential for func- with one handrim \\ hi Ie pulling back on the other (e.g .. if
tional independence. To propel a manual wheelchair inde- turning to the right quickly. the patient pushes forward with
pendently in the home and community environments, patients the left handrim \\ hi Ie pulling back with the right).
need to be able to perform certain basic wheelchair mobility
skills: forward and backward propulsion, turning, ascend and Propulsion on Inclines
descend inclines, assume and maintain a wheel ie, and propul-
There are a \'ariet) of surfaces with inclines that wheelchair
sion on uneven terrain.
users need to negotiate to be independent in their home and
community. These include ramps, curb cutouts. slopes, and
Propulsion and Turning on Even Surfaces
hills. The basic techniques used to ascend and descend these
To propel the wheelchair forward, the patient reaches back inclines are the same. To ascend an incline, the patient takes
and grasps the wheelchair handrims (Fig. 6.36) and then shorter and quicker strokes and pushes on the handrims
pushes forward, releasing the handrim after the hands have more forcefully. If possible, the patient should lean forward
passed in front of the hips. Patients should practice reaching with the head and trunk while pushing forward to prevent
as far back as possible on the handrims to initiate the stroke the chair from tipping backward. Patients with stronger UEs
and pushing as far forward as possible before releasing the will be able to ascend inclines more easily and negotiate
handrims. A longer pushing stroke is more efficient. Patients steeper inclines. However, even an individual with a C6
who do not have the ability to grasp the handrims propel the level SCI can ascend inclines with a modest grade.
wheelchair by pushing with their palms against the lateral When descending an incline, patients need to control
aspect of the handrims and then pushing forward. Propelling the speed of descent. This is done by gripping the handrim
the wheelchair backward is performed in a similar manner. and slowly releasing the grip in a controlled manner to slow
Instead of reaching back on the handrims to start, the patient the descent of the wheelchair. Patients without finger flexion
function control the descent of the wheelchair by applying
pressure to the handrims with the palms of the hands, slowly
releasing the pressure to control the descent of the wheel-
chair. Cycling gloves are often used to protect the hands.
Wheelies
Although wheelchair accessibility has improved over recent
years with the availability of curb cutouts and ramps, there
are still many areas of the community that are not easily ac-
cessible with a wheelchair. The ability to perform a wheelie
(Fig. 6.37) is an essential skill in order to negotiate curbs,
steep declines. and uneven terrain. To attain a wheelie. the
patient reaches back on the handrim and forcefully pushes
forward to lift the front casters off the ground (as if attempt-
ing to tip the wheelchair over backward). When first learn-
ing any skill that involves a wheelie. there is a risk of the
wheelchair tipping over. The patient should always be
closely supervised and guarded. To ensure safety while
practicing wheelies. a gait belt is looped through the frame
of the wheelchair (Fig. 6.38). The therapist is positioned be-
FIGURE 6.36 To propel a wheelcra ' 'c~.·. 0'0 grasping the
handrims behind the hips before beg r r '-'g a push provides hind the wheelchair. holding the gait belt in one hand with
a longer arc through which to prooe o r e .'."eels forward, the other hand placed on the patient's shoulder or the push
CHAPTER 6 Intenention, ttl Imprene Transfers and Whl'elchair Skills 157
the curb. the patient pops a wheelie and turns ::-:?-- ~"'" carries the back wheels up and over
the right or left to prevent the footplate(s) from ~ ~ =
top of the curb (Fig. 6.-+3).
160 PART /I Inter\l'nlion, to Impro\(' I- unction
FIGURE 6.43 Backward approach to descending a curb. (A) The patient gradually ap-
proaches the edge of the curb and leans forward. (8) The back wheels are lowered slowly
over the edge of the curb. Once the back wheels are safely on the ground. the patient
(C) pops a wheelie and (0) rotates 90 degrees to prevent the footplate from getting stuck
on or hitting the edge of the curb.
To descend a curb using the forward approach. the pa- As illustrated in the figures and mentioned earlier, the
tient pushes the wheelchair forward and. just as the casters ap- therapist should closely guard the patient until he or she be-
proach the edge of the curb. the patient pops a wheelie. The comes independent "ith these wheelchair skills.
wheelie is maintained as momentum ccmies the back wheels There are a \'ariet) of other more advanced wheelchair
off the curb. The patient maintains the \\ heelie so that the back skills that patients should learn. such as falling from a
wheels land tirst and then the casters land (Fig. 6..+4). If the wheelchair and picking up objects off the floor. Two excel-
casters land first, the wheelchair \\ ill ml)st likel) tip over for- lent resources for the"e and other more advanced wheelchair
ward. This technique is analogous to an airplane landing. with skills are a \\ eb"ite de\'eloped by researchers at Dalhousie
the back wheels undell1eath the" ing" tC1uching the ground be- Universit) called the \\'heelchair Skills Program (http://
fore the front wheels underneath the cockpit. www.wheelchairkilhprogram.ca) and a textbook by Martha
CHAPTER 6 llllenclltinl1 to Impro\C Transfers and Whl'ch'hair Skills 161
(.~
,
/"~l
FIGURE 6.44 Forward approach to descending a curb. (A) The patient approaches the curb while moving forward.
(8) A wheelie is popped as the front casters approach the edge of the curb. (C) The wheelie is maintained until the back
wheels contact the ground. This prevents the wheelchair from tipping over forward.
Somers. 2.J The Wheelchair Skills Program website includes practice activities provide an opportunity to share knowl-
short video clips of skills and includes the Wheelchair Skills edge and skills as well as to confirm or clarify understand-
Test,17 which is an outcome measure designed to test a vari- ing of the treatment interventions. Each student in a group
ety of basic wheelchair skills. contributes his or her understanding of, or questions about.
the strategy, technique, or activity, and participates in the
activity being discussed. Dialogue should continue until a
Student Practice Activities consensus of understanding is reached. Box 6.1 Student
Practice Activity, presented earlier in the chapter, focuses on
Sound clinical decision-making \\'ill help identify the most task analysis of sit-to/from-stand transfers. Box 6.2 Student
appropriate activities and techniques to improve transfer Practice Activity presents activities that focus on techniques
skills for an individual patient. These acti\ities pro\'ide the and strategies to improve transfers to and from a wheelchair
foundation for home and communit~ independen e. Student and wheelchair mobility skills.
OBJECTIVE: To provide practice oportunitie ' r • The remaining members participate in task analysis of
developing skill in interventions de igned the activity and discussion. Following the demonstration,
improve transfer and wheelchair skill . members provide supportive and cOlTective feedback.
One member of this group should be designated as a
EQUIPMENT NEEDS: Platform mat, adjustable
"fact checker" to return to the text content to confirm
table, wheelchair, floor mat.
elements of the discussion (if needed) or if agreement
DIRECTIONS: Work in groups of three or four ... ;? annot be reached.
Practice and demonstrate the activities pre~en~'" Thinking aloud, brainstorming, and sharing thoughts
outline below ("Outline of Activities and Tc~ .... _;? ,
hould be continuous throughout this activity! As each
Demonstration and Practice"). Members of he ~ _-
I';: in the section outline is considered, the following
will assume different roles (described belo\\
Id ensue:
rotate roles each time the group progresse to _ ;?
on the outline. .-\r initial discussion of the activity, including its
_;? -ription, indications for use, verbal cues, and
• One person assumes the role of therapist (for ~;:
- _ ;:nl and therapist positioning. Also considered here
strations) and participates in discussion.
- 'lId be approaches to enhance the skill such as
• One person ser\'es as the subject/patient (for ;:
strations) and participates in discussion.
(box COl/Til/lieS 01/ page /62)
162 PART /I Inten ention~ to IrnproH Function
SUMMARY 10. Perry. J. Gronley. JK. \'e\\Sam. CJ. et al. Electromyographic analy,is
of the shoulder mu~des dunng depression transfers in suhjects with
This chapter has presented the skills necessary for develop- low-Iel'el paraplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehahil 77(4):350-355. 1996.
ing and implementing a POC designed to improve transfer II. Forslund. EB. Gran'itrom. A. Le\i. R. et al. Transfer fmm table to
wheelchair in men and women with spinal cord injury: Coordination
and basic wheelchair mobility skills. Task analysis serves as
of body movement and ann furces. Spinal Cord 45( I ):41-48.2007.
the foundation for analyzing functional movement patterns. 12. Stineman. MG. Shea. JA. Jette. A. et al. The Functional Independence
The results of the task analysis are used to develop task- Measure: Tests of scaling assumptions. structure. and reliability across
20 divep,e impairment categories. Arch Phy, Med Rehabil
oriented interventions. The environment and task should be
77(11 ):1101-1108.1996
shaped to challenge the patient. enhance motor learning, and 13. Ottenbacher. KJ. Hsu. Y. Granger. CV. et al. The reliahility of the
promote neuroplastic changes. Repetition is also an impor- functional independence measure: A quantitative review. Arch Phys
tant component of the POc. Med Rehabil 77( 12): I 126 1232. 1996.
14. Carr. JH. Shepherd. RE. Nordholm. L. et al. Investigation of a new
motor assessment scale for stroke patients. Phys Ther 65( 2): 175-1 RO.
REFERENCES 1985.
I. Hedman. LD. Rogers. MW. and Hanke. TA. Neurologic professional 15. Berg. KO. Wood-Dauphinee. SL. Williams. JI. et al. Measuring
education: Linking the foundation science of motor control with balance in the elderly: Validation of an imtrumenl. Can J Public
phy~ical therapy interventions for movement dysfunction. Neurol Rep Health 83(Suppl 2):S7-S I I. 1992.
20( I ):9-13. 1996. 16. Berg. K. Wood-Dauphinee. S. and William,. JI. The Balance Scale:
, Shepherd. RB. and Gentile. AM. Sit-to-~tand: Functional relationship Reliability asses,ment with elderly residents and patients with an
between upper body and lower limb segments. Hum Muvement Sci acute stroke. Scand J Rehabil Med 27( 1):27-36. 1995.
13(6):R I7-840. 1994. 17. Kirby. RL. Swuste. J. Dupui,. OJ. et al. The Wheelchair Skills Test: A
3. Schenk man. M. Berger. RA. Riley. PO. et al. Whole-body movements pilot study of a new outcome measure. Arch Phys Med Rehabil
during rising to standing from sitting. Phys Ther 70( 10):638-648: 83{ I): 10-18. 2002.
discu,sion 648-651. 1990. 18. Kirby. RL. Dupuis. OJ. Macphee. AH. et al. The Wheelchair Skills
4. Kralj. A. Jaeger. RJ. and Munih. M. Analysis of standing up and Test (version 2.4): Measurement properties. Arch Phys Med Rehabil
sitting down in humans: Delinitions and nonnative data presentation. 85(5 ):794--804. 2004.
J Biomech 23( I I ): I 123-1138. 1990. 19. Lincoln. N. and Leadbitter. D. Assessment of motor function in stroke
5. Han·ey. RL. Motor recovery after stroke: New directions in scientific patients. Physiother 65(2):48-51. 1979.
inquiry. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 14( I Suppl):S I-S5. 2003. 20. Bohannon. RW. Shove. ME. Barreca. SR. et al. Five-repetition sit-to-
6. Nudo. RJ. Functional and structural pla,ticity in motor cortex: ,tand test performance by community-dwelling adults: A preliminary
Implications for ,troke recovcry. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am investigation of times. determinants. and relationship with self-
1·1( I Suppl):S57-S76. 2003. reported physical performance. Isokinet Exerc Sci 15(2):77-81.2007.
7. Barreca. S. Sigouin. CS. Lambert. C. et al. Effects uf extra training un 21. Bohannon. RW. Reference values for the 1I\'e-repetition sit-to-stand
the ability of stroke survivors to perform an independent ~it-to-stand: test: A descriptive meta-analysis of data from elders. Percept Motor
A randomi/ed controlled trial. J Geriatr Phys Ther 27(2):59-64. 2004. Skills I03( I ):21 5-222. 2006.
R. Ouellette. MM. LeBrasseur. NK. Bean. JF. et al. High-intensity n. Eriksrud. O. and Bohannon. RW. Relationship of knee extension force
resistance training improl'e, muscle strength. self-reported function. to independence in sit-to-'land performance in patients receiving
and disahility in long-term ,troke sunin)rs. Stroke 35(6): 1404--1409. acute rehabilitation. Ph)s Ther 83(6):544-551. 2003.
2004. 23. Bohannon. RW. Sit-to-stand lest for measuring performance of lower
9. American College of Sports Medicine. ACS\I\ E\ercise Management extremity ll1uscles. Percept Motor Skill, 80( I): 163-166. 1995.
for Persons with Chronic Disea~e, and Disabililles. ed 2. Champaign. 24. Somers. r-l. Spinal Cord Injury: Functional Rehabilitation. ed 3.
IL. Human Kinetics. 2003. Prentice-Hall. L'rrer Saddle Ri\er. NJ. 200!.
CHAPTER
~:=:7 Interventions to Improve
L
Standing Control and Stan_.a..a.JL_
Balance Skills
SUSAN B. O'SULLIVAN, PT, EoD
\
movement of the hip and knee joints. Movements are
Ankle axis-","",l.J'- well within the LOS (Fig. 7.3A).
• Hip strategy involves larger shifts of the COM by flexing
or extending at the hips. Movements approach the LOS
Force of gastroc-
nemius and soleus (Fig.7.3B).
• Change of support strategies are activated when the COM
FIGURE 7.2 Normal postural alignment-saggital plane. In
optimal alignment, the LoG passes through the identified exceeds the BaS and strategies must be initiated that
anatomical structures. reestablish the COM within the LOS. These include the
stepping strategy, which involves realignment of the BaS
Anticipatory postural control refers to adjustments that occur under the COM achieved by stepping in the direction of the
in advance of the execution of voluntary movements. The pos- instability (Fig. 7.3C). They also include UEgrasp
tural system is pretuned to stabilize the body: for example. an strategies, which involve attempts to stabilize movement of
individual readies his or her posture before lifting a heavy the upper trunk, keeping the COM over the BaS.
weight or catching a weighted ball. Reactive balance control
refers to adjustments that are not planned in advance but rather
occur in response to unexpected changes in the COM (e.g .. Common Impairments in Standing
perturbations) or changes in the support sUlface. Postural fix-
ation reactiofls stabilize the body against a thrust force (e.g.. a Although not all-inclusive. impairments in standing can be
pet1urbation or nudge). Tilting reactiollS reposition the COM broadly grouped into those involving alignment, weight-
within the BaS in response to changes in the SUpp0I1 surface bearing. and specific muscle weakness. Changes in normal
(e.g.. standing on an equilibrium board). Adapti~'e balance alignment result in corresponding changes in other body
control refers to the ability to adapt or modify postural re- segments: mal alignment or poor posture results in in-
sponses relative to changing task and environmental demands. creased muscle acti\it). energy expenditure. and postural
Prior experience influences the adaptability of an individual. stress. Box 7. J pre~ents common impairments in standing
posture and \\eightbearing.
Sensory Components
Clinical ote: ~'le patient with bilateral LE paraly-
Vertical postural orientation is maintained b) multiple and sis (e 9 :::;:::;:::;0 egla) can obtain foot/ankle and
overlapping sensory inputs: the C:\'S organizes and integrates knee stabill 'M:::;~g~:::; ateral knee-ankle-foot orthoses
sensory information and generates respon,e. for controlling (KAFOs): the r cs :::;::::~ oe stabilized by leaning forward on
body position. the iliofemorc ::::::::~ent
Inll'1 H'nlions 10 ImprllH landln!! (onlrol and Slandin~ Balancl' Skills 165
A B C
FIGURE 7.3 Normal postural strategies. Three automatic postural strategies
used by adults to maintain balance (COM over BOS) are the (A) ankle
strategy, (B) hip strategy, and (C) stepping strategy.
• Asymmetrical standing with weight borne primarily on • Excessive cervical lordosis produces shortening of the
one LE with little weight on the other LE results in neck extensors.
increased ligament and bone stress on the weight- • Genu valgum produces medial knee joint stresses and
bearing side; the knee is usually fully extended on the pronation of the foot with increased stress on the
stance limb (e.g" the patient with stroke who stands medial longitudinal arch of the foot.
with weight borne more on the less affected side). • Pes planus (flat foot) results in depression of the
• Extensor weakness is typically associated with a navicular bone and compressive forces laterally;
forward head position, rounded thoracic spine increased weight is borne on the metatarsal heads.
(kyphosis) with a flattened lumbar curve, creating a • Pes cavus (high-arched foot) results in increased height
forward displacement of the COM near or at the of the longitudinal arch with a depressed anterior arch
anterior LOS. The hips and knees are typically flexed and plantarflexion of the forefoot; toe deformity (claw
(Fig. 7.4). This flexed, stooped posture is seen in many toes) may also be present.
elderly individuals (Fig. 7.5). • Gastrocnemius-soleus weakness results in limited sway
• A flexed-knee posture increases the need for and a wide BaS.
quadriceps activity; it also requires increased h'p • Quadriceps weakness results in unstable sway; the
extensor and soleus activity for accompanying knees are hyperextended (genu recurvatum) and the
increases in hip flexion and dorsiflexion. trunk may be inclined forward to increase stability.
• Excessive anterior tilt of the pelvis increases lumba' • he patient without active knee control compensates
lordosis and produces a compensatory increase f" by keeping the hips slightly flexed, with increased
thoracic kyphosis; lumbar interdiscal pressures are lordosis.
increased. The abdominals are stretched, and the • -he patient with spasticity of the LEs demonstrates
iliopsoas becomes shortened. Excessive lumbar aecreased mobility; the actions of the foot/ankle
lordosis produces shortening of the lumbar extenso's scles and balance reactions are compromised. The
• Excessive dorsal kyphosis produces stretching 0' ore _=s are typically adducted and internally rotated
thoracic trunk extensors and shortening of the an"e"c' s ssoring) with feet plantarflexed and inverted.
shoulder muscles.
(box continues on page 166)
166 PART /I IntenclltiollS to Impro\C Fundioll
BOX 7.1 Common Impairments in Standing Postural I ~~-~-- :-: ',~ ~ bearing (continued)
Normal
alignment
Head forward
Kyphosis
Flattened
lumbar curve
Hip flexion
Knee flexion
FIGURE 7.4 Postural changes seen in many older adults, FIGURE 7.5 Postural changes associated with aging in this
Loss of spinal flexibility and strength can lead to a flexed. patient are slight forward head and dorsal kyphosis.
stooped posture with a forward head, dorsal kyphosis, and
increased hip and knee flexion,
Activity Purpose
Flexibilty Exercises
Standing, full-body stretches, arms overhead: Improves ROM of trunk flexors and anterior shoulder
reaching toward ceiling muscles
Standing, anterior chest stretches: elbows flexed, Improves ROM of anterior chest and shoulder muscles
shoulders pulling back into extension (Fig. 7.6)
Standing, side stretches: leaning over to one side Improves ROM of trunk lateral flexors
Standing, trunk twists (rotation), shoulders abducted: Improves ROM of trunk and head rotators
twisting around to one side, then the other; head
turns, eyes follow the movement
Standing, arm circles (through increments of Improves ROM in upper back, shoulders, and chest
shoulder abduction)
Standing, hip abductor stretch: standing sideways Improves ROM of hip abductors
next to a wall, crossing the outside foot over the
closer foot to the wall and leaning toward wall
Standing, heel-cord stretches: leaning forward with Improves ROM of Achilles tendon: leaning forward with
both knees extended or leaning in a lunge position both knees extended stretches gastrocnemius-soleus;
with one foot forward and knee flexed; hands may be lunge position with one knee flexed stretches soleus
placed against a wall in front for support
- :-i''''.... _ • _ •
.TABLE 7.1 Standing Activities to Improve Flexibility and Strength
'> ~,'" ~ , ~
(continued)
Activity Purpose
Strengthening Exercises
Standing, side kicks: lateral leg lifts (Fig. 7.7) Improves glu eus medius strength
---
Standing, backward kicks: backward leg lifts (Fig. 7.8) Improves gluteus maximus strength
Standing, knee curls: knee flexion with hip extension Improves gluteus maximus and hamstring strength
- - - - - - - - - ---
Standing, hip and knee flexion (Fig. 7.9) Improves hip flexor and hamstring strength
-----------------
Standing, hip flexion with knee extension (Fig. 7.10) Improves hip flexor and quadricep strength
Standing, UE horizonal pull with resistive band held in Improves chest and UE strength
each hand (shoulders in 90° of flexion, hands together;
hands then pull apart as shoulders move toward
abduction)
Standing, elbow extensions, shoulder fully flexed using Improves triceps strength
resistive band anchored with opposite hand behind
back or hand weight
Standing, elbow flexion with resistive band (distal Improves biceps strength
end fixed) or using hand weight
Standing, partial wall squats Improves quadriceps and hip extensor strength
FIGURE 7.8 Sta~::: ~;:; ~:: ex'ension with knee extension using
FIGURE 7.7 Standing. hip abduc on uS g a 2-lb (0.9-kg) a 2-lb (0.9-kg) ... e ;;:-- :: ~ ~ o'ld light fingertip support with one
weight cuff and light fingertip suopo~ ,·r one hand. hand.
CHApTER 7 Intcnentions to ImproH I~ dln_ (onlrol and Standing Balancc Skills 169
Activity Purpose
Chair rises (sit-to-standing) Improves quadriceps and hip extensor and trunk strength
Standing, partial lunges (movement through Improves quadriceps and hip extensor and trunk
partial ROM) strength
which the patient performs two tasks simultaneously (e.g .. 'j n In space (intrinsic feedback). Suggested verbal
the patient is required to stand without UE support and carry in- and cueing are presented in Box 7.4.
on a conversation, read aloud. pour water from a pitcher into .-\ ;mented feedback (e.g., tapping, light resistance,
a glass, or bounce a ball). and \ e .1: 'ueIng) should focus attention on key errors
(tho e err r that. when corrected, result in considerable im-
Red Flag: Training with mirrors may be contraindi- pro\ emen of performance, allowing other task elements to
cated for patients with visual-perceptual spatial then be rflrmed cOlTectly). Slowed responses of some
deficits (e.g" some patients with stroke or brain injury). mu~ Ie' ma~ re ult in inadequate responses or falls. Tactile
and proprio 'epti\e cues can be used to call attention to miss-
Strategies to Ensure Safety ing element . For example, tapping on a weak quadriceps
Patients who are unstable in standing are likely to have can be used to a\ ist the patient in generating effective con-
heightened anxiety and a fear of falling. It is important for traction to stabilize the knee during standing. Augmented
feedback should also emphasize positive aspects of perfor-
the therapist to demonstrate the ability to control for insta-
mance. pro\iding reinforcement and enhancing motivation.
bility and falls in order to instill patient confidence. General
safety tips are presented in Box 7.3.
Modified Plantigrade, UE PNF Patterns: fun ti nal kills achieved: The patient i~ able to maintain
02 Flexion (02F) and 02 Extension (02E) \ ith DE support during weight ~hifts and all
limb movements with no los~ of balance or
The patient is in modified plantigrade position with the one
The patient is able to step independently with no
UE weightbearing near the end of the treatment table. For
alance or falls, preparatory for independent
D2F, the dynamic limb is initially positioned in extension.
ill ion.
adduction, and internal rotation with the hand of the dynamic
limb positioned across the body toward the opposite hip with
the hand closed and thumb facing down (Fig. 7.l8A). The Interventions to Improve Control
patient is instructed to open the hand. turn. and lift the in Standing
hand up and out (Fig. 7. 18B). For D2E. the patient closes
the hand, turns, and pulls the hand down and across the The patient is tanding. with equal weight on both LEs. The
body. The patient is instructed to follow the movements of feet are po. itioned parallel and slightly apart (a symmetrical
the UE by looking at the hand. This encourages head and stance position): knees should be extended or in slight flex-
neck rotation. The therapist provides light resistance to the ion. not h;. pere\tended. The pelvis is in neutral position. An
UE as it moves through the pattern. Verbal cues include alternatiw standing position is with one foot slightly ad-
"Open your hand, tllrn, and lift it lip and Ollt" (D2F) and vanced of the other in a step position. An elastic resistive
"Sqllee::-e 111)' hand, turn, and plIlI down and across YOllr band can be placed around the thighs (the LEs in a symmet-
body" (D2E). rical stance position) to increase the proprioceptive input
A lightweight cuff can also be used to provide resis- and promote pelvic stabilization by the lateral hip muscles
tance during active movements. When using resistance. the (gluteus medius and minimus).
level is determined by the ability of the static limbs and
trunk to stabilize and maintain the plantigrade posture. and Clinical Note: Knee instability in which the knee
not by the strength of the dynamic limb. buckles due to quadriceps weakness can be
managed initially by having the patient wear a knee im-
Outcomes mobilizer splint. The patient can also practice standing on
Motor control goal: Improved controlled mobility (dynamic an inclined surface facing forward. The forward tilt of the
stability control). body and anterior displacement of the COM provide a
'L
FIGURE 7.18 Standing. odifled plantigrade, PNF UE D2 flexlo r ::;-::; ~.-~-;:- .v rh the LEs in a
symmetrical position ana Ight fingertip support with one hare --~::::- ",-- (A) begins with the
dynamic limb in extension adduction, and internal rotation \'. -- -::-:: : : :",:J and (8) moves
into flexion, abduc'on and external rotation with hand opel' --", -~.::;:::- :::;'ovldes resistance
to the dynamiC JE us,rg -"e technique of dynamic reversals
CHAPTER 7 Intenentions to lmpro\e tandinl! Control and Standing Balance Skills 175
posteriorly directed moment (force) at the knee, helping trunk. One hand is placed on the posterior pelvis on one side
to stabilize it in extension pulling fol'\\ ard. while the other hand is on the anterior con-
tralateralupper trunk. pushing backward (Fig. 7.20). The ver-
Standing, Holding, Stabilizing Reversals bal cue i "Don't let /lie move you (Mist you)-hold. hold:
The patient is asked to move. allowing only limited ROM 110\1' don't let /lie /IIO\'e you (twist you) the other way. hold."
progressing to holding the position while the therapist
applies resistance to the trunk. The therapist's manual con- Clinical Note: Interventions to promote stability
tacts may be placed on the peh is. the peh is and contralat- are important lead-up skills for many ADL (both
eral upper trunk (Fig. 7.19). or the upper trunk bilaterally. basic [BADL] and instrumental [IADL]) typically per-
Resistance is applied liN in one direction and then the other formed in the standing position, such as brushing teeth,
(anterior/posterior. medial/lateral. or on the diagonal with combing hair, cooking, cleaning, and so forth. Stabiliza-
tion control in standing is also an important lead-up
the LEs in the step position). The position of the therapist
activity for unilateral stance and bipedal gait.
will vary according to the direction of the line of force ap-
plied. Resistance is built up gradually from very light resis-
tance to the patient's maximulll. The isometric contraction is
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Stability (static postural control).
maintained for several counts. Light approximation can be
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to maintain
given to the tops of the shoulders or the pelvis to increase
standing independently with minimal sway and no los.
stabilizing responses. Verbal cues include" Push against my
of balance for all ADL.
hands, 1/0\1' hold. Don't let /lie push you bach\'{{ I'd, hold."
The therapist must then give a transitional command, "NoH'
don't let me pull you fonl'Cll'd," before sliding the hands to
Standing, Active Weight Shifts
resist the opposite muscles and asking for a "Hold"; this al- The patient is encouraged to actively weight shift fOI\\":_
lows the patient the opportunity to make appropriate antici- and backward (anterior/posterior shifts) and from side
patory postural adjustments. side (medial/lateral shifts) with the LEs in a symmetT'.
stance position. In a step position, the patient can per.'
Standing, Holding, Rhythmic Stabilization
forward and backward diagnonal weight shifts, simu._' =
In rhythmic stabiliLation, the patient holds the symmetrical normal weight transfer during gait. Reeducation of L -
standing position while the therapist applies resistance to the one of the first goals in treatment. The patient is enco
to shift weight as far as possible in anyone direction with- • '0\\' shift forward and f1.vist. Now shift back
out losing balance and then to return to the midline position.
Initially, weight shifts are small range but gradually the
range is increased (moving through increments of range). Standing! Active Limb Movements
:\~ c'\ C" . cmcnt' of the DEs or LEs can be used to challenge
Clinical Note: Patients with ataxia (e,g" primary
dyn:ur·.: L :"'Iii ~ control and balance. Postural adjustments
cerebellar pathology) exhibit too much movement
and have difficulty holding steady in a posture (maintain-
are re :J r~d d ring each and every limb movement. Limb
ing stability). Initially, weight shifts are large and then are mmemcn c performed individually or in combination
progressed during treatment to smaller and smaller (bilateral ~ mmetrical or reciprocal DE movements). Progres-
ranges (moving through decrements of range) to finally sion i, to increa'ed range and increased time on task. For ex-
holding steady, ample. dunng each of 10 repetitions, the patient holds the
limb po,ition fur three counh and progresses to holding for
five counts. One of the major benefits of this activity is that
Standing, Weight Shifting,
the patient focu,e full attention on movement of the limbs
Dynamic Reversals
and the task challenges imposed: postural control to maintain
The therapist stands at the patient's side for medial/lateral standing is largely automatic. Box 7.5 provides examples of
shifts and either in front of or behind for anterior/posterior activities involving d) namic limb movements in standing.
shifts. Manual contacts are placed on the pelvis or on the
=1
pelvis and contralateral upper trunk. The movement is guided - Clinical Note: If the patient is unable to maintain
for a few repetitions to ensure that the patient knows the move- postural control during voluntary limb movements,
ments expected. Movements are then lightly resisted. The ther- it may be an indication that conscious control (cognitive
apist alternates hand placement, resisting the movements first monitoring) is still required. This is a characteristic finding
in one direction and then the other. Smooth reversals of antag- in the patient with primary cerebellar damage. Automatic
onists are facilitated by well-timed verbal cues, such as "Pull (nonconscious) control of posture is very difficult or im-
away from me; now push back toward me." possible while compensatory cognitive monitoring makes
A hold may be added in one or both directions if the some degree of control possible.
patient demonstrates difficulty moving in one direction. The
hold is a momentary pause (held for one count); the antago- Standing, Single-Limb Stance
nist contraction is then resisted. The verbal cue is "Pull
The patient stands on one LE and lifts the other off the
away from me, hold; now push back toward me."
ground, maintaining the standing position using single-limb
The patient can also perform diagonal weight shifts
stance. The patient is instructed to maintain the pelvis level. A
with the LEs in step position (one foot forward of the other).
pelvis that drops on the side of the dynamic limb is indicative
The therapist is diagonally in front of the patient, either sit-
of hip abductor weakness on the opposite (static limb) side
ting on a stool or standing. Manual contacts are on the ante-
(positive Trendelenburg).
rior or posterior pelvis. Resistance is applied to the pelvis as
the patient shifts weight diagonally forward over the limb in
front and then diagonally backward over the opposite limb. Standing, Single-Limb Stance
The verbal cue is "Shijtforward and toward me; now shift With Abduction
backward and away from me." This is an advanced stabilization activity in which the patient
Once control is achieved in diagonal shifts, the patient stands sideways next to a wall about 4 inches (10 cm) from the
is instructed to shift weight diagonally forward onto the for- wall (the trunk is not allowed to contact the wall). The LE clos-
ward limb (step position) while rotating the pelvis forward est to the wall becomes the dynamic limb, while the other LE
on the opposite side, Weight is then shifted diagonally back- is the support limb. The patient flexes the knee while maintain-
ward while the pelvis is rotated backward. The therapist ing hip extension and abducts the dynamic limb, pushing the
resists the motion at the pelvis. The verbal cue is "Shift knee against the wall. The static limb maintains the upright pos-
forward and twist; now shift backward and t\\·ist." ture during unilateral stance with the knee extended (Fig. 7.23).
The upper trunk may move forward on the same side Both groups of abductors are working strongly to push the knee
as the pelvis rotates forward, producing an undesirable ipsi- against the wall on the dynamic side and to maintain single-
lateral trunk rotation pattern. The therapist can isolate the limb stance position on the static side. Overflow from one side
pelvic motion by providing verbal or manual cues. The pa- to the other is strong. This can also be done using a small ball
tient is instructed to hold the DEs in front with the shoulders between the knee and the wall.
flexed, elbows extended, and the hands clasped. or the hands
can be lightly supported on the therapist's shoulders to sta- Clinical _'ote: This is a useful activity for the pa-
bilize the upper trunk motion (see Fig. 7.17 J. Verbal cues in- tient with r p abductor weakness and Trendelen-
clude: "Clasp your hands and hold YeJl/r arms directly in burg gait patterr (8 g "he patient with stroke). Initially
front of you. Keep them fOllmrd: don'T leT Them 1l1O\'e from the weaker limb S -"'e dynamic limb, As control develops,
(le.n cOlllinues Oil page 178)
Inl~nC1Jtions to Impr()\c Standln:: lontrol and Standing Balance Skills 177
FIGURE 7.23 Standing, single-limb stance, limb abduction. FIGURE 7,24 Standing, stepping. The patient practices step-
The patient stands sideways next to a wall on one limb and ping forward and backward with the dynamic limb; the
lifts the other limb into hip extension with knee flexion. The static (support) limb does not change position. The therapist
dynamic limb is abducted with the knee pushing against provides resistance with both hands on the pelvis using the
the wall. The UEs are held with shoulders flexed, elbows technique of dynamic reversals. Sitting on a rolling stool
extended, and hands clasped together (hands-clasped allows the therapist to be positioned at pelvic height.
position). The therapist instructs the patient to push as hard
as possible into the wall. The patient is not allowed to lean
on the wall (no contact of the wall with the shoulder or hlp
is allowed).
Standing, Stepping
This activity is initiated with the LEs in step position. The
patient shifts weight diagonally forward over the anterior
support limb (stance limb) and takes a step forward with the
dynamic (swing) limb (Fig, 7.24). The movements are then
reversed: the patient takes a step back\\ard using the same
dynamic limb. Lateral side steps and cro~sed steps can also
be practiced (Fig. 7.25). Footprint or other markers on the
floor can be used to increase the qep length and improve the
accuracy of stepping movement (Fig. 7.26). Verbal cues in-
clude: "Shift rour weight OI'er O/lto \'(IIII' ri~ht (or left) foot. FIGURE 7 25 s-:::~::: -;; : ...:e-stepping The patient practices
stepping a • -::: - ~::::-2 8' j back with the dynamic limb; the
NoH' step forward with \'0111' lefT toOl" amI ",vr)\\' shift back static (suppo~ • ::::::e: "0 change position. The therapist
ol'er your right foot alld step b{/( k." provides ress-:::'~-2 . -" CYh hands on the pelvis.
Intl'nentions to ImproH .... tanclin:! l "ntrol and Standin/( Balalll'e hill, 179
FIGURE 7 26 Standing, stepping. The patient practices active FIGURE 7.27 Standing. forward step-ups. The patient steps up
stepping using footprint floor markers. onto a 4-in. (lO-cm) step positioned in front; the foot is then
returned to the start position (symmetrical stance posiTion).
The therapist provides verbal cueing and guarding.
Standing, Lunges
The patient stands with feet hip-width apart and steps forward
about 2 feet (0.6 m) with the dynamic limb, allowing the heel
of the static limb to lift off the ground. The patient lowers into
a lunge position by partially flexing the knee and keeping the
knee directly over the foot (partiallllllge) (Fig. 7.32). The po-
sition is held for 2 or 3 seconds, and then the patient pushes
back up into standing. The trunk is maintained upright with
the hips in neutral position. If the patient bends forward dur-
ing the activity (flexes the trunk). he or she can be instructed
to hold a dowel behind the back as a reminder to keep the FIGURE 7.33 Standing. partial lunge, The patient performs a
partial lunge holding onto a dowel positioned horizontally
trunk upright (Fig. 7.33). PaI1iai lunges with the foot of the on the back, The dowel provides a cue to maintain the
back straight during the partial lunge. preventing a
forward trunk bend.
Floor·to-Standing Transfers
r-to-standing transfers should be practiced by all
;'_; enl'- in preparation for recovery should a fall occur.
;= __ 'ional skills acquired during earlier movement transi-
upine to side-sit, side-sit to quadruped. quadruped
. . "ee mg. kneeling to half-kneeling, and half-kneeling to
FIGURE 7.32 Standing partial lunge. The patient star>cs ,,,- - ~ g provide the building blocks (lead-up skills) for a
feet hip-width apa Tne Datient steps forward aboL." ::: '-
(0,6 m) with the left eg a lowing the right heel to lift c~-: e ; I tloor-to-standing transfer. This movement tran-
ground and the le1'+ :: -c sowly lower the body into a c~- :: -::_ be accomplished by having the patient practice
lunge position, The pes - c~ s held for 2 to 3 seconds, -~€; =- Into quadruped, then kneeling, half-kneeling, and
the patient slowly pvs~es Dack with the left LE and re',,'-: -:
standing, The therops' 0'0, des verbal instructions a d ding. The patient uses both UEs for support and
guarding, ..ud LE to push up into standing (Fig. 7.35).
182 PART /I Int('l"Hntio", to ImproH Fuuction
FIGURE 7.34 Standing, full lunge. The patient stands with feet
hip-width apart. The patient steps forward about 2 ft (0.6 m)
with the left LE. allowing the right heel to lift off the ground as
the right knee is slowly lowered to the floor (half-kneeling po-
sition). The position is held for 2 to 3 seconds and then the
patient slowly pushes back to standing with the left LE. The
therapist provides verbal instructions and guarding. FIGURE 7,35 Floor-to-standing transfer. The patient moves into
half-kneeling and places both hands on the front knee, From
there the patient shifts forward and over the foot. pushes off
Outcomes with both hands. and stands up. (A) The therapist can assist
Motor control goal: Controlled mobility (dynamic stabil- by holding onto the patient's upper trunk (the therapist
stands behind the patient). (8) The patient moves into the
ity control). standing position.
Functional skills achieved: The patient is able to maintain
standing during weight shifts and voluntary limb move- used initially to pace the movements. Gentle pelturbations
ments with no loss of balance or falls. The patient is able applied at the hips or shoulders can also be used to activate
to step independently in all directions with no loss of ankle strategies. A small displacement backward activates
balance or falls. preparatory for independent locomotion. dorsi flexors and a forward weight shift. while a small displace-
ment forward activates plantarflexors and a backward weight
shift. Wobble boards and foam rollers can also be used to
Interventions to Improve activate ankle synergies. Standing on a wobble board (rocker
Balance Control board) and gently rocking the board forward and backward
stimulate ankle actions. Small weight shifts pelformed while
The therapist focuses on obtaining the correct neuromuscu- standing on a split foam roller (flat side up) can also be used
lar synergies in response to balance challenges. Progression to activate an"le ~~ nergie~ (Fig. 7.36).
is from voluntary movements (anticipatory control) to auto-
matic movements (reactive control). Promoting Hip Strategies
Larger shift in CO~l alignment or faster sway movements
Promoting Ankle Strategies
re~ult in acti\'ation of a hip ~trategy. The patient is instructed
Small shifts in COM alignment or 10\\ ~\\'ay movements to s\\a~ farther Into the range and increase the speed of
result in activation of an ankle ~trateg~. The patient is in- sway, Hip flexor or e\ten~ors serve to realign the COM
structed to sway gently forward and backward and then return \\ ithin the BO Thu the upper trunk is moving opposite
to centered alignment using an"le motion~ (dorsiflexion or the direction t the IL \\ er body. with the axis of motion oc-
plantartlexion). The trunk and hip move a~ one unit. with the curring at the hi:' tepping is discouraged.
axis of motion at the ankles. Thu flexion and extension move- Moderat rturbations applied at the hips or larger
ments at the hips are not permitted, SIO\\ \'erbal cues can be faster tilh (n" \ Ie board can also be used to stimulate
c~..: ::;-=-;! ~ Interventions to ImproH Standing Control and Standing Balance Shill, 183
FIGURE 7.36 Standing, activating ankle strategies. The patient FIGURE 7.37 Tandem standing, The patient s anas ,'. ~ :-~
stands on a split foam roller, flat side up, The therapist instructs foot positioned in heel-toe position, directly in fron' 8" -~ :~S'
the patient to tilt the roller backward and forward, moving with eyes open, The activity can be progressed' 'O-:::S-
from a heels-down position to a toes-down position, standing with EC (sharpened Romberg postion) -a-:J~
standing activates medial-lateral hip strategies. Tr1e ~S':::::_
provides verbal cueing and contact guarding
FIGURE 7.38 Tandem standing on foam roller. (A) The patient stands on a single foam roller.
flat side up, with the support of one pole. (8) Progression is to tandem standing on a split
foam roller with no UE support. Note the guard position of the patient's UEs. The therapist pro-
vides verbal cues and close guarding.
FIGURE 7.39 Standing release maneuver activating stepping strategies. The patient stands in a
symmetrical foot posiTion. (A) The therapist places a resistive band around the patient's pelvis
and provides tension while the patient is instructed to lean into the band. (8) The therapist
then provides a qUlc re'ease of band tension, which requires the patient to take a reactive
step forward to eep 'ro falling. The therapist keeps one hand in front of the patient for
guarding purposes and olds the band with the other hand.
Interventions to Impro\ e landln:! lontrol and Standing Balance Skills 185
Foam Rollers
The patient can practice standing in neutral position on split
foam rollers. For greatest stability, intially the flat sides are
-a 'e down and the patient stands on two rollers with bilat-
FIGURE 7.40 Standing on a wobble board. The patienT ~~ eral pole support (Fig. 7 A2A). The activity can be pro-
centered on a bidirectionai board, using one pole for s CC~
The therapist instructs the patient to tilt the board bac .',C'~ ;re,_ed to standing with no pole support (Fig. 7A28). As
and forward, moving from heels-down to toes-down P05-C~ .mding control improves. the flat side can be positioned
(activating ankle dorsl4exors and plantarflexors). The oc-e~ ~-_ e up to provide a mobile surface. The patient stands with
can also turn sideways, moving the board from side do ... ~ -:
opposite side down positions (activating medial-latera c~- e 11 poles (Fig. 7 A3A) progressiong to no pole support
muscles), The therapist provides verbal cues and guara~;;; Ft; - ...UB). Advanced activities include arm raises. head
186 PART /I Intcn~ntion" to ImproH l-lIllction
A B
FIGURE 7.42 Standing on split foam rollers, (A) The patient first stands on two split foam rollers
with the flat side down and holds support poles, (8) The activity is progressed to standing with
no poles, The therapist provides verbal cues and guarding,
FIGURE 7.43 Standing on sal t foam rollers. The patient progresses ·0 s·ora :lg on split foam
rollers. flat side UD. (A) 'rs· with support poles and (8) then with ro 0::: es ~~ s provides a more
dynamic challenge TO 00 once. The therapist provides verbal cue~;:; :;-::; ;;;.Jarding,
Inlenention~ to Imprl)\e tandin.: t ontrol and Standing Balance Skill~ 187
and trunk rotations, catching and IhF)\\ ing a ball, and mini-
squats. The therapist should u~e ..Ippropriate safety precau-
tions, guarding to prevent fall.
Ball Activities
The patient stands with one foot flat on the floor and the
other placed on a small ball. The patient actively rolls the
ball (forward, backward, in circles) while maintaining up- FIGURE 7.45 Standing on a foam pad, The patient stands on
a dense foam pod with normal stance width, Balance is
right balance using a single-limb stance. The therapist challenged by moving from EO to EC. The therapist provides
stands in front of the patient and guards as needed. The ther- verbal cueing and guarding.
apist can also stand in a milTor-image position with one foot
placed on the same small ball. The therapist's foot is used to
move the ball and stimulate reactive balance challenges for
the patient. Both the therapist and the patient can hold onto
a wand for added stabilization (Fig. 7.47).
(e.g., either task or em'ironmen 31 demands). These are balanced \\ ith rest (distributed practice schedule) are indi-
sometimes referred to a complt x balance \kills. Interven- cated for mo..,t patients undergoing active rehabilitation
tions to promote adaptive balan 'e 'ontrol should therefore and can improve patient responsiveness and overall per-
include a variety of challenge: to balance. including task formance. The patient should practice under close super-
variations and environmental changes. vision at fir t and then progress to independent practice
Task modifications should be gradual at the start, (e.g .. HEP). An activity diary can be used to document
progressing to more significant challenges as control de- practice se sions at home.
velops. In addition to general strategies for challenging Environmental modifications should also be gradual at
standing control discussed in Box 7.2 (varying the BOS, the start. progressing from a closed (fixed) environment with
the support surface, the use of CEs. and sensory inputs), minimal distractions to a more open, variable (changing) en-
the therapist can increase the challenge to balance control vironment. The patient practices first in the clinic environ-
by manipulating the speed and range of the activity and by ment (e.g .. a quiet room or hallway, progressing to practice in
external pacing of the activity (using verbal cues [count- a busy clinic gym). The patient then practices in simulated
ing], manual cues [clapping]. a metronome, or music with home, community, and work environments and finally in real-
a consistent tempo [marching music]). Individual treat- life environments (e.g., travel tests). Box 7.6 presents a com-
ment sessions should combine some activities that are prehensive list of balance activities organized into three main
relatively easy for the patient with those that are more groups: initial-level, intennediate-level, and advanced-level
difficult. Effective practice schedules in which activity is challenges.
Initial-Level Challenges to Balance • Chair rises: Sit-to-stand transfers, using varied seat
The following activities are appropriate for initial heights progressing from high to low
balance training for the patient with instability and • Arm circles: Forward and backward (shoulders
significant disturbances in balance control. abducted with elbows extended)
Standing, back to the wallar corner standing, heels • Trunk and head rotation: UEs are raised to side
4 inches (10 cm) from the wall; light touch-down horizontal (shoulders abducted to 90 degrees); patient
support of both hards as needed: twists trunk around in one direction and then to the
other; combine with head turns to the same direction
• Maintained standing: Posture aligned to the wall,
• Functional reach: UE extended to forward horizontal
shoulders and hips touching the wall, head erect
position (shoulders flexed to 90 degrees), patient leans
• Altered visual input: EO to EC
as far forward as possible without taking a step (as in
• Altered BOS: Feet apart to feet together
the Functional Reach Test); activity can then be
Standing on the floor near the support surface repeated backward and side to side
(treatment table, parallel bars, or chair); light touch-
down support of both hands: Advanced-Level Challenges to Balance
Standing on the floor with no UE support:
• Weight shifts: Slow controlled weight shifts in all
directions • Tandem stance (heel-toe position): EO progressing to
• Look-arounds: Head and trunk rotation EC (sharpened Romberg position)
• Head tilts: Head up and down, side to side • Single-leg stance
• Heel rises: Active plantarflexion • Partial squats: Lifting an object off the floor
• Toe-offs: Active dorsiflexion • Tracing the letters of the alphabet on the floor with
• Unilateral weightbearing: Single-leg stands great toe
• Hip circles: Pelvic clock • Kicking a ball
• Bouncing a ball
Intermediate-Level Challenges to Balance • Catching or throwing a ball:The weight and size of the
Standing on the floor near the support surface; light ball can be varied
touch-down support of one hand progressing to no UE • Hitting (batting) a balloon
support: • Hitting a foam ball with a paddle
• Games that involve stooping and/or aiming: Bowling,
• Heel-offs and toe-offs
shuffleboard, balloon volleyball
• Single-leg stands
• Lunges to the full half-kneeling position
• Marching in place
• Floor-to-standing transfers
• Partial lunges
• Alter surface: Stand on foam near a support surface; Sanding on a foam surface with no UE support:
light touch-down support of one hand progressing to
• -andem stance: EO progressing to EC
no UE support
• Single-limb stance
• Altered BOS: Fee apart to feet together
• Altered visual inputs: EO to EC
190 PART" Intenentiflns to ImprflH Function
Interventions to Improve Sensory Control • 0.:..-':':::; on foam with vision distorted (petroleum-coated
of Balance
•T e randing on foam, EC
A complete sensory examination (somatosensory, visual. and
• \1~ ~ ng in place on foam, EC
vestibular) is necessary to determine which sensory systems
are intact, which are disordered, and which are absent. CNS
sensory integration mechanisms should also be examined Compensatory Training
(e.g., Clinical Test for Sensory Integration in Balance [CT-
When -lgTI1fi~ant postural and balance activity limitations
SIB] or modified CTSIB). Intervention focuses on improving
per i,I. ompen atory strategies are necessary to ensure pa-
the function of individual systems and the interaction among
tient afe~. Cognitive strategies can be taught to substitute
systems.
for mi ing automatic postural control. Sensory substitution
strategie emphasize the use of more stable, reliable sensory
Somatosensory Challenges input for balan e. Assistive devices may be indicated to en-
The patient stands on a firm, flat surface (floor) with reduced
sure patient afety and to prevent a fall. Compensatory bal-
or compromised visual inputs, thereby increasing reliance on
ance strategies are presented in Box 7.7.
somatosensory inputs. Progression is to gradually increase
the difficulty of the balance challenge while maintaining re- CIincial :'iote: If more than one sensory system is
liance on somatosensory inputs. This can be accomplished impaired, as in the patient with diabetes who has
with the following activities and strategies: peripheral neuropathy as well as retinopathy, sensory
• Standing, eyes open (EO) to EC compensatory strategies are generally inadequate. Some
• Standing, full lighting to reduced lighting to dark room balance activity limitations will be evident.
• Standing, EO wearing lenses that reduce or distort vision
(petroleum-coated goggles) Outcomes
• Standing, with eyes engaged with a reading activity Motor control goal: Improvement in all aspects of
(a printed card held in front) balance performance (anticipatory, reactive, and
• Standing, with eyes reading a card held against a busy adaptive).
checkerboard pattern Functional skills achieved: The patient demonstrates
• Marching in place, EC appropriate functional balance during standing for all
activities without loss of balance or falls.
Visual Challenges
The patient stands with reduced or compromised somatosen-
sory inputs, thereby increasing the reliance on visual inputs. Student Practice Activities
The patient should initially be instructed to keep the eyes in Standing
focused on a stationary target directly in front of the patient.
Progression is to increasing difficulty of the balance challenge Sound clinical decision-making will guide identification of
while maintaining reliance on visual inputs. the most appropriate activities and techniques for an individ-
This can be accomplished with the following activities ual patient. Many of these interventions wi II provide the
and strategies: foundation for developing home management strategies to
improve function. Although some of the interventions de-
• Standing on a compliant surface, EO: progressing from
scribed clearly require the skilled intervention of a physical
carpet (low pile to high pile) to foam cushion (firm
therapist, many can be modified or adapted for inclusion in
density) of varying height (2 to 5 in. [5 to 12 cm])
an HEP for use by the patient (self-management strategies),
• Standing on a moving surface (wobble board or foam
family members, or other individuals participating in the pa-
roller), EO
tient's care.
• Marching in place on foam, EO
Student practice activities provide an opportunity to
share knowledge and skills as well as to confirm or clarify
Vestibular Challenges
understanding of the treatment interventions. Each student
The patient stands with reduced or compromised visual and
in a group will contribute his or her understanding of, or
somatosensory inputs, thereby increasing the reliance on
questions about. the strategy. technique, or activity being
vestibular inputs. This is sometimes referred to as a sensory
discussed and demon. trated. Dialogue should continue until
conflict situation, requiring resolution of the conflict by the
a consensus of understanding is reached.
vestibular system. This can be accomplished with the fol-
Box 7.8 presents student practice activities focusing
lowing activities and strategies:
on the task anal~ is of standing. Box 7.9 presents student
• Standing on foam, EC practice acti\'itie.., fo u..,ing on interventions to improve
• Standing on foam with eyes engaged in reading task standing and standing balance control.
c-.::;-=-;; - Illtenel1lions 10 ImprOH ~Iandln:: Control and Siandinl( Balance Skills 191
The patient is taught to do he fo 'owing: • Rely on intact senses, heightening patient awareness
of available senses
• Widen the BOS when turn· g or sitting down
• Use an augmented feedback device (e.g., auditory
• Widen the BOS in the direc ion of an expected
signals from a limb-load monitor or biofeedback cane)
force (e.g., step position
to provide additional sensory feedback information
• Lower the COM when grea er stability is needed
• Recognize potentially dangerous environmental factors
(e.g., crouching when a threat to balance is
(e.g., low light or high glare for the patient who relies
imminent)
heavily on vision)
• Wear comfortable, well-fitting shoes with rubber
• Focus vision on a stationary visual target rather than a
soles for better friction and gripping (e.g.,
moving target
athletic shoes)
• Minimize head movements during more difficult
• Use light touch-down support as needed to
balance tasks requiring vestibular inputs (sensory
increase somatosensory inputs and stability
conflict situations)
• Use an assistive device as needed (e.g., a cane
or walker) to provide support for standing
• Use a vertical or slant cane to increase
somatosensory inputs from the hand
OBJECTIVE: To analyze standing posture of healthy OBSERVE AND DOCUMENT Using the following questions to
individuals. guide your analysis, observe and record the variations
and similarities among the different standing patterns
EQUIPMENT NEEDS: Foam cushions and wobble boards
represented in your group.
(bidirectional and multidirectional [dome D.
• What is the person's normal standing alignment?
PROCEDURE: Work in groups of two or three, Begin by • What changes are noted between normal, feet together,
having each person in the group stand in a symmetrical tandem, on foam positions? EO to EC? Position of DEs?
stance position, with feet apart and shoes and socks • During weight shifts exploring the LOS, are the shifts
off. Then have each person stand with feet together, in symmetrical in each direction?
tandem (heel-toe position); repeat on dense foam. In • During standing on a wobble board, how successful
each condition, have the person begin with EO and is the person at maintaining centered alignment on
progress to EC. Then have each person practice weight the board (no touch-down)? What are the positions
shifts to the LOS in all positions and conditions (feet of the UEs?
apart, feet together, feet in tandem position while • What types of pathology/impairments might affect a
standing on the floor and on foam). Finally have each patient's ability to achieve or maintain standing?
person stand on a wobble board, using both bidirec- • What compensatory strategies might be necessary?
tional and multidirectional (dome) boards. Have • What environmental factors might constrain or impair
each person practice standing centered on the board standing?
(no tilts); then have each person practice slow tilts to • What modifications are needed?
each side.
OBJECTIVE: Sharing skill in the application and knowledge and Techniques to Improve Standing and Standing
of strategies to promote improved standing. Balance Control. Members of the group will assume
different roles (described below) and will rotate roles
EQUIPMENT NEEDS: Wobble boards (bidirectional and mul-
each time the group progresses to a new item in the
tidirectional dome). split foam rollers, inflated domes.
outline.
poles, small balls (inflated and weighted), stacking
cones, treatment table, water bottle and drinking cup, • One person assumes the role of therapist (for
and force platform training device. demon~trations) and participates in discussion.
• One person serves as the subject/patient (for
DIRECTIONS: Work in groups of three to four student . demonstrations) and participates in discussion.
Below is an outline to guide practice, titled Activitie<;
(box continues on page 192)
192 PART /I Intenention., to Imprll\e Function
... The remaining members participate in task analysis of anding. Weight Shifts
the activity and discussion. Following the demonstration. • \\'elght hifts, dynamic reversals: side to side,
members should provide supportive and corrective forward backward, diagonal, diagonal with pelvic
feedback. One member of this group should be rotation
designated as a "fact checker" to return to the text ... Standing. Dynamic Limb Movements
content to confirm elements of the discussion (if • LT.lift . LE lifts, marching, toe-offs, heel-offs, foot
needed) or if agreement cannot be reached. drawing. foot slides
Thinking aloud, brainstorming, and sharing thoughts • Reaching. cone stacking
should be continuous throughout this activity! As each • Single limb stance (active abduction into wall)
• Partial wall squats (with ball)
item in the section outline is considered, the following
... Standing. Stepping, Dynamic Reversals (forward-
should ensue:
backward)
I. An initial discussion of the activity, including patient ... Standing Lunges (partial, full, multidirectional)
and therapist positioning. Also considered here should ... Floor-to-Standing Transfers
be positional changes to enhance the activity (e.g., ... Standing. Manual Perturbations
prepositioning a limb, altering the BOS, and so forth). ... Standing on Foam
2. An initial discussion of the technique, including • EO to EC
its description, indication(s) for use, therapist • Wide BOS to tandem stance to sharpened tandem to
hand placements (manual contacts). and verbal cues. single limb stance
3. A demonstration of the activity and application of • Minisquats
the technique by the designated therapist and ... Standing on Wobble Boards
subject/patient. Discussion is limited during the • Centered standing, bidirectional to multidirectional
demonstration, with constructive comments provided boards
following the demonstration. All group members • Touch down, circles (clockwise, counterclockwise)
should provide supportive and corrective feedback, ... Standing on Foam Rollers
providing recommendations and suggestions for • Double to single rollers, flat side down to flat side up
improvement. Particularly important is a discussion ... Standing on Inflated Dome (BOSO®)
of strategies to make the activity either more or less • Head and trunk turns
challenging for the patient/subject. • Minisquats
4. If any member of the group feels he or she requires • Double to single leg stance
additional practice with the activity and technique, • Marching
time should be allocated to accommodate the request. • UE activities: overhead lifts
Activities and Techniques to Improve Standing • Step-ups onto dome
and Standing Balance Control ... Standing, Ball Activities
• Catching and throwing ball (inflated ball, weighted
... Modified Plantigrade, Holding ball)
• Stabilizing reversals • Batting a balloon: kicking a ball
• Rhythmic stabilization • Standing with one foot on a small ball and moving
... Modified Plantigrade. Weight Shifts the ball (forward-back\\ ard. circles)
• Weight shifts, dynamic reversals: side to side, ... Standing. Dual Ta.,k Acti\ itie.,
forward-backward, diagonal, diagonal with pelvic • Pouring a glas., of \\ater from a pitcher
rotation • Counting back\\ ard., b~ 7 from 100
... Modified Plantigrade, Limb Movements ... Standing. Force Platform Training
• Reaching (cone stacking) • Biofeedback training to improve centered alignment,
• PNF UE D2 flexion and extension, dynamic reversals LOS
... Standing, Holding
• Stabilizing reversals
• Rhythmic stabilization
193
CHAPTER
Interventions to Improve
~ Locomotor Skills
THOMAS J. SCH ITZ, PT, PHD
'Gait is the manne'" ~:-:; :Jersan walks, characterized by rhythm, cadence, step,
stride, and speed Locomotion s the ability to move from ane place ta another"
-Guide to PhysIco T,,;;:::::-;J JJ' ce _4
;,* .. f·I"·~':~)7'\li''<,,' 1~""'!~£-r • ' ~~4!!'~:9$"'*";.:';"" ... ""''''~:~-T ~ - ....,~\1l',"f:;.. ~, ..... , . , ''''';~.'"' ~
~!T~~~E'8:,1'~~2..¥!fiy:~ewofGailTei'minologYl,2,Ijl~!,~,9km?I;MuScle'Activation.~~a~ern.s;,'
,}f~ ,: , , ': ,':'--
Stance Phase
Heel strike: The beginning Initial contact:The beginning Quadriceps active at heel strike
of the stance phase when of the stance phase when the through early stance to control
the heel contacts the g rouna heel or another part of the foot small amount of knee flexion for
(the same as initial contact, contacts the ground. shock absorption; pretibial group acts
eccentrically to oppose plantarflexion
moment and prevent foot slap,
Foot flat: Occurs immediate y Loading response: The portion The gastrocnemius-soleus muscles are
following heel strike, when of the first double support active from foot flat through midstance
the sole of the foot contacts period of the stance phase to eccentrically control forward tibial
the floor. (This event occurs from initial contact until the advancement.
during the loading response,) contralateral extremity leaves
the ground.
Midstance: The point at Midstance:The portion of the The hip, knee, and ankle extensors are
which the body passes single-limb support stance phase active throughout the stance phase to
directly over the reference that begins when the contralateral oppose antigravity forces and stabilize
extremity, extremity leaves the ground and the limb; hip extensors control forward
ends when the body is directly motion of the trunk; hip abductors
over the supporting limb, stabilize the pelvis during unilateral
stance; plantarflexors propel the body
forward,
Heel-off: The point following Terminal stance:The last Peak activity of the plantarflexors occu rs
midstance at which time the portion of the single-limb just after heel-off, to push off and
heel of the reference extremity support stance phase that generate forward propulsion of the body,
leaves the ground, (Heel-off begins with heel rise and
occurs prior to terminal stance.) continues until the
contralateral extremity
contacts the ground,
Toe off:The point following Preswing:The portion of the Hip and knee extensors (hamstrings and
heel-off when only the toe stance phase that begins the quadriceps) contribute to forward
of the reference extremity second double support period propulsion with a brief burst of activity.
is in contact with the ground. from the initial contact of the
contralateral extremity to lift off
of the reference extremity.
Swing Phase
Acceleration:The portion Initial swing: The portion of Forward acceleration of the limb during
of the swing phase beginning the swing phase from the early swing is achieved through the
from the moment the toe of point when the reference action of the quadriceps; by midswing
the reference extremity leaves extremity leaves the ground the quadriceps are silent and pendular
the ground to the point when to maximum knee flexion motion is in effect; hip flexors (the
the reference extremity is of the same extremity, iliopsoas) aid in forward limb propulsion.
directly under the body,
• • • •
Stance Phase
Deceleration:The portion Terminal swing: The portion a' The hamstrings act during late swing to
of the swing phase when the the swing phase from a vertica decelerate the limb in preparation for
reference extremity is position of the tibia of the heel strike; the quadriceps and ankle
decelerating in preparation reference extremity to just dorsiflexors become active in late
for heel strike. prior to initial contact. swing to prepare for heel strike.
Adapted from Norkin, CC: Examination of Gait. In O'Sullivan, S8, and Schmitz, TJ (edsl; Physical Rehabilitation,
ed 5, FA Davis, Philadelphia, 2007, p 317, with permission .
• • •
The rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
Normal cadence is the number of steps taken per unit of time; the normal range for ca-
dence is 91 to 138 steps per minute. Increased cadence is accompanied by a shorter step
length and decreased duration of the period of double support. Running occurs when the
period of double support disappears, typically at a cadence of 180 steps per minute.
Ie Sport r The time period of the gait cycle when both lower extremities are in contact with the
supporting surface (double support); measured in seconds.
Degree of toe-out or toe-in; the angle of foot placement with respect to the line of
tot e·1 progression; measured in degrees. Note: Increased foot angle (turning the foot
outward) is often associated with decreased postural stability.
y Consistency of gait cycle duration (stride time) from one stride to the next.
The duration of the stance phase of one extremity in the gait cycle.
The time period of the gait cycle when only one limb is in contact with the floor or
other support surface.
The linear distance between the point of heel strike of one extremity and the point of
heel strike of the opposite extremity (in centimeters or meters).
The distance between feet (base of support), measured from one heel to the same
point on the opposite heel; normal step width ranges between 1 inch (2.5 cm) and 5
inches (12.5 cm). Step width increases as stability demands rise (for example, in older
adults or very young children).
The linear distance between two consecutive points of foot contact (preferably heel
strike) of the same extremity (in centimeters or meters).
The number of seconds that elapse during one stride (one complete gait cycle).
WrH The side-to-side distance between the two feet. Step width is increased with instability.
The duration of the swing phase of one extremity in the gait cycle.
V 10 tv peed Also called walking speed, the distance covered per unit of time (meters/second).
Average walking speed is 2.2 to 2.8 mph [0.98 to .3 m s]).*
Speed is increased by lengthening stride. Speed or velocity is affected by physical
characteristics such as height, weight, and gende decreases with age, physical
disability, and so forth.
'Some estimates of average walking speed are higher (e.g., 3.5 to 4 mph [1.6 to 1.8 m/s]).
CHAPTE"{ 5 [nl~n~nliolls 10 ImprlHC Locomotor Skills 197
for movement patterns and joint positions. Therapists typi- • De\ eloping an appropriate pac to address gait
cally acquire this skill by performing repeated OGA of nor- impairments.
mal subjects using a segmental approach beginning with the • Determining the need for assistive, adaptive, or protective
foot/ankle and moving up to the knee, hip, pelvis, and trunk. equipment and orthotic or prosthetic devices.
Once established, the normative reference provides the basis • Examining the effectiveness and tit of the devices or
for identification of deviations from the norm. For a compre- equipment selected.
hensive handling of gait analysis including gait variables • Promoting improved function.
and common gait deviations, the reader is referred to the
work of Norkin. J
Although the following list is not all-inclusive, data Walking: Interventions, Outcomes,
from the gait analysis assist the therapist with 1.1: and Management Strategies
• Identifying patient gait characteristics that deviate from a
Prerequisite Requirements
normative reference as well as their possible causes.
Box 8.1 presents some of the more common gait devia- The foundational prerequisite requirements for the initiation of
tions as well as their possible causes. interventions to improve locomotor skills include appropriate
• Establishing the physical therapy diagnosis and prognosis weightbeating status, musculoskeletal (postural) alignment,
(the predicted level of improvement). ROM, muscle petfOlmance (strength, power, and endurance),
Trunk, Pelvis, and Hip: Stance Phase stairs or ramps; forward trunk bending can compensate
Common gait deviations involving the trunk, pelvis, and for weak quadriceps.
hip that occur during the stance phase include the • Hyperextension-the result of weak quadriceps,
following: plantarflexion contracture, or extensor spasticity
(quadriceps and/or plantarflexors).
• Lateral trunk bending-the result of gluteus medius
weakness; bending occurs to the same side as the
Foot/Ankle: Stance Phase
weakness.
Common gait deviations involving the ankle/foot during
• Trendelenburg gait-the pelvis drops on the
the stance phase include the following:
contralateral side of a weak gluteus medius; a
compensatory strategy is lateral trunk bending. • Toes first-at initial contact, the toes touch the floor
• Backward trunk lean-the result of a weak gluteus first-the result of weak dorsiflexors, spastic or tight
maximus; the patient also has difficu ty going up stairs plantarflexors; toes first may also be due to a
or ramps. shortened LE (leg-length discrepancy), a painful heel,
• Forward trunk lean-the result of wea Quadriceps (the or a positive support reflex.
forward trunk lean decreases the lexor momen at the • Foot slap-the foot makes floor contact with an audible
knee); may also be associated with h Dad nee slap-the result of weak dorsiflexors or hypotonia; the
flexion contractu res. slap is compensated for with a steppage gait.
• Excessive hip flexion-the result of \ ea :J e .ensors • Foot flat-the entire foot contacts the ground-the
or tight hip and/or knee flexors. result of weak dorsiflexors, limited range of motion, or
• Limited hip extension-the result of tig • C' s::as' c :J an immature gait pattern.
flexors. • Excessive dorsiflexion with uncontrolled forward
• Limited hip flexion-the result of wea :J - e.::·s ::' motion of the tibia-the result of weak plantarflexors.
tight extensors. • Excessive plantarflexion (equinus gait)-the heel does
• Antalgic gait (painful gait)-stance time sa:: 'e ,,:a:: not touch the ground-the result of spasticity or
on the painful limb, resulting in an une e ;:;a: ::,,::a- contracture of the plantarflexors; eccentric contraction
(limping); the uninvolved limb has a shor;:e~ac s:::;: 's poor, as in tibia advancement.
length, since it must bear weight sooner tra- ~:-;; • Varus foot-at foot contact, the lateral side of the foot
;ouches first; the foot may remain in varus throughout
Knee: Stance Phase ; e stance phase-the result of spastic anterior tibialis
Common gait deviations involving the knee d eak peroneals.
stance phase include the following: • _ iN toes-the result of spastic toe flexors, possibly a
:: c ;ar grasp reflex.
• Excessive knee flexion-the result of weak a~a=- :::;::
• -E::;equate push-ofF-the result of weak plantarflexors,
(the knee wobbles or buckles) or knee flexor
=a:-aased range of motion, or pain in the forefoot.
contractu res; the patient also has difficulty go -;; ::
(box continues on page 198)
198 PART /I Intenentinns to Imprn\t' Function
Trunk, Pelvis, and Hip: Swing Phase • ecreased amplitude in trunk and pelvic rotation-
Common gait deviations involving the trunk, pelvis, and seer> 'e elderly and characteristic of several known
hip that occur during the swing phase include the e '0 ogical disorders (e.g., the patient with stroke or
following: Par I son's disease).
• Insufficient forward pelvic rotation (pelvic retraction)-
Knee: Swing Phase
the result of weak abdominal muscles and/or weak hip
Common gait deviations involving the knee that occur
flexor muscles (for example, in the patient with stroke).
during he swing phase include the following:
• Insufficient hip and knee flexion-the result of weak hip
and knee flexors or strong extensor spasticity, resulting • Insufficient knee flexion-the result of extensor
in an inability to lift the LE and move it forward. spasticity, pain, decreased range of motion, or weak
• Circumducted gait: the LE swings out to the side hamstrings.
(abduction/external rotation followed by adduction/ • Excessive knee flexion-the result of flexor spasticity;
internal rotation)-the result of weak hip and knee flexor withdrawal reflex.
flexors.
• Hip hiking (quadratus lumborum action)-a compensatory Foot/Ankle: Swing Phase
response for weak hip and knee flexors, or extensor Common gait deviations involving the ankle and foot
spasticity. that occur during the swing phase include the following:
• Excessive hip and knee flexion (steppage gait)-a
• Foot-drop (equinus)-the result of weak or delayed
compensatory response to a shorten contralateral
contraction of the dorsiflexors or spastic plantarflexors.
lower limb or the result of same side dorsiflexor
• Varus or inverted foot-the result of spastic invertors
weakness (e.g., resulting from neuritis of the peroneal
(anterior tibialis), weak peroneals, or an abnormal
nerve in the patient with diabetes).
synergistic pattern (e.g., in the patient with stroke).
• Abnormal synergistic activity or spasticity (e.g., the
• Equinovarus-the result of spasticity of the posterior
patient with stroke):
tibialis and/or gastrocnemius/soleus; or structural
• Use of a strong flexor synergy pattern-excessive
deformity (club foot).
abduction with hip and knee flexion.
• Use of a strong extension synergy pattern-excessive
adduction with hip and knee extension and ankle
plantarflexion (scissoring); more commonly seen.
motor function, balance, and static and dynamic standing for managing a retracted and elevated pelvis, a problem that
control. Many of these prerequisites are dependent on intact exists for many patients with LE spasticity. For backward
neuromuscular synergies (necessary for static and dynamic progression, the therapist's hand can be placed posteriorly
conu'oJ), intact sensory (somatosensory, visual, and vestibular) over the gluteal muscles to facilitate hip extension and
systems, and intact central nervous system (CNS) sensory weight acceptance on the stance limb. This also helps to pre-
integration mechanisms. Also required is the ability to safely vent the knee on the stance limb from hyperextending.
stand while engaged in upper extremity (UE) functional move-
ments (e.g., reaching) under varying environmental demands Verbal Cut's for Walking FOf\mrd and Backward
(dual-task activity). Forward progression: "Shift fOllmrd, and step, step, step."
Backward progression: "Shift bac/...1mrd. und step, step, step."
Activity: Walking Forward and Backward To progress the acti\'it~ of walking forward and back-
The patient practices walking forward and backward as a ward, the therapist can do the following:
progression from stepping in place (standing and stepping). • Alter the level of as. istance or supervision by progressing
The therapist focuses on appropriate timing and sequencing, from walking next to parallel bars or a wall to unassisted
beginning with the weight shift diagonally forward or back- walking.
ward onto the stance limb and pelvic rotation with advance- • Increase the step length from initially reduced to
ment of the swing limb. It is important to ensure that knee normal.
extension (not hyperextension) occurs with hip flexion dur- • Change the "peed ""If \\ alking from reduced to normal to
ing forward progression and that knee flexion occurs with increased. Thl" L~n in 'Jude both treadmill and over-
hip extension during backward progression. The movements ground walking
are repeated to allow for a continuous moyement sequence.
Manual contacts can be used to guide movements and Clinical ""-ote:
-4S 'he speed of walking increases,
facilitate missing elements. For example. the therapist can so do +"'e '2-::~ 'e"'len s for timing and control. In
facilitate forward pelvic rotation during swing by placing general. older ::::_ -5 . demonstrate reduced walking
the hands on the anterior peh i . Thi" is an effective strategy speed compa'2-:: -: ,::::~'lger adults.
CHAPTER 8 II 199
Verbal Cues for Resisted Progression, Walking \"(!IIlo Ilev/on lIl'Il, Ih''-:llIlIlIlr ,\"llfJ '011I Fi,
Forward and Back\,ard llirec ulld 1/('/1, II( p. 1(/1 b. "I, ,trlJ
Overall timing of locomotion can be facilitated with appro- Ihrec. I lI'wIT "011 10 \I( /' IJ I( ("'1 IN r,:/I
lui
priate verbal cues. Fon\ ard progression: "011 Ihree. I mllIT leg. 011(', /1\"0. Ilm'( ("l! \{ Ii I/( /1 II( /1.
200 PART 1/ Intenentions to Improve Function
Comments
• For the application of resisted progression during forward
and backward walking, resistance may also be applied us-
ing an elastic resistive band wrapped around the patient's
pelvis. The therapist holds the resistive band either from
behind as the patient moves forward (Fig. 8.2A) or from
the front as the patient moves backward (Fig. 8.2B).
• To promote reciprocal arm swing and trunk counterrota-
tion, two wooden poles (dowels) may be used. The
therapist is positioned either behind as the patient walks A
forward (Fig. 8.3A) or in front as the patient walks back-
ward (Fig. 8.3B). Both patient and therapist hold onto the
poles. The therapist is then able to assist in sequencing the
arm swings and guide trunk countelTotation during forward
and backward progressions. Similarly, reciprocal arm
swing and trunk counten'otation can be promoted using
elastic resistive bands and application of light resistance
(this activity requires two resistive bands of approximately
the same length). The ends of the bands are held bilaterally
by both patient and therapist, allowing the therapist to as-
sist and guide movement as well as apply light facilitatory
resistance. This is a particularly useful activity for patients
with Parkinson's disease who frequently demonstrate re-
duced trunk rotation and arm swing.
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Skill.
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to ambulate
independently with appropriate timing and sequencing
of movement components.
A A
L...... ~ ~ __ ~ ~ _ _'
B B
FIGURE 8,3 Wooden dowels held by both the pa- e~- :;-:: - ~ G RE 8,4 Walking. side-stepping. resisted progression. Not
therapist can be used to promote reciprocal arm s,'. -;; ::-:: :-::: ,', - -he patient is in a comfortable stance position to be-
trunk counterrotation in either a (A) forward or (B) c:;:, ',::-:: ;; - : :;e-stepplng. (A) The patient side-steps by moving the
progression. This allows the therapist to assist in seaue~:-;; ~- -= --0 obduction. Not shown: The patient then moves
and guiding arm swing and trunk counterrotation -~ . ;;-- _= parallel to the left (step together). (B) Resisted
:': ;;·~so:~ COl' also be implemented uSing a resistive bond
.:::::::~:; ::'ound the lateral aspect of the pelvis on the
::=::_:-~;;;: ae
202 PA RT" I nten entions to Imp r()\ e Fu nction
Outcomes
Motor control goal: Skill.
Functional skill achieved: The patient is able to walk
sideways independently with appropriate timing and
sequencing of movement components (required for
movement in confined areas).
c
FIGURE 8.6 Walking, braiding. Not shown T C ce;:;; ~ -~e pa ient is In a comfortable stance
position, (A) The patient side-steps wi -"1e e~ -= B) -e right LE is then crossed up and over
in front. (C) The left LE side-steps. (0) T e' g~- -= -~e~ cross-steps back and behind.
patient lightly place hi, or her hands on top of the therapi, . \ ~rbal Cues for Walking, Braiding
hands. A wooden dO\\ el held horizontally by both the ther.1- -~
p ( 1I1 TO the side; now step up and across; step out
pist and patient can abo be used to provide support (Fig. .- . • 1 ide: nOll' step back and behind." Verbal cues
For these acti\·itie,. the patient and therapist face each l -... ",- r be well timed to ensure a continuous movement
_ ....
BOX 8.2 Src';:-; =: ':- .:- omotor Task Demands (com 000
FIGURE 8.9 Walking with head turns to the left and right on FIGURE 8.11 Walking through obstacles placed on the floor.
verbal cues (in this example. the head is turned toward the An obstacle course can be created using a variety of com-
right). A variation is to have the patient look up and down mon objects. In this example. the course was created using
while walking stacking cones.
• Walking while bouncing a ball constant peed of the TM (speed of walking is controlled)
• Walking while pushing and pulling loads (e.g., a pro\"ide rh~ thmic input that helps to reestablish or reinforce
grocery cart) coordinated re iprocal LE locomotor patterns. Of critical
• Walking through doorways and opening and closing importance to uccessful outcomes early on is the hands-on
doors role of phy i al therapists and physical therapist assistants
• Walking and stopping to pick an object up off the floor (trainers). For example. during the stance phase of gait, the
• Walking increased distances that simulate community dis- foot mo\"es "moothly through initial contact, loading re-
tances (e.g., 1,200 ft [366 m]) or increased times that sim- sponse. midstance. terminal stance, and preswing. If motor
ulate the times needed for crosswalks (e.g .. approximately function impairments prevent these normal transitions dur-
2.62 fUsec [0.8 m/sec] for a -1-0-ft [12-m] crosswalk) ing TM walking. peripheral sensory input to the SPGs will
• Walking outdoors under different conditions (e.g., ter- be incorrect and normal locomotor patterns will not be
rain, illumination, and weather) or in busy, noisy envi- reestablished. Such circumstances require a trainer to sit
ronments (e.g., busy hallways or clinic entrances and next to the TM (on the side of weakness) and, using manual
shopping malls). contacts on the foot and lower leg, repeatedly guide the pa-
• Walking while practicing recovery strategies, such as tient's foot through the correct sequence of movements and
stops or starts on a treadmill foot placements required during stance. A second therapist
can also stand behind the patient and assist the pelvic mo-
Clinical l'iotes: The level of task difficulty is in- tions to initiate stepping using both hands positioned on the
creased considerably by adding a second task patient's pelvis.
(dual-task activity) such as catching and throwing a Conventional gait training typically incorporates a
weighted bailor walking while carrying a tray that holds parts-lo-whole practice strategy. This requires considerable
a glass of water. Initially, such activities require constant time to accomplish component lead-up skills such as static
cognitive monitoring; they may be mentally fatiguing and and dynamic balance control, weight shifting, stepping
prone to errors when the patient becomes distracted. To strategies, and so forth. The early use of parallel bars and as-
begin, a closed environment is most effective. The patient sistive devices can produce undesirable compensatory pat-
should be guarded cautiously during the introduction of
terns such as a forwardly flexed posture, asymmetry, and
new or novel dynamic locomotor tasks; a gait belt or an
substitution of the UEs for impaired LE function. These pat-
overhead harness may be warranted to ensure patient
terns are often difficult to change later on. In addition, con-
safety Most important, careful observance of safety
siderable demands are placed on both the patient and the
precautions will improve patient confidence and trust in
therapist to ensure that static and dynamic stability is main-
the therapist's ability to provide safe treatment.
tained. This may negatively affect the amount of time actu-
ally spent on locomotor training. s In contrast, training using
Body Weight Support
BWS and a TM focuses on the facilitation of automatic
and Treadmill Training
walking movements using a whole-task practice strategy.
The use of a body weight SUppOlt (BWS) system and a tread- The SUpp0l1 of the patient's body weight with a BWS system
mill (TM) combined with verbal and manual guidan e from allows training to begin well before the patient acquires all
the therapist is an impOltant intervention for imprO\"ing loco- the component lead-up skills required of more traditional
motor skills. The desired amount of body weight is uppoI1ed gait training approaches. The TM speed provides a rhythmic
through a trunk harness donned by the patient that ana he to input that reinforces the manually guided reciprocal move-
an overhead suspension system; the system's wheeled- ,e ments of the limbs through each phase of the gait cycle.
(locking casters) allows positioning of the unit o\"er a Dl. The This continues until the patient is able to participate in gener-
unit can then be moved away from the TM for progre I 11 ating the reciprocal stepping patterns before a progression is
overground locomotion. As a safety strategy. the 5U pen Introduced."
system may also be used without actually suppoI1in= The importance of sensory input through manual
weight (the patient supports full body weight). This pro iue _ = Idance provided by the trainers cannot be overempha-
safe and effective environment for the patient and ther.:. lzed. The BWS system and TM allow access to the patient's
focus on improving locomotor skills without undue a em - b"'" . pel\·is. and LEs to manually assist, guide, or adjust
devoted to preventing falls. • motor rhythm, limb placement, weight shifts, and sym-
Locomotion is an automatic postural acti\"it~. en _:: -'>'~. Guided movements are coordinated to simulate a nor-
to the combined use of BWS and a TM is the abih~ - -'-' ';.1Jl. and ensure that upright posture and balance are
cilitate automatic locomotion using intensive task-o - ~ 'Limed. The sensory input (e.g., joint proprioceptors of
practice. Neural control of locomotion arises from u ~e. and ankle; pressure receptors of foot) from appro-
cal and spinal centers (~pinal pattern generators [SPG --_':: _ imed manually assisted limb movements promotes
such, reciprocal locomotor patterns can be produ ed _' .-:: - _' :1-Induced recovery..J·7 This sensory input provides
spinal cord le\'el in the ab ence of supraspinal inpur.- T;- \el ac htatioll and lillI/bit/Oil of flexor-extensor
a central tenet wppoI1ing the use of this approach, - ~ - - - -euron pools at the appropriate time in the gait cycle. x
210 PART /I Intenentions to Improyc Function
BOX 8.4 Benefits of Body Weight Support (BWS) and a Treadml .: -:l'ove Locomotor Skill
• Locomotor interventions may be implemented earlier • I :e-· and intra-limb locomotor timing and rhythm can
in the episode of care (compared to more conventional be Dromoted without the demands of supporting the
approaches). , 11 body weight.
• Loading of the UEs is minimized or eliminated owing to • R m'c input from the constant speed of the TM
maximal loading of the LEs. he ps 0 reestablish or reinforce coordinated reciprocal
• LE loading can be varied based on the patient's ability LE patterns.
to support weight. • Using greater BWS and 10wTM velocity, gait
• Compensatory movement strategies are reduced or deviations may be addressed early.
eliminated. • Dynamic balance training can be practiced by
• Learned nonuse may be eliminated secondary to decreasing BWS and increasing the TM speed.
weightbearing and "forced" stepping movements of • Sensory inputs facilitate muscle activation.
more involved segments. • Coordinated kinematics of the trunk, pelvis, and limbs
• Normal gait kinematics and phase relationships of the specific to the locomotor task are promoted.
full gait cycle are promoted (e.g., limb loading in • Walking speed and distance improve.
midstance; unweighting and stepping during swing). • Muscular and cardiovascular endurance improves.
• The fear of falling is reduced or eliminated.
Box 8.4 provides an overview of the benefits associated with pelvic rotation. In the presence of muscle weakness. poor
use of BWS and a TM to improve locomotor skills. balance. or other impairments, the physical therapist must
determine whether the patient's walking strategies are
effective, what elements are consistent with the task of
BWS and TM Training: Management Strategies
walking and should be promoted. and what elements are
Although specific training protocols have not been defini-
inconsistent that need to be modified or eliminated.
tively established. sufficient information is available to pro-
Decreasing the amount of ma/1ua/ assista/1ce provided is
vide general guidelines for using BWS and TM locomotor
another important measure of progression.
training·· R:9 .!'
• Parameters are established for the percentage of body
• To begin, the patient is assisted with donning a trunk har- weight supported. the TM speed. the duration of training
ness that includes adjustable straps attached to an overhead bouts and rest intervals. and the amount and location of
BWS suspension system. The BWS unit is positioned over manual assistance. A determination of the specific strate-
a TM, providing trainer access to the trunk/pelvis, hips, gies to be used is also required (Box 8.5). In the planning
knees, and ankle/foot. If patient involvement is bilateraL of treatment parameters. the following foundational prin-
trainers will need to be positioned on both sides of the TM. ciples are considered:
• The BWS system supports a portion of the patient's body • LE weightbearing should be maximized while UE
weight (e.g., starting at 40 percent with progressions to support is minimized.
30 percent, 20 percent, 10 percent, and then no BWS). • Sensory cues and input via appropriate handling tech-
Decreasing the amount of body weight supported is an niques should be optimized to ensure the desired or
important measure of progression. most favorable stepping pattern (assisted by trainers).
• Increasing the TM speed is another important measure of • Normal walking kinematics should be promoted, with
progression. Initially, slow TM speeds are used (e.g., emphasis on trunk. pelvis, and limb movements.
0.52 mph [0.23 mls]); then the speed is gradually • Recovery should be maximized and compensatory
increased as the patient's locomotor skills improve movements minimized or eliminated.
(e.g., to 0.95 mph [0.42 m/s]). • Manual assistance is limited to only that which is essen-
• Total locomotor training time recommendations range tial for accomplishing the desired movement.
from 30 to 60 minutes with intervening rest intervals. • As reciprocal patterns of movement begin to develop.
Duration is increased gradually. On average. the patient locomotor training is progressed by reducing the amount
training is intense (e.g., 5 days per week for 6 to of bod) weight -.upported. increasing the TM speed. and
12 weeks). With severe involvement. however. initial reducing the amount of manual guidance. Progression
training bouts may be as short as 3 minutes with continues until the patient is walking independently
5-minute rest intervals. 6 supporting full bod) \\ eight at a speed of 1.0 mph
• Once locomotor training in initiated. trainers provide (0.44 mls!.'
manual assistance to normalize gait. With unilateral in- • Locomotor trainlllg u,ing BWS is continued by progress-
volvement, for example, one trainer ma) provide assis- ing to o\'erground \\ alking. When the casters are un-
tance with foot placement while another trainer assists at locked. the B\\ nit becomes mobile and can be moved
the trunk and pelvis to promote upright posture and away from the T ' 'c,r u,e on overground surfaces.
L H A. - • Inl~n ~nlion, to Imprcne Locomotor Skill, 211
BOX 8.5 Strategies for Locomotor Training Using Body Weight Sup , (a '. ) ond a Treadmill (TM)
Elimination of the rhythmic steady-state input from the Student Practice Activities
TM causes the overground walking speed to be initially
reduced. The BWS unit is manually moved by the train- Sound clinical decision-making will help identify the most
ers to keep pace with the patient's forward progression. appropriate activities and techniques to improve locomoTor
The use of an assistive device may be introduced during skills for an individual patient. Student practice activities
BWS overground walking. The same parameters continue provide an opportunity to share knowledge and skills as well
to be used to monitor progress: adjusting body wei Ill. as to confinn or clarify understanding of the treatment inter-
speed, and manual assistance. ventions. Each student in a group contributes his or her un-
• Last, the patient is progressed to overground \\ alking derstanding of, or questions about, the strategy, technique. or
without an assistive device and without BW . It _hould activity. and participates in the activity being discussed. Dia-
be noted that the desired walking speed will \<10 b - d logue should continue until a consensus of understanding is
on the demands of the environment the patient \\ill be reached. Box 8.6 Student Practice Activity presents activities
negotiating. For example, functional speeds reqUIred ;' r that focus on interventions and management strategies to
community ambulation (normal healthy population impro\'e locomotor skills.
average 2.8 mph (1.3 m/s).I~
••
•
I:LI ~ Sharing skill in the application and knowledge ~een the muscles that contribute to dynamic limb
of treatment interventions to enhance locomotion. , -ement ( wing phase) during forward versus
C •• urd progressions.
n E T 'r.D Step stool, ball, inflated disc, two
... \\11 t lIl-ights did the activities provide that can be
poles, two elastic resistive bands, a treadmill, and several
pphed linically?
common objects to create an obstacle course (e.g., stak-
De cnbe the importance of synchronizing the
ing cones, plastic cups, books, soup cans, and so forth).
therapist's movements with those of the patient's
VUL T uRI SIZ' Four to six students. during re isted progression. How is pacing of the
a ti\'iry maintained?
R T'IONS Divide into pairs, with one person serving What strategies can be used to assist in sequencing
as the patient/subject and the other functioning as the arm \\ ings and promoting trunk counterrotation
therapist (reverse roles prior to addressing the guiding during forward and backward progressions?
questions). A How did walking on a TM affect locomotor rhythm?
I. Practice walking forward and backward. Direct A Did the level of task difficulty change by adding a
the patient/subject to practice walking forward and second task (dual-task activity)? What impact did the
backward as the therapist guards and directs the dual task have on cognitive monitoring? Was the
activities. Complete the following activities: quality of performance affected by the addition of a
Increase the step length from initially reduced to second task?
normal. 2. Practice walking, side-stepping. Direct the
• Change the speed of walking from slow to normal to patient/subject to side-step by abducting and
fast; progress to treadmill walking (if available). placement of the dynamic limb to the side; the
Modify the BOS from feet apart (wide base) to remaining limb is then moved parallel to the first.
normal to feet close together (narrow base) to Complete the following activities:
tandem walking (heel-to-toe pattern). • Practice active side-stepping in each direction.
Vary the acceleration or deceleration by having the • Apply resisted progression in side-stepping using an
patient/subject practice stopping and starting or elastic resistive band (around the lateral aspect of the
turning on cue. pelvis on the abducting side).
Practice dual-task walking, such as walking and • Change the speed of side-stepping from reduced to
counting backward by 7s from 100, walking and normal to increased.
turning the head left or right and up or down on cue, Practice side-stepping on a treadmill.
and walking and bouncing a ball.
Vary the walking surface from flat to on and off G Id ng Ques'lons
foam to in'egular (outdoors). ... What are the functional implications of side-stepping?
Using an elastic resistive band, practice both forward ... During side-stepping, what action is provided by the
and backward resisted progressions. Depending on hip abductors on the dynamic limb? On the static limb?
the direction of movement, the therapist stands either ... As the speed of walking was reduced and increased,
in front of or behind the patient holding the ends of what changes occurred in the requirements for timing
the band. and control?
Practice walking forward and backward on a ... What changes in timing and rhythm occurred during
treadmill, and practice walking with stops and starts side-stepping on the TM?
of the treatmill. 3. Practice walking, side-stepping and crossed-
Practice walking through an obstacle course. stepping. Instruct the patient/subject to abduct the
1 ~ r leading dynamic limb with foot placement followed
by movement of the remaining limb to a parallel
With consideration of the variations in locomotor tasks
position with the first (a symmetrical stance) and then
just practiced:
crossed-step by moving the opposite leg up, across,
What did you learn about changes in postural stability and in front of the original side-step limb. Complete
demands with each activity') the following activities:
What activities provided the gremesf and leasf • Practice acti\e side-stepping and crossed-stepping in
challenges to postural stability') each direction.
Compare and contrast the rhythmic stepping patterns • Apply resisted progression in side-stepping and
used during forward versus backward walking. What crossed-stepping using manual resistance.
differences did you notice? • Alter the peed of side-stepping and crossed-
As the speed of walking was reduced and increased, stepping from reduced to normal to increased.
what changes occurred in the requirements for timing
I q C. ~
and control?
Multiple muscle groups are a tl\e in alternating A What are the 'Iilllcal indications for the use of side-
between forward and back\\ ard \\alking. Differentiate stepping and crl ed-stepping?
CHAPTER 8 In t \t lIi'l!l\ to Impro\e LO('omolor Sldlls 213
'" As the speed of side-stepping and era sed-stepping 5. Directions: Working in a small group, respond to the
was altered, what changes occurred? follO\\ ing:
4. Practice walking, braiding. Direct the patient to • Describe strategies for varying locomotor task
begin with a side-step and follO\\' \\ith a crossed-step demands during training.
up and over in front (PNF LE D 1F pattern). then a • Describe stratcgies for varying environmental
side-step, and then a crossed-step backward and demands during training.
behind the first limb (PNF LE D2E pattern). Complete • What are the prerequisite requirements for the
the following activities: initiation of stair climbing'?
• Practice active braiding in each direction. • Describe the rationale for locomotor tJ'aining Llsing
• Apply resisted progression in braiding using manual BWS and a TM. What benefits are associated with
resistance. this approach')
Guiding Questions
'" Braiding is a challenging sequence to learn for many
patients. How can the therapist facilitate the learning
of this new skill?
'" What therapeutic goaI(s) can be addressed using
braiding'l
L
onventional gait-trall1l11g interventions after spinal
cord injury (SCI) focus on increasing independence by using
4. l\laximize recovery and minimize compensation.
Patients are assisted. when needed. to perform move-
compensatory methods to address deficits in strength, motor ments using typical spatial-temporal components to
control, balance, and sensation. Typical gait-training goals for accomplish a task. Performance of tasks using compen-
patients with SCI address compensation for paresis or paraly- satory strategies (i.e.. momentum and leverage) is
sis using braces and assistive devices. Locomotor training minimized. Patients attempt to accomplish a task while
(LT) using a body weight support (BWS) system and a tread- using the least restrictive assistive devices, without or-
mill (TM) is a relatively new form of physical therapy treat- thoses, and as little physical assistance as possible.
ment based on the activity-dependent plasticity and motor
LT using a BWS system and a TM consists of three
learning capacity of the spinal cord.""
main components: step training, olle/ground examination.
A network of spinal interneurons process and integrate
and com//llInit)' illfegration.
both ascending sensory input and descending supraspinal in-
put to generate the motor output of walking.· With diminished
supraspinal drive after incomplete SCI, LT targets the promo- Step Training
tion of locomotor-specific input to the neural axis to promote The step training environment includes a BWS system
locomotor output below the level of the lesion.' Intense repet- placed over a TM. with physical therapists and physical
itive and task-specific practice of walking (through LT) is therapist assistants (trainers) providing hands-on manual
aimed at fostering neurological recovery of balance and gait as assistance. The BWS system and the TM provide an ideal
well as improving the overall health and quality of life for pa- environment for safe practice of the task of walking. Step
tients with SCI and other neurological disorders. training consists of four components: Sf{{nd retraining, stand
LT is based on the following four principles 6 : adaptobility. step retraining. and step adaptabilitT.
I. Maximize LE weightbearing. Patients are encouraged • Stand retraining. The purpose of stand retraining is to
to bear as much body weight on the LEs as often as examine how much body weight the patient's LEs can
possible, while decreasing the amount of weightbearing support. The goal is to decrease the body weight support
through their UEs. to the lowest amount possible. with the trainers (who
2. Optimize the use of sensory cues. LT utilizes appro- have undergone specific training in the techniques of LT)
priate manual facilitation from therapists to optimize providing as much assistance as needed for the patient to
the quality of the stepping pattern, while walking at or maintain an appropriate upright standing posture.
near preinjury walking speeds. • Stand adaptability. The purpose of stand adaptability is
3. Optimize kinematics for each motor task. LT focuses to examine the bod~ \\ eight parameters necessary to
on upright posture. proper pelvic rotation. and appropri- maintain independence at different body segments (e.g.,
ate inter-limb coordination for walking. Patients initiate trunk. peh i . light knee. left knee, right ankle. left ankle)
stepping by beginning in a stride po ition. with hip ex- during both ,tati' and d~ namic ~tanding.
tension of the trailing limb. Emphasis i. placed on the • Step retraining. The purpo~e of step retraining is to re-
use of standard kinematics for sit-to-staml transitions. train the nenou,,~ tem', ability to walk by establishing
standing. and other tasks. a kinematicall~ Lorrect tepping pattern at the lowest pos-
sible amount ot B\\' and at normal walking speed
(2.2 to 2. mph' .9 tn 1.3 m./s]).
1 Magee Rehabilitation Hospital. Philadelphia. P.'>' Il)OOf> • Step adaptability. The purpose of step adaptability is to
'College of Public Health and Health Profe",on,. L'I1l\er,it) of Florida promote inde n-':~l1Iontrol of each body segment for
, Department of Neurological Surger). L'nl\ er,lt) of Kentuc~y the ta \.. of \ \ J :n;. Initiall~. the patient will require more
214
CHAPTER 8 Intt'nentions to Improve Locomotor Skills 215
BWS at a slower speed. \\'ith = _'-_ sion to less minutes hould be focused on step retraining at a normal walk-
BWS and faster speed until 1Il1.:~?C achieved. ing speed. Becaue the ultimate goal of LT is to promote maxi-
mal recO\'er: of the neryous system, patients often require an
Overground Examination extended course of treatment as compared to more conventional
outpatient episcxles of care. It is not unusual for patients to need
The purpose of the m'ergrollnd (:raml1li.. .! 111 i to determine m exce of 40 e ion of LT. Following discharge, patients typ-
the carryover of skills acquired durin= tep training on the icalJy tar! by attending LT out-patient sessions five times per
TM to the overground progre~. ion \\ ithout BWS. In this week and then. lli> they advance. progress down to four and then
component, the therapist examine" the patient'S ability to three time per week.
perform functional mobility. such a" transfer. bed mobility,
standing, and ambulation. without the u e of assistive de- APPENDIX A REFERENCES
vices, braces, or compensations. Goals for the next step I. Barbeau. H. Wainberg. M. and Finch. L. De,criplion and application of
training session and for community integration are identified a ,y,lem for locomolor rehabilitation. Med Bioi Eng Comput 25:3.. 1.
1987.
based on the overground performance. The therapist and pa- 2. Barbeau. H. and Blunt. R. A novel interactive locomotor approach
tient identify the factor(s) limiting successful independent using body weight support to retrain gait in spastic paretic subjects. In
ambulation and then use the information to establish new Wernig. A (ed): Plasticity of Motorneuronal Connections. Re,torative
eurology. Vol. 5. Elsevier. Amsterdam. The Netherland,. 1991. p ..61.
training goals. 3. Barbeau. H. Nadeau. S. and Garneau. C. Physical determinanls.
emerging concepts. and training approaches in gail of individuals with
Community Integration spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 23(3-4):571 (review). 2006.
... Harkema. SJ. Plasticity of interneuronal nelwork> of the functionally
COllllllunity integration focuses on the application of LT isolated human spinal cord. Brain Res Rev 57( I ):255. 2008.
5. Edgerton. VR. Niranjala. JK. Tillakaratne. AJ. et al. Plasticity of the
principles in the patient's home and community environment. spinal neural circuilry after injury. Annu Rev Neurosci 27: 1..5. 2004.
The therapist selects the least restrictive assistive device that 6. Behrman. AL. Lawless-Dixon. AR. Davis. SB. et al. Locomotor
allows safe and independent standing and walking. The goal training progression and outcomes after incomplete spinal cord injury.
Phys Ther 85: 1356. 2005.
is to increase the amount of weightbearing in more open
environments.
A typical LT ses ion is 90 minutes, with a goal of
60 minutes of weightbearing with BWS. At least 20 of these
CHAPTER
Interventions to Improve Upper
PJ Extremit . ' Skills
SHARON A.
MARIANNE MORTERA,
GUT A , PHD, OTR,
PHD, OTR
AND
Patient Performance Components The therapist asks: " What are the specific steps of the
• Sensory activity? What specific functional requirements are
• Perceptual needed to perform the activity? Does the patient have
• Neurological the performance components needed to successfully
• Musculoskeletal participate in the activity?"
• Cognitive
• Psychosocial Environmental Considerations
• Physical
The therapist asks: " What are the sensory, perceptual,
• Sociocultural
neurological, musculoskeletal, cognitive, and perceptual
impairments that are limiting the patient's performance The therapist asks: " What are the physical character-
in a specific AoU" istics of the environment that may obstruct the patient's
performance? What social and/or cultural values and
Activity Demands beliefs does the patient have that may impede his or her
• Specific steps of the activity (requirements embedded ability to participate in the activity?"
in each step of the activity) Analysis of the above allows the therapist to modify
• Functional requirements needed to complete the the activity and the environment to improve the
activity patient's performance in specific activities of daily living.
216
H Inh \tnt ,n to Impro\l' I ppl'!" E:\tl"l'lIlil~ "kill, 217
• Shoulder Li I I
Elbo\\ "tabl .
FIGURE 9 6 Prehension pattern is used to hold a fork. • Wrist slabIlI
( HApTER ~ In ImproH Lpper Extrel11it~ Skills 219
FIGURE 9.11 Upright seated posture. The pelvis and lower ex-
tremities should be properly aligned to encourage a neutral
position or slight anterior tilt of pelvis and hip abduction.
Neuromuscular Facilitation
Neuromuscular facilitation is an imp0l1ant intervention for the
development of lead-up skills needed to pelform self-feeding.
Selected components of the intervention are described within
the context of facilitating the following lead-up skills: stabi-
lization, reach, and grasp and prehension pattems.
Stabilization
Joint approximation can be used to promote proximal shoul-
der stabilization via weightbearing activities. The patient is
instructed to bear weight on the more affected DE, which is FIGURE 9.17 To facilitate reaching. the patient is instructed to
positioned in elbow extension and supported by the therapist slide the UE (with gravity minimized) along a tabletop as if
(Fig. 9.16) or by another support surface (e.g., a platform reaching for a targeted food item,
mat). Approximation can be used to facilitate shoulder!
scapular stabilizers and elbow extensors. Sufficient shoulder
or bread roll (Fig. 9.18). To facilitate agonist contraction of
stability is required before the patient can achieve dynamic
the anterior deltoid for forward reach. tapping over the mus-
distal movement in space against gravity (required for all
cle belly can be incorporated. Tapping elicits a quick stretch
self-feeding skills).
of these muscles. The muscle contraction that is generated.
however, is short lasting. Therefore, resistance may be
Reach
added to maintain muscle contraction. Once these lead-up
Once shoulder stabilization is established, reaching is ad-
skills have been performed, the therapist can guide the pa-
dressed. Reaching can be facilitated using active scapular
tient in the use of these skills to perform reaching move-
protraction, shoulder flexion, and elbow extension. The pa-
ments in an actual self-feeding activity.
tient is initially instructed to slide the DE (gravity mini-
mized) along a tabletop surface in a forward direction as if
Grasp and Prehension
reaching for a target food item (Fig. 9.17). When this skill is
An important goal of neuromuscular faci Iitation is to reduce
achieved, the patient can begin to practice the higher-level
flexor spasticity and promote extension in patients with UE
skill of reaching (against gravity) into space to grasp a glass
flexor synergy patterns. For these patients. reduced flexor
spasticity in the wrist and fingers is required for grasp and
prehension patterns. Functional grasp and prehension pat-
terns involve voluntary active finger and thumb flexion and
voluntary active finger, thumb, and wrist extension. Without
voluntary grasp and prehension patterns. independence in
self-feeding cannot be achieved. Wrist and finger extensors
can be activated by tapping over the respective muscle
bellies. Tapping over the extensor muscles is thought to in- Proprioceptive Neuromuscular
hibit the spastic flexor muscles. I Once these lead-up skills Facilitation (PNF)
have been performed, the therapist can guide the patient to
Like neuromuscular facilitation, PNF may also be used to
practice voluntary wrist and finger extension during a self-
feeding task (e.g., grasp and release of a drinking glass or promote the required lead-up skills to feeding (UE stabiliza-
tion, reach, grasp, and prehension). Because normal move-
prehend and release small food items, such as a bread roll or
tea cracker). ment patterns are made through a combined use of rotational
and diagonal planes, PNF can be used to facilitate the nor-
Clinical Note: When using neuromuscular facilita- mal movement patterns needed for functional activities.
tion techniques. therapists must consistently main- Bilteral UE PNF patterns that place demands on trunk con-
tain an acute awareness of the patient"s quality of UE trol can facilitate the needed lead-up skills in preparation for
movement. Compensatory movement patterns should be self-feeding. PNF guiding principles call for a progression
brought to the patient"s attention, and verbal and man- of activities within the stages of motor control: mobility, sta-
ual cues should be used to help the patient correct bility, controlled mobility, and skill. The following guide-
abnormal movement patterns so they do not become lines may be used to promote the lead-up skills needed for
learned habits. For example, when attempting forward self-feeding.
reach, a patient may compensate with shoulder eleva-
tion and abduction rather than appropriate shoulder Trunk Stabilization, Rhythmic Stabilization
flexion and scapular protraction. Similarly, patients Trunk stabilization is critical for adequate VE use. During
attempting distal movements may also exhibit excess feeding activities, patients must be able to use the trunk to
shoulder movements. Such compensatory movement lean forward while bringing food to the mouth and to use
must be noted immediately and corrected. Correction shoulder stability to facilitate reaching and hand-to-mouth
should begin with verbal and manual cues to offer both patterns. Trunk stabilization may be enhanced through the
auditory and proprioceptive feedback. As the patient PNF technique of rhythmic stabilization. Rhythmic stabi-
begins to demonstrate learning, verbal cues (VCs) should lization uses isometric contractions against resistance (no
be continued while manual cues are decreased. Eventu-
motion occurs). To promote initial trunk stabilization using
ally, VCs can also be diminished as the patient gains the
rhythmic stabilization, the patient is positioned sidelying.
ability to self-correct inappropriate movement patterns.
Resistance is applied simultaneously to the upper trunk flex-
Practice of desired normal movement patterns should
ors with one hand and to the lower trunk extensors with the
begin with proximal musculature and progress distally
opposite hand (Fig. 9.19). Repetitions of this technique
as the patient"s performance becomes more skilled.
Eventually, the practice of both proximal and distal move-
should be performed in accordance with the patient's toler-
ment patterns can be combined (as they would be in ance and fatigue level. The activity can be progressed to
functional activities). sitting with application of rhythmic stabilization.
Red Flag: The observation of abnormal movement Shoulder Stabilization, Upper Extremity PNF D1
patterns and the use of compensation strategies in Flexion and D1 Extension, Dynamic Reversals
place of appropriate movement may indicate that the Shoulder stability is critical to achieving functional reach
patient has been challenged to perform a motor activity using hand-to-mouth patterns; forearm and wrist stabiliza-
that is presently beyond his or her skill level. The range of tion is necessary for grasp and prehension of eating utensils
motion (ROM) or the physical effort required for perform- and food items.
ing a specific shoulder, elbow, wrist, or hand movement
Dynamic reversals promote isotonic contractions in
may be too demanding for the patient and could inhibit
one direction followed by isotonic contractions in the re-
his or her ability to practice and learn normal movement
verse direction without relaxation. yes are used to mark ini-
patterns. In these situations, the therapist should immedi-
tiation of mO\'ement in the opposite direction. The patient
ately intervene to modify the task to provide a therapeu-
may be positioned in supine (which provides good trunk
tic challenge that is more appropriate. The observation of
increased spasticity in any muscle group is also an indi- support) or sitting. The patient is instructed to move into the
cation that the patient has been asked to perform an UE D I flexion (CE D I F) pattern against resistance, but only
activity that is too demanding. In such cases, facilitation to midrange (Fig. 9._0). The shoulder externally rotates and
of one joint at a time and the use of gravity-minimized pulls up and a ro5 the face. moving into shoulder adduction
positions may help to decrease the challenge level of a and flexion. The patient is asked to hold this position for
particular activity. approximatel~ :' =econds. The patient then moves into the
Note: The student practice activities in this chapter VE D I exten_ion l.c D IE) pattern against resistance. The
are presented as short patient examples with accompa- shoulder intemall~ rotates and pushes down and out, mov-
nying guiding questions. Box 9.2 Student Practice Activity ing into abdu- Ion :md extension (Fig. 9.21). Resistance is
presents a patient example with application of neuro- gradually in reas~~ in both directions before the patient is
muscular facilitation. asked to hold "he,. -ition. The holding position may be
CHAPTER 9 Inltr>enlion 10 ImproH Upper Extremit} Skills 223
Mr. Goldman is an 84-year-old male who is 3 weeks sta- lightweight, large food items. He practiced the hand-to-
tus post a left cerebrovascular accident (CYA) resulting mouth pattern requiring shoulder stabilization with active
in right DE hemiparesis. The quality of right DE move- distal movements several times, incorporating rest breaks
ment is characterized by minimal active shoulder move- as needed.
ment, minimal active elbow and wrist movement, and
Guiding Questions
minimal active finger, thumb, and wrist flexion and ex-
tension. There is evidence of a mild flexor synergy 1. How can neuromuscular facilitation techniques be used
pattern against gravity. The patient also exhibits mild in conjunction with a therapeutic exercise program?
visual-spatial impairment and requires minimal YCs to What would a therapeutic exercise program consist of?
How would you teach Mr. Goldman's caregivers to
attend to multiple-step activities.
carry out a therapeutic exercise program in his home
Mr. Goldman was initially provided with weightbearing
environment? What contraindications should be noted?
activities of the UE to facilitate cocontraction of the shoul- What are signs or red flags that caregivers should be
der musculature and active elbow extension. In order to fa- alerted to when working with Mr. Goldman?
cilitate active shoulder and elbow movements for forward 2. What specific lead-up skills would you use to
reaching, Mr. Goldman was provided with active-assistive facilitate trunk and postural control to encourage
exercises to decrease the effort needed to move against normal DE movement patterns?
gravity. Once Mr. Goldman was able to independently 3. What specific lead-up skills would you use to
support his shoulder and elbow within a minimal ROM, facilitate normal UE movement patterns of the
he was encouraged to practice grasp-release hand pattel11s shoulder. elbow, wrist, and hand?
requiring active wrist extension. When Mr. Goldman was -t. How can the physical therapist and occupational
able to demonstrate CE movement patterns with only a therapist collaborate to enhance the relearning of
normal movement patterns and increase independence
slight flexor S) nergistic Q\·erlay. he was offered a self-
in functional tasks such as self-feeding?
feeding task using a plastic fork to prehend and spear
224 PART /I Inll'ncntion, to Impr"," !'tInction
Compensatory Training
maintain the wrist in a position of slight extension (approx- A compensatory training approach should be used when DE
imately 20 to 30 degrees). This prerequisite lead-up skill al- recovery is limited and ADL function must be promoted
lows for the appropriate hand manipulation of food items through adaptive methods. In the compensatory approach.
and utensils. The patient is positioned in sitting. Dynamic the less affected UE and all preserved function of the more
reversals may be used to promote isotonic contractions of affected UE are used in the context of direct engagement in
the DE agonists, followed by isotonic contractions of the UE ADL retraining. Facilitation techniques are not used because
antagonists performed with resistance. The UE D I F pattern significant return of further function is not expected. Selected
in which the shoulder flexes, adducts. and externally rotates adaptive devices can be used to substitute for the absence of
facilitates reach and hand-to-mouth patterns (this pattern is foundational UE skills. For example, poor proximal shoulder
illustrated in Fig. 9.20 from a .II/pille position). The patient stability can be addressed using a mobile arm support (de-
is instructed to close the hand, wrist, and fingers and to pull scribed below). Splints designed to enhance wrist SUpp0l1
the limb up and across the face so that the shoulder is ad- can compensate for the absence of wrist extension. which is
ducted and flexed. with the elbow extended. The therapist a necessary prerequisite skill for gross grasp and prehension.
should apply matched resistance (matched to the srength of Built-up handles on utensi Is further aid gross grasp and pre-
the patient's contractions) to this DE D I F pattern. When the hension patterns.
patient's DE is positioned near the end of its range. he or she
is instructed to change direction into the UE DIE pattern. Shoulder Stabilization
The patient is asked to open the hand and extend the fingers A mobile arm support (\1,.-\S) can be used to compensate for
and wrist, with the shoulder internally rotated pushing down poor proximal shoulder ,tability (Fig. 9.22). The MAS at-
and out (see Fig. 9.21). The shoulder should now be in ab- taches to the patient's \\'heelchair to suppol1 the shoulder. el-
duction and extension. The therapist should apply matched bow. forearm. and \\ ri,t. It provides shoulder stabilization so
resistance to this DE DIE pattern. When these PNF patterns that the distal CE i placed in a position of function to promote
are reversed, movement should be smooth and continuous movements needed 111 self-feeding (i.e.. bringing food items
without relaxation and resistance maintained from one pat- back and fonh from mouth to plate).
tern into the opposite pattern.
Reaching
JP Clinical Note: The therapist should continuously
observe the quality of the patient's performance in
Shoulder \labilll~'l n Jnd ,capular protraction are prerequi-
site skills f, r r~~,h'ng. Once shoulder stabilization and
desired movement patterns and then monitor and adjust scapular protr~, . hu \ e been appropriately established
the amount of matched resistance uSing manual and ver- through corn e ,_. ': trategies (such as a MAS), shoulder
bal cueing to correct abnormal postures and positioning forward rea.: u- \\ extension in space can be facili-
Manual contacts used as cues should be progressively tated to pr:w' t _ ilg patterns. The therapist should
I nler II n III Imprll\c L:ppcr E'trclllit~ Skills 225
Mrs. Wong is a 54-year-old female who is 12 weeks sta- in re ed. he wa. given a self-feeding activity to prac-
tus post a right humeral fracture. She is able to demon- tice in orporating the combined UE movements needed
strate approximately 0 to 90 degrees of active right to perform normal hand-to-mouth patterns.
shoulder flexion and abduction. Moderate limitations in
G... ~ J QL.e ' S
active internal and external rotation are also noted. DE
patterns and dynamic reversals were used to promote I. Hm\ can the abm'e methods be used in conjunction
isotonic contractions of shoulder agonists (i.e.. shoulder with a therapeutic exercise program? What would a
flexion. adduction. and external rotation), followed by therapeutic exercise program consist of? How would
you teach Mrs. Wong's caregivers to can'y out a
isotonic contractions of shoulder antagonists (i.e., shoul-
therapeutic exercise program in her home environment?
der extension, abduction, and internal rotation) per-
What are signs or red flags that caregivers should be
formed with resistance. The therapist guided Mrs. Wong alerted to when working with Mrs. Wong?
to move into the DE D IF pattern (shoulder adduction 2. What additional lead-up skills would facilitate DE
and flexion) and applied matched resistance. The patient ROM and strength?
was then instructed to change direction into the DE DIE 3. How can the physical therapist and occupational
pattern, moving the shoulder into abduction and exten- therapist collaborate to enhance relearning of normal
sion against matched resistance. Providing resistance movement patterns and increase independence in
with UE PNF patterns can increase joint ROM and mus- functional tasks such as self-feeding')
cular strength in shoulder movements while incorporat- 4. What contraindications should you consider when
ing the rotational and diagonal movements required in using PNF techniques for patients who have sustained
a shoulder fracture?
self-feeding (e.g.. the hand-to-mouth feeding pattern).
Once Mrs. Wong's shoulder ROM and muscular strength
instruct the patient to practice shoulder forward reach and so that thumb and finger flexion can be achieved for gross
elbow extension during the retrieval of food and in the con- grasp and prehension of utensils and food items. Once
text of hand-to-mouth patterns. shoulder and wrist stabilization are established. the therapist
should instruct the patient to practice gross grasp patterns.
Grasp and Prehension For example. the therapist may guide patient practice in
A MAS provides stabilization by compensating for weak grasping a small carton of milk and pouring it into a drink-
proximal shoulder stability, supporting the ~houlder in slight ing glass. Patients who are not expected to experience distal
abduction and flexion. The MAS forearm trough supports return (e.g., those with spinal cord injury lSClj) may still be
the elbow, forearm, and wrist and facilitates fOf\\'ard reach- candidates for dorsal wrist support, but adaptations to com-
ing, which allows the movements needed for grasping and pensate for lost thumb and finger movements are indicated.
prehension. For patients who may experience diqal return of Grasp and prehension patterns can also be enhanced
musculature (e.g., peripheral nerve injur;. l. a dorsal \\Tist using built-up handles on utensils-an adaptive device that
support can be used to provide wrist stabilization (Fig. 9.23) compensates for weakness and lack of isolated movement of
Bilateral UE Use Box 9.4 Student Practice Activity presents a patient ex-
After the above prerequisite skills of shoulder stabilization, ample with application of compensatory training strategies.
scapular protraction, shoulder forward reach, elbow extension,
and grasp and prehension have been facilitated through com- 00 ami 9
pensation. bilateral UE use can be promoted through activities
Motor learning is used with patients who are able to en-
such as cutting with both hands or picking up a sandwich. The
gage in repeated practice of desired skills and who can
therapist should guide the patient in integrating both UEs
cognitively use feedback to modify movement errors. Mo-
within the context of an actual self-feeding activity.
tor learning relies heavily on actual practice. mental prac-
tice. and feedback. Rather than relying on facilitation
( hm al II e: Many patients perceive adaptive
techniques (e.g., neuromuscular facilitation and PNF) to
equipment as a sign of disability, Although adap-
improve lead-up skills needed for functional skill per-
tive devices help patients compensate for lost motor
function and can ultimately help them achieve a desired formance, motor learning is based on the theory that mo-
level of independence in self-feeding, many patients re- tor skills are best relearned when practice takes place
sist their use owing to fear and stigmatization, For some within the context of the actual desired activity (activity-
patients, the use of adaptive devices may represent an or task-specific training).
Thus, patients who are candidates for motor learning
strategies should demon trate some recovery of isolated move-
ment of the shoulder, elbow, wrist, and/or hand. The patient's
UE may still present with some weakness or impairment of
tone. Motor learning is chiefly used to organize movement pat-
terns (i.e.. synergistic movement patterns). Cues. guidance,
and feedback are provided to help the patient relearn normal
movement panern as they are practiced in actual activities.
Raphael is a 22-year-old m physical capability needed for basic feeding skills. How-
is status post a C5 incompl~tc: -C. u wined in a work- ever. if there is evidence that motor return is occurring in
related accident. A MAS wa~ u ~J to ompensate for the shoulder or other musculature, the use of compensa-
weak proximal shoulder stabilit: and to facilitate for- tory de\'ices ma) be diminished as the patient improves
ward reaching during a self-fe~ding activity. It stabilized and is able to use his own muscle power for self-feeding
the shoulder against gravit) and prO\ided support to the and other functional activities.
elbow, forearm, and wrist. The ~IAS \\'as positioned to
Gu ding Que lions
facilitate elbow extension and the forearm to move with
the assistance of gravity-to compensate for poor elbow I. What shoulder and elbow movements are preserved at
extension. Since Raphael had minimal active elbow flex- a C5 spinal cord level? What movements are lost?
ion, he could engage an eccentric contraction of the bi- How do you think such losses affect specific daily
activities?
ceps to help control the speed of elbow extension. The
2. If you were Raphael's physical therapist, what type of
use of a MAS to compensate for weak proximal stabi-
therapeutic exercise program would you design to
lization also promoted distal movements (e.g., bringing enhance his UE use? What specific exercises could be
food items back and forth from mouth to plate). Addi- used to target the spared Illusculature at the C5 spinal
tionally, adaptive devices including a dorsal wrist sup- cord level? How could your therapeutic exercise
port (Fig. 9.23) and a universal culT (Fig. 9.25) were program support the occupational therapist's effort to
used to compensate for poor wrist extension and weak or help Raphael regain independence in self-feeding?
absent grasp and prehension. Practicing the UE move- 3. How can the physical therapist and occupational
ment pattern of bringing food items back and forth from therapist collaborate to enhance potential return of the
mouth to plate during an actual feeding activity also UE musculature in patients with incomplete spinal
strengthened the musculature that may have been spared cord injuries?
4. How would you train Raphael's caregivers in the use
following Raphael's incomplete SCI. The use of com-
of a home exercise program (HEP)?
pensatory devices is necessary to promote independence
in feeding when patients do not otherwise have the
and tactile information about the patient"s own mO\·ement. Grasp and Prehension
For example, the patient can be inqructed to u~~ the less Once normal movement patterns of the shoulder and elbow
affected side to reinforce what normal mO\ement feels like hale been achieved through motor learning principles,
when spearing food with a utensil. \\ rist stabiliLation to support grasp and prehension can be
\/ J, mllted /eedlJa K provides information about the addressed using intrinsic feedback. For example, the pa-
patient's movement patterns from external sourLes (e.g .. tient can be instructed to place the less affected wrist in a
YCs from the therapist and visual cues from obsen ing on~'s position of stabilization while bringing a drinking glass to-
own movement in a mirror). "",) ... lett' 0 pe) I,./GIICf Is \\ ard the mouth. The patient is asked to observe what more
a type of augmented feedback that provides information normal proprioceptive feedback feels like in response to
about the patient's performance of movement patterns. F r \\ rist stabi IiLation. Knowledge of performunce can provide
example. the therapist may offer verbal feedback to th~ p - augmented feedback about wrist stabilization through
tient about the inappropriate use of shoulder ele\ atlLlIl ~\t~rnal sources. For example, a patient who lacks wrist
compensate for impaired shoulder flexion during rea 'hlll';. bIllzation may overcompensate with shoulder abduc-
The therapist might also usc a mirror to shO\\ the pa ien' . n. The therapist can use YCs and a mirror to help the
how he or she elevates the shoulder as a form of compen,~ lent understand that he or she is substituting shoulder
tion for impaired shoulder flexion during reaching. .. • 'tlOn for wrist stabilization. Through YCs and the
ed ) \It! , is another form of augmented feedbaL h~' " I feedback of a mirror, the patient is guided to prac-
provides information about the outcome of the IllOL eme _~ n rmal wrist stabilization patterns with increased wrist
pattern. For example. after repeated practice and feedbaL . > ,> Ion and reduced shoulder abduction. Knowledge of
the patient may be able to spear food with decreased hou- . I prO\'ided when the patient is able to reach for and
der elevation and increased shoulder flexion. Successfull ~ drinking glass with normal shoulder stabilization,
reaching for and ~pearing food with a utensil (without e\L'~, _.lI rotraction. shoulder forward reach. elbow exten-
sive shoulder ele\ ation) pro\ ide the patient with knO\\ Ied~~ t stabilization, and finger/thumb grasp and pre-
that the desi red outcome \\a~ altai ned.
228 PART /I [ntenentions to [Illprlnc Function
Jake is an 18-year-old male \\ ho u tained .1 traun1<ltic \ { rtc tI e \\ as u,'eu to enhance his hand-to-mouth
brain injury (TBI) in a moWr \chide .Icudent He pre- feedll1;; p. tt m Jake \\as gi\'en a plate of food items that
sents with frontal lohe d) tllnLlllln 1'1lJled h) mild at I n J lln different areas of the dish: he was
tention prohlems and decre.l ul .I \mcne or dlSahilit). thef1 • d ttl ;;ra p 1- to 2-inch (2.5 to 5 em) foods that
Jake is ahle to 1'0110\\ t\\()- or Ihre - tep d'reLlion \\ ith reljulred him to \ ar) his reach pattern. The demands of
minimal \'erhal and \ iSll<l1 cuc II> e hlh!t o\'crall thi • cl1\ It. reqll1red Jake to adjust his reach patterns de-
weakness, howe\er, anu ha moucrJte u ti e mmemel1t pel dll1g Oil \\ here e.lL"h foou item \\as positioned on the
in his right UE. incluuing grasp and prehen Ion. Jake plate. 11./11111" cI~( lit l'£'\I1/!.\' was attained once Jake was
currentl; appears to fa\ 01' his left CE. although he i ahle to UCLe full) reach for anu grasp the uifferent-
right-hanu uominant. i;ed IlHIU Itcm \\ hIll' using a normal UE movement
Kl/olI'/edge (l!fJel'!(II'II/lIl/c{' \\ as used to prm ide aug- pattcrn
mented fcedbac" to Jake dUring the usc of his right UE
Guiding Questions
in self-feeuing acti\' ities. AlIgllll'I/!('(/'/eed/wck Incorpo-
rated \'isual and YC\ to prm iue lIlformation ahout hiS I. \\ hat is Important to consider when treating a patient
performance or UI: mmement patterns. Because Ja"e \\ ho has both physical and cognitive deficits') What
was using shoulder delation to compensate for impaired cognili\c demand, are required for self-feeding
actl\ ities )
shouluer flexion dUring reaching actl\ities he \\as pro-
2, II )(1L1 \\ere 1a"e's physical therapist. how would you
\' iued with yes to decrease e\ce s shoulder ele\ at Illil ,
ehalleng' Like to enhance his UE control without
The therapist initially aduresseu isolated houlder mme- using therapeutic acti\'lties that are too cognitively
ments to minimi/e the cogniti\e uemanus 01 simultanc- demanuing"
ously attending to prehension patterns (using a thin 3. \\ h.lt ty pes of cues would hest facilitate Jake's
stemmed fork). Jake was al 0 prm iued \\ ith a nllrror to performance \\ Ilhout causing him to hecome agitated?
\ isuaIl; cue him to recogni/e hi u e of houlder ele\a- -L Hm\ can the ph) ical therapist anu occupational
tion as a form of compen atlllll lor \\ cal... houlder tlc- therapi t col'aborate to enhance relearning of normal
ion Juring reaching mm L'I lent pattern. emu increa e independence in
Once Jake \\a ahle to perlorm reJdllng \\ ilh <lppro- IU'lctlon,t1 ta" such a self-feeuing')
priate scapular protr<letion anu shouldel fom ard readl.
affecteu extremity folllJ\\ IIlg a troke H IIlL lude inten e tas"- I. Irl"ltment consists of 30 minutes of occupational ther-
specific practicc with llluitiple treatmel t element ,IIlU is ,IP) and ~() minutes of phy sical therapy, each three times
discussed fully in Chapter 10 \ 100lIfieL. LOI tral'll-j'lUUced per \\ cc" lor I() \\eeks.
movemcnt therap; (mCIl\IT) \\ as del L'lll )ed to pru\ lue .1 le"" 2. Occupatlllllal therapy focuses on usc of the more
intensc I1lmement therapy protocol flll' p,llient \'\ Ilh L'hr mc alfected limh in meaningful functional activities that
stroke' Modified CI1\'1T comhines II,tI -hnUI lop;; tfJdl,reJ prm ide opportunity for UE strengthening and control.
functional practice sessions with re trk nn II 1'" >
t 3. Ph) slcal therapy locuses on UE limb strengthening
fccteu UE 5 days a week lor 5 hou! . lil I' n,; ,lIld trLtching. dy namic stanuing balance, and gait
riou.' Se\eral ramlomi/ed controllcd 'ud L I'J .ILlI\ itie
mCIMT ellecti\ el) imprlJ\ ed thL' 11 l' .1Il I I - 'lhapinp ,I principal deri\'ed from CIMT-is the use of
more affected Cl: in all stage of olcljuired hi. I Il.tll tep that progressi\'e1 y increase in difficulty,
er).' Patienh\\hoha\eu edmCLIT.tll It.plrt PII1~ I u cd to slO\\ I) hut steadily increase motor
herence \\ ith decrea cu inciuenc' ot p.un. 10<" f ~
intendeu to he u cd a an olltpatlL'nt IInl'n el til '1 lr~ tL'ch"ique . functional acti\ itie . and rest peri-
hursahle \\ ithin thL' parameters of mo t I,un, s l' alternateu for approximatel) 5 minutes each
_ therap).
mCIMT Protocol affected UE is restrained eyer) weekday for a
Mouifieu CI I r prO\ Ide (1) repe,llcd pl'. t'LI? .~ rod In \\ hich patients must acti\ely attempt to
arc "nO\\ n [0 tan 't.lte kll ,cqui itllll'. pL.rp Illllrc affected LTE during dally activities.
cific practice. (.l) a pru~tlle Lhedule tholt I .t1 J lected UE is restraincd using a cotton
\'ating for partlLl n I 1 • I ld ( l) .lct \ e p uh n , 11dnd placeu in ,I meshed, pol) <;lyrene-
cilitate Iearnil ~ th hoo" and loop straps around the \\ rist.
230 PART /I Intenention' to Impr'OH Fundion
8. A log is used to record period" of mCIMT in the patient's de ons rate traces of motor unit activity in their more af-
home; the log is also u ed to record the specific activities eC'ed forearms. 9 It is important to identify such patients
pelformed during restraint periods of the les" affected UE. a d a empt to activate distal UE extension through FES
before determining that they are ineligible for mCIMT.
Clinical
ote: The primary therapeutic factor in
both C1MT and mCiMT appears to be the repeated Box 9.6 Student Practice Activity presents a patient
use of the more affected UE, which is theorized to induce example \\ ith application of mCIMT.
cortical reorganization with accompanying functional im-
provements. Repeated functional practice using the more
affected UE (as directed by the protocol) appears to over-
SUMMARY
come learned nonuse and improves function.
This chapter has addres"ed the basic requirements for UE
function \\ ithin the context of daily living skills. Task analy-
Red Flag: One shortcoming of both CIMT and sis guidelines were presented. Activity demands and sug-
mCIMT is that patients must demonstrate the mini- gested interventions were discussed for the tasks of self-
mum active range of motion (AROM) of distal extension feeding as well as the pre-feeding tasks of stabilization,
in the more affected UE (see Table 10.1 in Chapter 10). reach. grasp. and prehension. The treatment approaches dis-
Functional electrical stimulation (FES) has been shown to cussed included neuromuscular facilitation. proprioceptive
be an effective means to facilitate active wrist and finger neuromuscular facilitation. compensatory training. motor
extension in patients who fail to meet these criteria but learning, and modified constraint-induced therapy.
Mrs. Lopez is a 62-year-old female with a history of hy- When Mrs. Lopez was at home, her less affected right
pertension and type II diabetes. She is currently 6 weeks UE was re trained for 5 hours each day during the per-
status post a right CVA with resultant left UE hemipare- formance of her routine daily activities (e.g., feeding.
sis. The quality of left UE movement is characterized by dressing, preparing light cold meals, and doing light
moderate active shoulder movement; minimal active el- dusting). The patient's spouse maintained a log of her
bow and wrist movements; and moderate active finger, activities performed while her right UE was restrained.
thumb, and wrist flexion/extension. On active movement. He also assisted with all ADL tasks as needed and se-
a moderate flexor synergy pattern emerges. Visual per- cured the UE mCIMT restraint device. After I D weeks.
ception and cognition (specifically attention, recall, and Mrs. Lopez could independently use a left UE hand-to-
basic problem-solving skills) are intact. Although the mouth pattern to spear large food items with a light-
patient is left-hand dominant, she fails to use her left weight fork. She also could independently don upper
UE for ADL and requires moderate assistance for most body garments, using both UEs and minimal assistance
functional self-care activities. to don lower body garments.
Mrs. Lopez received outpatient occupational therapy
Guiding Questions
three times per week for 3D-minute sessions over the
course of I D weeks. She chose two functional activities I. If you were Mrs. Lopez's physical therapist, what
to address in therapy: self-feeding and donning clothing lead-up skills would you select to facilitate normal UE
with moderate assistance. Therapy consisted of practic- movement patterns in preparation for self-feeding?
ing feeding techniques for 5 minutes at a time during 2. What t) pe of HEP would you design for her? How
would you train ~lrs. Lopez's spouse to carry out the
which hand-to-mouth patterns were incorporated while
HEP') What red flag and contraindications should the
using the left hand to prehend a lightweight fork for spouse be informed of in order to best facilitate his
spearing foods. The hand-to-mouth pattern was repeated wife' reco\er:'7
three or four times per 3D-minute ession. leaving time 3. HO\\ can the ph~ "ical therapist and occupational
for appropriate rest periods. Shaping \\·a. used to de- therapist collaborate to enhance relearning of normal
crease compensatory movements (i.e .. exce. s shoulder movement patlt'm" and increase independence in
elevation and abduction) and increase normal movement functional [a 1,., 'u 'h as "elf-feeding?
patterns. In physical therapy. Mrs. Lopez practiced
ambulating with a straight cane (progre "ing from her
current use of a quad cane).
CHAPTER 9 Int~f\~ntif)n- tl! Imprl!'C t'ppcr Extr~mity Skills 231
L onstraint-induced (CI) movement therapy, or CI ther- introduction of a number of techniques designed to promote
apy, involves a variety of intervention components used to pro- the transfer of the therapeutic gains achieved in the clinic/
mote increased use of a more impaired upper extremity (UE) laboratory to the home environment, and (2) the combination
both in the research laboratory and clinic setting and, most im- of these treatment components and their application in a pre-
portant, in the home. I 9 The CI therapy protocol has its origins scribed, integrated, and systematic manner. This involves
in basic animal research, conducted by one of us (Taub) con- many hours a day for a period of 2 or 3 consecutive weeks
cerning the influence on movement of the surgical abolition of (depending on the severity of the initial deficit) to induce a
sensation from a single forelimb in monkeys by dorsal rhizo- patient to use a more impaired extremity. In the University of
tomy. This series of deafferentation studies led Taub to pro- Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) CI Therapy Research Labo-
pose a behavioral mechanism that can interfere with recovery ratory and Taub Training Clinic, patients are categorized
from a neurological insult--learned nonllse. 10.11 In more re- according to their ability to achieve minimal movement crite-
cent years, a linked but separate mechanism, llse-dependent ria with the UE prior to treatment. To date, six categories, re-
brain plasticity, has also been proposed as partially responsi- ferred to as "grades," have been described (Table 10.1). The
ble for producing positive outcomes from CI therapy. 12·19 Over participant in Case Study 9 (Part III) exhibits movement that
the last 20 years, a substantial body of evidence has accumu- would be categorized as Grade 3.
lated to support the efficacy of CI therapy for hemiparesis fol- CI therapy has evolved and undergone modification
lowing chronic stroke -that is, more than I year post in- over the two decades of its existence. However. most of the
jury.420 Evidence for efficacy includes results from an initial original treatment elements remain part of the standard pro-
small, randomized controlled trial (RCT) of CI therapy in in- cedure. The present CI therapy protocol, as applied in our
dividuals with UE hemiparesis secondary to chronic stroke ' ; a research and clinical settings, consists of three main ele-
larger placebo controlled trial in individuals of the same ments and multiple components and subcomponents under
chronicity and level of impairment21 ; and a number of other each (Table 10.2).'-7.9 These elements are: (I) practicing
studies. 2-9 There has also been a large, multisite randomized repetitive, task-oriented training of the more impaired UE
clinical tlial in individuals with UE hemiparesis in the suba- for several hours a day for 10 or 15 consecutive weekdays
cute phase of recovery-that is, 3 to 9 months post-stroke. 22 -24 (depending on the severity of the initial deficit); (2) apply-
Positive findings regarding CI therapy after chronic stroke are ing a "transfer package" of adherence-enhancing behavioral
also published in several studies from other laboratolies em- methods designed to transfer gains made in the research lab-
ploying within-subjects control procedures and numerous case oratory or clinical setting to the patient's real-world environ-
studies. 2s .28 Altogether more than 200 studies on the clinical ef- ment; and (3) inducing the patient to use the more impaired
fects of CI therapy have been published, all with positive re- UE during waking hours over the course of treatment, usu-
sults. Moreover, the most recent post-stroke clinical care ally by restraining the less impaired UE in a protective
guidelines, developed by a working group organized by the safety mitt (Fig. 10.1). Each of the elements, along with
U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs and the U.S. Department component and subcomponent strategies, is described in the
of Defense, describe CI therapy as an intervention that has ev- following sections.
idence of benefit for survivors of stroke with mild to moderate
UE hemiparesis. 29 Repetitive, Task-Oriented Training
On each of the \\ eekdays during the intervention period.
participants recei\'e training. under supervision, for several
Intervention: The CI Therapy Protocol hours each da~. The original protocol called for 6 hours per
day for this training. \lore recent studies indicate that a
CI therapy is a "therapeutic package" consisting of a number shorter daily training period (i.e., 3 hours per day) is as
of different components. Some of these intervention elements effective for certain ~roup~ of patients (i.e., Grades 2 and
have been employed in neurorehabilitation before. usually as 3).27.28 Two di~llll~ rallling procedures are employed as
individual procedures and at a reduced intensity compared to patients practi 'e f n tlonal task activities: shaping and task
CI therapy. The main novel features of CI therapy are: (I) the practice.
232
lraint·lnduced I\lovcment Thl'rap) 233
.- . •
Impairment Shoulder Elbow Wrist Fingers Thumb
Grade 2 Flexion ~ 45° and Extension Extension ~ 20° Extension of all Extension or
(MAL < 2.5 for abduction ~ 45° ~ 20° from from a fully MCP and IP abduction of
AOU and HW a 90° flexed flexed starting (either PIP or thumb ~ 10°
scale) starting position DIP) joints ~ 10 0a
position
Grade 3 Flexion ~ 45° and Extension Extension ~ 10° Extension ~ 10° Extension or
(MAL < 2.5 for abduction ~ 45° ~ 20° from from a fully MCP and IP abduction of
AOU and HW a 90° flexed flexed starting (either PIP or thumb ~ 10°
scale) starting position DIP) joints of
position at least two
fingers b
Grade 5 (MAL At least one of Initiation c Must be able to either initiate c extension of the wrist or
< 2.5 for AOU the following: of both initiate extension of one digit
and HW scale) flexion ~ 30°, flexion and
abduction ~ 30°, extension
scaption ~ 30°
Each movement must be repeated three times in 1 minute. Grade 6 patients fall below the minimum
Grade 5 criteria.
'Informally examined when picking up and dropping a tennis ball.
"Informally examined when picking up and dropping a washcloth.
'Initiation is defined for the purposes of criteria as minimal movement (i.e., below the level that can be
measured reliably by a goniometer).
Abbreviations: AOU, Amount of Use Scale; HW, HowWel1 Scale; Ip, Interphalangeal; MAL, Motor Activity
Log; MCp, Metacarpophalangeal; PIp, Proximal Interphalangeal.
Note:The Motor Activity log that includes the Amount of Use Scale and the HowWel1 Scale is discussed
later in the chapter under "Adherence-Enhancing Behavioral Subcomponents:'
A
B
FIGURE lOlA protective safety mitt is used to restrain the rT'C': =-:-:-:-= _:: :lv' g CI therapy intervention: (A) palmar view;
(8) dorsal view.
234 PART /I Intenentions to Impnne Function
FIGURE 10.2 Participant is executing a shaping task involving unscrewing a nut from a bolt (A) at a lower level of complexity
with the bolt placed closer to participant, and (8) at a higher level of complexity with the bolt placed farther away,
FIGURE 10.3 Participant is executing a shaping task involving removing clothespins from a horizontally positioned wooden
stick (A) at a lower level of complexity with the clothespins placed low on the stick. and (8) at a higher level of complexity
with the clothespins placed high on the stick,
FIGURE 10.4 Participant is executing a task practice ac- . - - ::: -;; '::: :: -;; ':)wels and stacking them during (A) early and
(8) later stages of execution,
236 PART /I IlltcnclltitlllS to ImprI)\c Function
.. .. .. '.
Interaction Type Definition Used in Shaping Used in Task Practice
Model n9 When a trainer physically Provided at the beginning Provided at the beginning of
demonstrates a task of the shaping activity; a task practice activity
repeated between trials
as needed
To achieve this goal, a set of techniques termed a trallsfN is related to both the adoption and maintenance of a target
packa~c is employed, which has the effect of making the pa- behavior."·38 Studies have demonstrated that self-efficacy
tient accountable for adherence to the requirements of the can be enhanced through training and feedback. 39. 41 Per-
therapy. In this way the patient becomes responsible for his ccired bar/'ien may incorporate both objective and subjec-
or her own improvement. In the life situation, the participant tive components.'5.37 O!J./('CIn'e obstac/c\ can be reduced
must be actively engaged in and adhere to the intervention through environmental and task adaptation. Subjectn'e barn-
without constant supervision. Attention to adherence is di- ers may be reduced by such interventions as confidence-
rected to using the more impaired UE during functional tasks building. problem-solving, and refuting the beliefs that hinder
and obtaining appropriate assistance from caregivers, if pres- activity.
ent (i.e., assistance to prevent patients from struggling exces-
sively, but allowing them to try as many tasks by themselves Intervention Principles
as is feasible), and to wearing the mitt as much as possible A number of indi\'idual intervention principles have been
(when it is safe to do so). succes full) applied to enhance adherence to exercise and
Potential solutions to these adherence challenges have physical function-oriented behaviors. Four are most relevant
been used to increase adherence to exercise in older adults- to and are utilIzed in the adherence-enhancing behavioral
the population most commonly experiencing stroke and component. of CI therapy: I oll'toring, problem-sob'illg,
subsequently most likely to receive CI therapy.34 Two psy- hehlll i 'c.! c and \ /( illl Hlpport.
chological factors, self-efficacy and perceived barriers. have
been identified as the strongest and most consistent predic- Monitoring
tors of adherence to physical acti\'it) in older adults. Se(f~ Monitoring i on of he mo t commonly used strategies and
ell/caer is defined as an indi\ idual' confidence in his involve as 'In; . 1ftIcipants to observe and document their
or her ability to engage in the acti\ it) on a regular basis; it performan e behaviors (see the section on the
CHAP,='( .:; lon traint-Induced MOHmellt Therap~ 237
home diary later in the chapter. - P"uents may be asked to .\Ioni! nng. problem-solving, contracting, and social
record a variety of aspect' of 'he e behaviors, including support inte["\ entions have been used successfully, alone or in
mode of activit\" duratiol/. rt'ct:.t'llt. perceil'ed exertion. combination. to enhance adherence to physical activity in a va-
and psw-/lOlogiwl reSpOI/\L. PatIent ,hould be asked to sub- riet: of partiCIpant groups with a variety of activity limitations.
mit their monitoring record, to tJ'Illtate consistency and
completeness of record~. bLll mo,t importantly to promote
Adherence-Enhancing Behavioral
adherence to the self-monitoring 'trategy.
Subcomponents
The full range of adherence-enhancing behavioral subcom-
Prohlem-Solving ponents currently employed in the CI therapy protocol in-
Interventions to promote problem- 01\ ing involve partner- clude daily administration of the Motor Activity Log
ships between the therapist and patient that ultimately teach (MAL), a structured. scripted interview that elicits infor-
individuals to identify obstacle. that hinder them, generate mation on how well and how often the more affected UE
potential solutions. select a solution for implementation. eval- was used in 30 important activities of daily Iife.IA).~6 Also
uate the outcome. and choose another solution if needed 36 included is a patient-kept home diary, problem-solving
procedures. individual behavioral contracts with both the
Heha,ioral Contracting patient and the caregiver independently, a daily schedule
Behavioral contracting involves asking participants to write constructed by the therapist, a home skill assignment, a
down the specific behaviors they normally carry out during home practice schedule, and a post-treatment contact.
the course of a day, and then entering into an agreement with Table lOA lists each transfer package component and
the therapist as to which behaviors the patients will carry oLll categorizes each according to the adherence-enhancing
and in what way they will be carried out. Veritication of the intervention principle(s) employed. Each transfer package
execution of the contract occurs as part of the monitoring as- subcomponent is described below. in the order in which
pects of the procedure. they are encountered by the patient during a typical inter-
vention period.
Social Support
Educating and enlisting the caregiver to provide the optimal '\lotor Activit} Log (\lAL)
amount of support (e.g., encouraging the patient's indepen- Scoring on the MAL is caJTied out with respect to two six-
dence with tasks as much as possible but also assisting the pa- point rating scales: the Amount of Use Scale (Table 10.5) and
tient when absolutely necessary to prevent frustration on the the How Well Scale (Table 10.6). Using the MAL, respon-
paJ1 of the patient) aJ'e important to successfull) using the mitt dents aJ'e asked to rate how much (i.e., amount of use [AOUJ)
restraint and more involved UE in the home and community and how well (HW) they use their more affected UE for 30 im-
setting.~2 This social SUPPOI1 is optimized b: reviewing the pOl1ant activities of daily living (ADL) in the home over a
terms of the behavioral contract and administering a caregil'er specified period using the two rating scales.IA).~(' The 30 ADL
contract with anyone who spends a signitlcant amount of time tered independently to the patient in the research or clinical
with the patient.
Behavioral contract X X
Caregiver contract X
Home diary X
Daily schedule X X
Home practice X X
- ---
Contact post-treatment X X
238 PART /I Intl'nentions to Impr,ne Function
TABLE 10.5 Motor Activity log Amount TABLE 10.7 Activities Included on the 3D-Item
of Use Scale Motor Activity logo .
0= Did not use my weaker arm (not used) 1. Turn on a light with a light switch
2. Open a drawer
1 = Occasionally tried to use my weaker arm
(very rarely) 3. Remove an item of clothing from a drawer
4. Pick up a phone
2 = Sometimes used my weaker arm but did most
5. Wipe off a kitchen counter or other surface
of the activity with my stronger arm (rarely)
6. Get out of a car
3 = Used my weaker arm about half as much as 7. Open a refrigerator
before the stroke (1/2 prestroke)
8. Open a door by turning a doorknob
4 = Used my weaker arm almost as much as before 9. Use a TV remote control
the stroke (3/4 prestroke) 10. Wash your hands
5 = Used my weaker arm as normal as before 11. Turning the water on/off with knob or lever
the stroke (same as prestroke) on the faucet
12. Dry your hands
13. Put on your socks
14. Take off your socks
setting, or to an informant when available. This provides a
15. Put on your shoes
quantified record of patient progress during treatment and can
be used as a supplement to a therapist's clinical notes. The 16. Take off your shoes
tasks include such activities as brushing teeth, buttoning a shirt 17. Get up from a chair
or blouse. and eating with a fork or spoon. As part of our re- 18. Pull a chair away from the table before sitting down
search. this information is gathered about the use of the more 19. Pull a chair toward the table after sitting down
affected UE in the week and year prior to the participant's en-
20. Pick up a glass, bottle, drinking cup, or can
rollment in the project. the day before and after the episode of
care begins and ends. on each day of the intervention (i.e., the 21. Brush your teeth
whole MAL on the first day of each week and altemate halves 22. Put makeup base, lotion, or shaving cream on face
of the instrument on each of the other weekdays), weekly by 23. Use a key to unlock a door
phone for the 4 weeks after the end of treatment, and at several 24. Write on paper
times during the 2-year follow-up period. In the clinic, the 25. Carry an object in hand
MAL is administered before training on the first treatment day,
26. Use a fork or spoon for eating
27. Comb hair
28. Pick up a cup by the handle
:TABLE 1~:6 Motor Activity log How Well Scale 29. Button a shirt
o = The weaker arm was not used at all for that activity 30. Eat half a sandwich or finger foods
(never).
2 = The weaker arm was of some use during that on each day during treatment. immediately after treatment, and
activity but needed some help from the stronger arm or once a week for the fir t month after treatment. Several studies
moved very slowly or with difficulty (poor). conceming the c1inimetric properties of the MAL have shown
3 = The weaker arm was used for the purpose indicated, the measure to be reliable and valid. 43 -46 Moreover, the MAL
but movements were slow or were made only with does not produce a treatment effect when administered to per-
some effort (fair). sons receiving a pia ebo treatment who are on the same treat-
ment schedule as tho=e receiving CI therapy.2o Preliminary
4 =The movements made by the weaker arm were results from an ongoing experiment at the DAB suggest that
almost normal but not quite as fast or accurate as this self-monitonng instrument is a very important means
normal (almost normal).
of producing a trans er of improved performance from the
5 =The ability to use the weaker arm for that activity laboratory/clini (0 the life ituation when used in conjunction
was as good as before the injury (normal). with other aspe-b of the CI therapy protocol, particularly con-
centrated trainin::
CHAPTE7 . ~ (on lrainl·lnduced 1\!tJ\cmenl TheJ'ap~ 239
Behavioral Contract chara ten tICs e.g .. equipment used and assistance pro-
The behavioral contract (Be) i~ a formal. written agreement \ ided) are also listed. Identifying the patient's typical rou-
between the therapist and patient ~tipulating that the patient tine is helpful for selecting items for each category of the
will use the more affected UE for ~pecific acti\ ities in the life BC that are important and meaningful to the patient. ADL
situation. In addition. to increase the u~e of a restraint device are then ategorized in the contract into those to be done
(a protective safety mitt worn on the le~s involved UE [see \\ ith ( I ) mitt on. more affected UE only: (2) mitt off. both
Fig. 10.1]) outside of the clinic or laboratory. the BC is help- hands: and (3) mitt off. less affected UE. The times agreed
ful in increasing safety in use of the mitt. engaging the par- upon for "mitt off" activities are specified and have mainly
ticipant in active problem-solving to increase adherence. and to do \\ ith safety. the use of water. and sleep: the amount of
emphasizing patient accountability for adherence. The BC is time \\ hen the mitt should be worn should also be specified.
completed at the end of the first day of treatment. when the When formulating the BC. the goal is to place as many
therapist has examined the patient's functional motor capac- of the patient's activities into the "mitt on, more affected UE
ity and the participant has experienced using the mitt. The only" category as is safe and feasible. Sometimes this means
BC is signed by the therapist. the patient, and a witness; this that the routine activities of the patient must be modified:
formality emphasizes the importance of the agreement. adaptive equipment may be suggested or provided and/or
Before administering the Be. the therapist emphasizes the caregiver enlisted to assist with the task. The caregiver
the following points: can participate by serving as a "second arm" or by complet-
ing components of the task that are infeasible for the patient
• Use of the weaker UE outside of the clinical setting is
(e.g., cutting meat for the patient during meal time). When
just as important as using it in the clinic. if not more so.
formulating the BC, the time frame for completion must be
• The purpose of the BC is to induce the patient to use the
considered. Patients may need additional time to complete
more affected UE as much as possible.
their routine tasks while wearing the mitt, and the schedule
• Safety is always the most important consideration. even
should be modified to account for this. For example. a pa-
more than maximal use of the more affected UE.
tient may need to wake up 30 minutes earlier than usual in
• At times. patients will be asked to perform activities in
order to complete routine activities and still anive at the
ways that they would not normally carry them out (e.g..
clinic at the scheduled time. The use of an assistive device
use their nondominant UE to brush their teeth). It is not
when walking poses a challenge to mitt use and should be
suggested that they adopt this approach permanently. In-
considered when formulating the Be. For example. when a
stead. they are asked to just perform the tasks in this way
patient requires the use of a straight cane for walking outside
for the 2- or 3-week treatment period to encourage recov-
the home (e.g .. in the yard or in the community), any activ-
ery of use of the more affected UE. It is usually at this
ities performed while walking outside of the home should be
point that the therapist briefly explains use-dependent neu-
placed in one of the "mitt off" categories. Also, tasks per-
ral reorganization. It may be helpful to use language that
formed in social situations may pose a particular challenge
evokes images. such as ''E)'err tillle .\'011 lise YOllr \\'eaker
for patients, as they may be embarrassed to use the mitt in
arm, rOll send nape illlplilses to rOllr brain that help to
public. This should be discussed frankly with the patient.
strengthen it, so that it is better able TO 1II00'e YOllr arm."
The therapist should point out that the CI therapy protocol
• Patients will be frequently asked \\'hether the~ performed
requires full participation and that failure to use the mitt
the activities listed in the Be. and the BC ma~ be modi-
whenever possible will result in a reduced outcome. Pa-
fied (e.g., items added or deleted) from lIme 10 line
tients should be proud of their dedication to improving the
based on their performance.
use of their UE and reminded that others will view their ef-
• With some activities on the Be. part! I ~n: _ 'lee':
fons in the same way. Still, they may choose to avoid social
assistance from a caregiver. In man~ '_,~ . re,e . ::::. I
situations that they anticipate will be uncomfortable for the
assistance is preferred to remO\ ing the J ~; '':~
short 2-week intervention period. That is acceptable if it
less affected UE to complete the tJ
cannot be avoided. When the patient's routine includes long
mizes use of the more affected CE, .-\1.. I
riod. of inactivity (e.g .. many hours spent watching tele-
acceptable for a caregiver to assi~t \\ III
I Ion l. the therapist can add activities to the routine to as-
agreed upon by all parties. and identitie
_re hat the patient is moving the more affected UE as
check in the caregiver assistance colum
_ 'h;} po. sible. thereby maximizing use-dependent plas-
• The BC is a formal agreement bet\\een th
m reorganization.
and the therapy team and, as such. it ~hou;
T promote safety, therapists must point out situations
seriously. It is important to note that the th
- '. he patient should avoid using the mitt. The "mitt off,
also takes this agreement very seriousl).
j .. category is for activities in which the patient
The first step in administering the BC _ ~ • use the mitt but could still safely incorporate use
ADL encountered by the patient on typical \\e ' '-_, re . d'fected UE into the task. Bathing and showering
Saturdays and Sundays. The times that the pat;;:, . __ ~eu in this category. Although the mitt should be
carries out these activities and any distingui,hm; J oid getting it wet and to allow use of the less
240 PART /I IntnHntlO1 I. IllIllr t J \I ntllon
affected UE for maintaining bal<lI1ce. the more <Itkcted l'E "l\lrt \\ hether or nOl the~ hol\ I' USl'd their more
should still be used as much as possihle dunng the hathll1g re!1l1t~ \\ hill' perl'ormmg different tasko" espe-
process (e.g.. lathering bod~ part and manipulating a har ot I ted on the Be The hom ' dJar~ dnd daily re-
soap). Dressing is also commonl~ included 111 thiS catcl!or~. a 1-\1 Lon tllute Ihe l1lolin nH1nitoring aspects of
it is difficult to place the mitt through <I Imt or hlou . ee e ~ pro Ol'\ I I hey heightI'll palients' ;l\\ arenes
evel1heless. patient hould he encouraged 0 I, e the r 1110r<- ''le 1110re alkll 'd L I ,md emphasl/e adher-
affected UE to manipulate hUllon. , f.lsten strap, and hl,d...!e B( ,Ill'" patient . <ILl'\lulltabilit~ tor their O\\n
belts whene\ er possihle.
Therapists unfamiliar \\ ith the CI therap\ r Iltolol
may have the tendenc~ to include ,til hllll,1I1U, I t<lsk II' thl
category. We belie\e that man~ bllnanual tJ klan he mod- \ t t le I \L ,md home dldr) alo prO\ ides a
ified for inclusion into the "mitt on, more <tllccted II onh' 01 t'l1lll to! talkmg ,Ihout \\ h) :he \\eaker e\-
category by enlisting the caregi\\;~r to en l' .IS a second L E tr"m1 II)t ,I I'd tor specltie Jlli\ itic and fnr problem-
l) \ n= 1'1 hl \\ l\ II e It more I'or example. the patient may
during these tasks. ror example. a .ia! "dnnot usuall~ be
opened effectively \\ ith one hand Inskad of II1dudll1g thl Ut th.. h~' lIr ,le \\ a lInolble to pilk up a sallll\\ich \\ ith
task in the "mitt off. both haml ,. l'ategor), \\e helie e It IS une l<lnd ,lrJ t lere )re rl'mO\ cd lhe nllt! dnd used the less
preferable to ask the caregiver to stahill/l' the pr \\hile the imp,llrl • LEI) ,I sist. TIll' thLlaplst may then suggest Ihat
patient unscrews the lid and to include this task 111 the "mitt the s,l'ld\\ '~I' he cut mto ljuoIrter so that it is more easily
on, more affected UE only" categor~. Altl\llles that t)pi- mampuh ted \\ Ilh the \\Cakl'r e\lIemlt~. t\S another example.
cally belong in the "mitt otf. less affected l E" catl'gor~ in- the pat'ent mIght repurt that he nr she is unahle to open a
clude those in which it is alh isable for d h,lIldraii to be used. door in the honl<.' I ecallse the doorknub is small and difticult
such as when ascending or descending stairs. \\ hen ha\ mg. to gnp. I he therolplst ma) pro Ide the indi\ idllal \\ ith a
and while cooking. Clumsiness \\ ith these tasks could result doorkn lh build-up ,lIld sl,gge t thai it he used so that the
in injury and should not be risked. Once lhe mill IS removed. donr loin be opelled \\ ith the more atlcl"ted CEo
it can be difficult to get the patient to put the mitt had.: on
1-1 1 l' III 1"111 l' 1t
the less affected UE. For that rea on. the Be peLitic thL
\\ ear!'l!! the mIt! \\ hill' a a from the clinic or laborator)
time the mitt should be removed and then p'aced back OIL
docs not ,I urc th;lt patient \\ Illul' the more impaired CE
reemphasiLing the importance of \\ caring the mill. I he doc-
l\l carr) out \DL that h,ld heen <IC, lmph hed exclui\eh
ument is often modi tied during treatment ,I the Datler t gain
\ Ith till k II I'Ld L I 11 lilt <It all. since the strok~.
ne\\ movement skills. An e"all1ple oj a compkted He IS
'1 home skill assignment proct.' encourages patients to
provided for Case Study 9 (Part Ill) online at I);l\ is}'!/{1
tr -\Dl th<lt the~ m I~ nllt othel"\\lse ha\e tned \\ith the
(http://w\\\\.fadm is.com l. The BC emplo. s the adherence-
more imp; Ired l E 1 he thera!,1 t Ilr t re\ ie\\ sa Itst of com
enhancing intervention principles lit monitonng ,1I1d proh-
mO'1 ADI tasks l'alried OUI ill thL: Lome. The tasks are cat-
lem-soh ing to transfer treatment into the home and commu-
egort/ed acCOrdllH! to the rlloms 1Il \\ hlch the) .Ire usuall~
nity environment. Smce the BC spel'lt'e al·tl\ itie \\ Ilh
perf\llllll'd (e g. kJlLl1el. hathroolll hedroom. office, and so
which caregiver assistance should he prm ided. It ,I1so em
lorth l. <;tdl ting on the sl'cond day of the inter\ention pe-
ploys a social support strategy.
riod, pallents arc asked to sl'lect lOAD!' tasks from the list
Careghl'r Contract that the\ agree tOlr) <tiler the) leave the laoOralOr) or clilllc
The caregiver contract is a formal \\ rilten agreemcnt he- and before the~ return for the ne t day of treatment. Tasks
tween the therapist and the patient's caregi\l:r. It stipulates not on thl' Itst llla~ he selel'ted If desired hy the patient.
that the caregi\er \\ill be present and a\ailahle \\ hile the I he l' ta k arl (0 ")' Coll1"'l( Ollt \\ hile \\eartng the Illit!
patient is wearing the mitt and \\ ill aid In the at home pro- \\ hen 't I po 1'11t ,111 ,I'C to dn 0 I herapists guide the
gram as well as generally help to Inl'rUISl' lise of the more patil'llt to eiL'll 11\" th, t the patlcnt h,'IH:\"es \\ill be
affected UE. It is completed after the t'rm ot Ihe Be \\ Ilh rclatl ely ea til ,Il 11 III I I. 1 LInd 11\ e tasks he or she he
the patient are shared \\ ith the "arl'''I\ I r l' Co regi\ er :Ie\' \\111 rei 11 Lh, 'ILng IhelOitem elected arc
reLl)rlt~l! ('I ,n ,I ~I nil! I ,kll ,md gl\ en to patients \\ hen
contract impro\"es caregi\er . unde t, n illig (It '1': treat-
ment program. guides caregl\ cr :lI 01 I t .lrproprloltel~, the~ le,l\l' thl ,h (t I' IIII'll' III tile dd), The goal IS
and increase., patient safet~. 1pc C,lfe~l\cr LtllltJdCt I 'or ..PI'("( 1111..1 I tl' tu he de\ oted to tr~ ing the
peLitleli \DI 10111: edch dol~ rhe home sk.ill a -
signed by the therapist. patient. "ar'gl\ll. ,1IlJ ,I \\1 nes.
which. again. formall~ emphasl/e the import"nce of the Ignm.:nt hl ' ~ l d"nng the t Ir t part of the next
tre; tmel't II ~ 1 ,(I oIldltlonal ADL tasks are se-
agreement. As such. it emplo~ 0,,', I Ipport I 1 enhance
adherence to the treatment prot0 01 ,eL 'cd It r h 1_11 11lllt lor that '\ ening. This
prole ' ILl llit th.: Intenentlon period. \\ith
Home Di'ln efforts m, d ~ 1l' lISl of the more impaired CF
The home diary i, maintaliled 01' ,I I, h< I Patient list dur.nO:! ,I I \Ill t.I k in as man) different
their activities outside the rl <-<I lor , b0 <Hon or clinical room lIf th I 1111 Ible.
CHA~ (on traint-Induced i\lo\('mt'lIt Therap~ 241
Home Practice during 010 t or all functional activities. even when the ther-
During treatment, as an alternati\e to the home skill assign- api t i, pre en . Over the last decade, the protective safety
ment, patients are asked to spend 15 to 30 minutes at home mitt. \\ hi 'h eliminate. the patient's ability to use the fingers,
each day performing specific UE tasks repetitively with their ha been the preferred approach for restraint. The mitt pre-
more affected UE; this is referred to as WlIlt practt 'c- \ ent fun tional use of the less affected UE for most pur-
t uri/l.' Jl P-D) [as in during the episode of care J. The tasks po e \\ hile ...till allo\\ ing protective extension of that UE in
typically employ materials that are commonl) available case of falling a \\ell as permits arm swing during ambula-
(e.g., stacking cups). This strategy is particularly helpful for tion and to help maintain balance. Patients are taught to put
individuals who are typically relati\ely inactive while in on and take off the mitt (or sling) independently. and deci-
their home setting (e.g., spending long periods watching tel- sions are made about when its use is feasible and safe. The
evision) and provides more structure to using the more im- goal for patients with mild or moderate motor delicits is mitt
paired UE than the home skill assignment. Care must be use dUling 90 percent of waking hours. Thi so-called "forced
taken not to overload the patient with too many assignments use" is arguably the most visible element of the intervention to
while away from the laboratory or clinic, as this could prove the rehabilitation community, and it is frequently and mis-
demotivating. For this reason. therapists usually select either takenly described as synonymous with "CI therapy." How-
the home skill assignment or HP-D to encourage more real- ever, Taub and coworkers have stated "there is ... nothing
world use of the more affected UE; rarely are both used talismanic about use of a sling, protective safety mitt or
simultaneously. Toward the end of treatment, an individual- other restraining device on the less-affected UE'·2.p3 as
ized post-treatment home practice program is drawn up. long as the more affected UE is exclusively engaged in re-
consisting of tasks that are similar to those assigned in peated practice. COl/straint, as used in the name of the
HP-D; this is referred to as hOIllt' practict'-{~/ter (HP-4.) therapy. was intended not only to refer to the application
[after completion of the episode of care 1. For each patient. 8 of a physical restraint. such as a mitt, but also to indicate
to 10 activities are selected based on the patient's remaining a constraint to use the more affected UE for functional ac-
movement deficits. Patients are asked to demonstrate under- tivities. 2 As such. an) strategy that encourages exclusive
tanding and proficiency with all tasks before discharge. use of the more affected UE is viewed as a "constraining"
These tasks usually employ commonly available items to component of the treatment package. For example. shap-
increase the likelihood that the) will be implemented. Pa- ing was meant to be considered as constituting a very
tients are encouraged to select one or two task<, per day and important constraint on behavior; the participant either
to perform these tasks for 30 minutes daily. On the next day. succeeds at the task or is not rewarded (e.g .. by praise or
patients are asked to select one or t\\O different tasks from knowledge of improvement).
the HP-A assignment sheet. Patient are in tructed to carry Preliminary findings by StelT and colleagues indicate
out these exercises indefinitel). a signiticant treatment effect using CI therapy without the
physical restraint component. 27 Likewise, our laboratory has
Daill Schedule obtained similar findings with a small group of participants
The physical therapist document a detailed ,heJule of all (11 =9) when a CI therapy protocol without physical restraint
activities carried out in the clinic on e Lh j was employed. 2 .1> However, our study suggested that this
vention. This includes the time de\L)te acti\ it) group experienced a larger decrement at the 2-year follow-
listed. The schedule specifically note th I \ en he
up testing than groups where physical restraint was em-
mitt is taken off and put back on the Ie Iml'~ ~e :1 ~d The ployed. If other treatment package elements, developed in
time and length of rest period are..Jl 1- r d"i,:: our laboratory. are not used, our clinical experience suggests
shaping and task practice acti\ ities <ire II 'e . that routine reminders to not use the less affected UE alone,
of only the more affected UE during lun . \\ ithout physical restraint. would not be as effective as using
function is high enough for this to be le_ ~ e 'h mitt. Con~equently. we use the mitt to minimize the need
schedule includes not only the length of til e ~e .' r the therapist or caregiver to keep reminding the patient
ing lunch, but also what foods were eaten ... n . lImit use of the less affected UE during the intervention
accomplished. Information recorded on th '-
particularly helpful for demonstrating 1'1':'-
daily activities to the patient; this often ha, t
tivating him or her to try harder. ique Aspects of CI Therapy
s a Rehabilitation Approach
Constraining (Encouraging) Participant to l
Affected LE _ _ r a hes are used to improve motor function af-
The most commonly applied CI therapy treatm;;> ~.- A compcl/satull/ approach involves substitu-
has incorporated the use of a restraint (either a ,11 :: - I . alternate behavioral strategies are utilized to
tective safety mitt) on the less affected UE to [;;> - DL. In traditional compensation. the activities
tients from succumbing to the strong urge to u e '-_' e primarily with the less affected extremities.
242 PART 1/ Intenentillil" til Impro\e I-lindillil
The more affected extremities would. at most, be used as a Cl therap) protocol does not allow traditional compensation
prop or assist. This approach is believed to be particularl) ilno de\ iates from a functional recovery approach where all
useful when spontaneous recovery of function has plateaued ADL \\ould be attempted in the "typical" manner they were
and further recovery seems doubtful. perfonned before the stroke. The purpose of the strict adher-
A more optimistic view of recovery places emphasis ence to using the protective snfety mitt is not to encourage a
on regaining movement on the more affected side of the pennanent change in the way the participant pelt'orms ADL.
body. Postinjury rehabilitation training may focus on pro- Rather. use of the protective safety mitt requires the concen-
moting functional recovery using the concept of trill' n 01'· trated and repetitive use of the more affected UE, which leads
ery. A specific function is considered "recovered" if it is per- both to O\ercoming the strongly learned habit of nonuse and to
formed in the same manner and with the same efficiency and use-dependent c0l1ical plasticity. Once the treatment period
effectiveness as before the stroke. CUlTent CI therapy pro- (i.e.. 2 or 3 weeks) has ended. participants return the protective
motes a newer mhstitutlOIl approach. The more affected ex- safet) mitt and perform ADL in the most effective manner pos-
tremities may be used in a new way. compared to before the sible with enhanced use of the more affected UE. Interestingly,
neurological insult, to perform a functional task. The ques- anecdotal observations suggest that after treatment many par-
tion regarding which rehabilitation strategies are most effec- ticipants with more affected, nondominant UEs begin using
tive has been an ongoing debate in the neurorehabilitation the more affected. nondominant UE for tasks previously per-
field for many years. In a sense. the CI therapy approach formed with the dominant. less affected UE. Such observa-
cuts through these long-standing discussions about optimal tions warrant fUl1her investigation.
treatment interventions. The CI therapy approach to stroke
rehabilitation bypasses this compartmentalization of reha- Importance of oncentrated Pact"ce
bilitation entirely and is not concerned with the requirement
Although the cr therapy protocol used most often includes
that the recovery induced by therapy involves the exact re-
some sort of restraint on thc less affected UE, variations in this
placement of normal or prestroke coordination to produce
approach (i.e .. shaping only and intensive physical rehabilita-
improved motor function and functional independence or
tion) do nOl. e.s As mcntioned earlier. there is thus nothing tal-
whether compensation is permitted. The objective is to en-
ismanic about using a restraining device on the less affected
able a participant to accomplish a functional objective with
UE. The common factor among all the interventions in the CI
the best movement of which he or she is capable as long as
therapy protocol. producing an equivalently large treatment ef-
the more affected UE is involved. Further. due mainly to re-
fect. appears to be repeated practice using the more affected
imbursement policies, most intervention is delivered in short
UE and use of the transfer package. Any intervention that in-
treatment periods, relative to CI therapy, and in a distributed
duces a patient to use a more all'ected UE many hours a day in
manner. If applied clinically, the CI therapy approach. as
the clinic or laboratllry and at home (e.g., by the use of the
used in the UAB Research Laboratory, represents a substan-
transfer pad.nge) for a period of consecutive weeks should be
tial paradigm shift for physical rehabilitation. The CI ther-
therapeutically efficacious. These factors are likely to produce
apy approach is different in a variety of ways from the more
the use-dependent cortical plasticity found to result from CI
traditional compensation and functional recovery ap-
therapy and are presumed to be the basis for the long-term in-
proaches used, as discussed below.
crease in the amount 01 use of the more alfected limb.
Conventional physical rehabilitation, regardless of
Use of the More Affected Extremity
the setting (i.e .. inpatient or outpatient) or stage of rehabil-
Use of the protective safety mitt prevents pat1icipants from itation (i.e .. acute. subacute. or chronic). does not provide
performing ADL and training activities with the less affected a sufiicient concentration of practice. The conventional
extremity unless using the less affected UE is absolutely nec- schedule falls short not only in the nbsolute time that using
essary for safety or to avoid having the restraining device from the more affected LEis required. hut also in the administra-
becoming wet with water, even if the less affected UE would tion of the practice periods on consecutive days (e.g., 3 hours
normally be used for that function. For example, if the less af- per da) of total therap) time). Clinical application of CI
fected UE was the dominant UE before the stroke and the task the rap) \\ill likel) reLjuire a change in the typical schedul-
was typically perfOlmed by the dominant UE (e.g., writing or ing pattern for rehahllitatioll. Episodes of care will likel~
brushing the teeth), the CI therapy protocol still requires the need to he l11l'Qi fied frnm short treatment sessions held
participant to pelt'olm the task with the more affected. non- several time, a \\eek for several months to up to 3-hour
dominant UE. This remains true for tasks that are bilnteral in sessions calTleJ out J.ul) for consecutive days over a 2- or
nature (e.g.. folding clothing). Instead of removing: the mitt 3-week perll)Q dependlIlg on the severity of the deficit}. In-
and pelforming the task with both L'b. the participants per- creasing the ..ll11 )unt of lise by means of prescribed home
form the task, in a modified fashion. with the more affected practice e\er I e, IP( 'lltored by phone calls at the time of
UE exclusively, or they enlist the as istance of a caregiver to initiating Jnd then tim hing the home exercises and moni-
serve as a "second UE." Many of the CI therapy participants' tored home J I~' \' highl) desirable, especially for week-
ADL are modified dUling the tmining period. In this way. the ends dunn,; . e . -en Financial feasibility of this type of
CHA;:J-!:- _ lon-traint-lnduced !\IuHI11Cnt Therapy 243
approach requires changes in payment structures and poli- hour' d' 'I.. \ u) from the rehabilitation facility is critical to
cies within reimbursement agencies. achie\ in,: penn nent changes in brain plasticity and func-
tion ..-\n ther ul1lque aspect of the CI therapy approach is its
Shaping as a Training Technique emph<bl on the use of adherence-enhancing behavioral
techniques i.e .. the transfer package) to facilitate the use of
CI therapy studies have used predominately either task prac- the more affe ted UE. While the use of similar behavioral
tice or shaping for training activities. Preliminary data suggest technique ha been described in the physical rehabilitation
that a predominance of shaping in the training procedures is literature, their use in combination and with the intensity
more effective for lower functioning participants than a pre- with \\ hi h they are used in the CI therapy protocol is differ-
dominance of task practice. Use of either technique for higher ent. The u e of the transfer package provides multiple oppor-
functioning participants appears to be beneficial, though even tunitie for ystematically increasing attention to the use of
here, use of shaping appears to confer a therapeutic advan- the more affected UE, promoting participants' accountability
tage. Thus, shaping seems to be an effective training proce- for adhering to the cr therapy protocol, and providing struc-
dure for enhancing the use of the more affected UE in the life tured problem-solving between therapists and participants.
situation. Intensive contact with the therapist establishes an important
While there are many similarities between shaping rapport between therapist and patient, which helps the patient
and the conventional training techniques used by therapists, view the take-home practice and mitt-wearing requirements
important differences also exist. Shaping procedures use a of the therapy very seriously. Taken together, the behavioral
highly standardized and systematic approach to progress the techniques result in improved adherence to the required CI
difficulty level of motor tasks attempted. Also, feedback therapy procedures.
provided in shaping is immediate, specific, and quantitative Evidence from our research suggests that this transfer
and emphasizes only positive aspects of the participants' package may be the most important component of the CI
performance 3 ' In this way, the therapist's input and contin- therapy protocol. 19 Also, studies investigating a CI therapy
uous encouragement motivate the participant to put forth protocol with a reduced training component (i,e" 3Y, hours
continued and maximal effort. Tasks are used that empha- instead of 7 hours) suggest that the reduced time may pro-
size movements in need of improvement yet are within the duce similar results. A possible explanation for this could be
capability of the participant. Excessive effort is avoided, as successful carryover of the behavioral techniques used dur-
it may be demotivating for the participant. The influence of ing the treatment period to promote adherence, even when at
shaping is primarily behavioral in nature and directed at home and not in contact with the physical therapist. These
keeping participants motivated, fully informed of their findings highlight the importance of the "out of the clinic
progress in performance of a task, and focused on increas- or laboratory" activities and the behavioral techniques
ing the amount and quality of use of their UE during train- needed to assure participants' adherence to use of the more
ing. The main objective is to get the patient to use the more affected UE.
affected UE repeatedly in a concentrated, massed-practice
fashion to overcome learned nonuse and induce use-dependent Main Effect of CI Therapy: Increased Use
cortical plasticity. Skill acquisition regarding the specific
shaping task practiced is not the primary purpose of shaping. Since a true recovery approach promotes the performance of
Instead, skill attained during the practice of a shaping task is specific functional tasks in a manner that is similar to before
a very beneficial by-product that should be generalized into the stroke, quality of movement is an important, if not
motor performance in the real-world environment. Specific primary, indicator of successful rehabilitation. Results from
skill acquisition with functional tasks is probably alo encour- CI therapy research, as evidenced by the performance of par-
aged during the independent trial and error that occur out-ide ticipants after treatment on the Wolf Motor Function Test
of the clinic setting with use of the protective .afet) min and (\VMFT), ~8-50 suggest that participants do significantly im-
focused attention on increasing the use of the more affected prove their quality and skill of movement. Figure 10.5 shows
UE during ADL in the participants' home em'ironment. a participant performing a task on the WMFT. A more pow-
erful hange, however, has been demonstrated with increased
ue of the more affected UE in the life situation, as indexed
Use of a Transfer Package
re,ults on the Motor Activity Log. Participants may well
It is our belief that most patients (and therapy profe -IOn e\eloping new movement strategies to accomplish func-
view rehabilitation as occurring primarily under the GIl' . '.1 . . If so, this would be acceptable within the con-
observation and supervision of the rehabilitation pI' -"e - -~ f CI therapy and further distinguish it from more true
sionaL We believe that continued use and practice, for m..;-, ~~. -oriented therapies.
244 PART /I Intenentions to ImproH FUllction
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evidence of conical reorganization in upper-limb stroke hemiplegia
treated \I ith con,trall1t-induced movement therapy. Am J Phys Med
Rehabi! 80:4. cOOl
FIGURE 10.5 Participant is completing the "Lift a can" item in 18. Mark. V\\·. Taub. E. and \lorris. OM. Neural plasticity and constraint-
the Wolf Motor Function Test. induced mO\ement therap~. Eura Medicophys 42:269,2006.
19. Gauthier. L\'. T~ub. E. Perkins. C. et al. Remodeling the brain: Plastic
structural chan;c' produced by different mOlar therapies after stroke.
SUMMARY Stroke 39: I: c( :
Over the last 20 years. a large bod; of e\ idence has accumu- 20. Us\\,atte. G. "nJ T . E. Implications of the learoed nonuse
formulation: rme", ring rehabilitation outcomes: Lessons from
lated in sUppOl1 of using CI therapy for hemiparesis following constraint-1I1 ud :T' '\ement therapy. Rehabil Psychol 50:34. 2005.
chronic stroke (longer than 1 year), CI therapy is believed to 21. Taub. E. L', ~::c G King. OK. et al. A placebo controlled trial of
produce these effects through t\\O separate but linked mecha- constraint-II1c.-"c ~ \ ement therapy for upper extremity after stroke.
Stroke 3- ; -~ :
nisms: overcoming Learned nonuse and lise-dependent corti- 22. Win'tein C \' c' JP Blanton. S. et al. Methods for a multi-site
caL pLasticity. These mechanism are different from those randomlzc~ '- _. :l c,u;ate the effect of comtraint-induced
( D traint-Induced 'Ionment Therap~ 245
movcmcnt thcrapy in improving upper e,tremity function among 36. £:>.:: WY' nants of participation in phy,ical activity. In
adults rccovering from a ccrebrma,cular ,tro~c. ~eurorehabil Neural - e fJ.ud. RJ. Stephem. T. Sutton. JR. and McPher,on.
Repair 17: 137. ~003. -\ ·tt\ ny. Fitne,s and Health: International
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mO\ement therapy on upper extremity function 3 to 9 month, after
,troke: The EXCITE randomized clinical trial. JAMA ~96:~095. en. :\. Phy ,ical Acti\ ity and Behmioral Medicine.
~006. •A,. C\. 1999.
~ol. Wolf. SL. Win,tein. CJ. Miller. JP. et al. Retention of upper limb n2. -\C B a.' "'\. and Bild. DE. Determination of physical activity
function in 'tro~e ,uni\or, "ho hme rece1\'ed con,traint-lI1duced .1r" ,r.·~'\e ''1- 111 adults. l\led Sci Sport, Exerc 2ol:S22 I. 1992.
mo\ement therapy: The EXCITE randomi/ed tnul. Lancet Neurol k -\ .. _y E The role of efticacy cognition, in the prcdiction of
7:33.2007. e er hJ\ lOr 111 middle-aged adult.,. J Beha\ Med 15:65. 1992.
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induced mmement therapy on patient, "ith chronic motor deticits ., • - ., d"eJ,e Benefits of group-mediated coun,eling in promotion
after 'tro~e: A replication. Stroke 30:586. 1999. I rhY'kJI 3d1\e Iithtyle,. Health Psychol ~2:-lI.:l. 2003.
~6. Kun~el. A. Kopp. B. Muller. G. et al. Con'traint-induced mO\'ement .. I \k.-\uley. E. Jerome. GJ. Marquez. DX. et al. Exerci,e ,elf-efficacy in
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~OO~. 43. L,"attc. G. Taub. E. Morris. D. et al. Contribution of the shaping and
~8. Dettmer,. C. Te,ke. U. Hanllei. F. et al. Di,tributed form of rectraint component, of constraint-induccd movement therapy to
con,traint-induced movemcnt therapy improve, functional outcome treatment outcome. Neurorehabil 21 (2): 147. 2006.
and quality of life aftcr stroke. Arch Phy, Med Rehabil 86:~Ool. ol4. U.,wane. G. Taub. E. Morris. DM et al. Reliability and validity of the
~005. upper-extremity motor aClivity log-14 for mea,uring real-world arm
~9. Duncan. PW. Zorowit7. R. Bate,. B. et al. Management of adult u,e. Stroke 36:2ol93. 2006.
,tro~e rehabilitation care: A clinical practice guideline. Stro~e 36: ol5. U,,,atte. G. Taub. E. Morri,. D. et al. The Motor Activity Log-28:
100. ~005. A"e"ing daily use of the hemiparetic arm after ,troke. eurology
30. S~inner. BF. Thc Beha\ ior of Organism'. Appleton-Century-Crofts. 67:1 IH9. 2006.
e" Yor~. 1938. ol6. Van der Lee. JH. Bcckerman. H. Knol. DL. et al. Clinimetric
31. Skinner. BF. The Technology of Teaching. Appleton-Century-Croft,. propertie, of the motor activity log for the a"c"ment of arm u,c in
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3~. Panyan. MY. Ho" to U,e Shaping. HH Enterpri,e,. La" rencc. KS. ol7. Shum"ay-Cook. A. & Woollacott. M. Motor Control: Theory and
1980. Practical Application,. ed 3. Lippincott William' & Wilkin,.
33. Taub. E. Crago. JE. Burgio. LD. ct al. An opcrant approach to Philadelphia. 2007.
rehabilitation mcdicinc: O\'ercoming learned nonu,e by 'haping. ol8. Morri,. DM. U",atle. G. Crago. JE. et al. The reliability of the Wolf
J Exp Anal Beha\ 61 :~81. I99ol. MOlOr Function Tc,t for a,se.,.,ing upper extremity function after
3ol. Dominick. KL. and Morcy. M. Adhcrcnce to phy,ical acti\ity. In 'tro~e. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 82:750. 200 I.
Bo'\\orth. HB. Oddone. EZ. and Weinberger. M (ed,): Patient 49. Wolf. SL. Catlin. PA. Elli,. M. et al. A",e",ing the Wolf Motor
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La" rence Erlbaum A"oc. Mahwah. ~J. ~006. ,tro\.;c. Stroke 3~: 1635. ~OO I.
35. Trmt. SG. O"en. . Bauman. AE. et al. Correlate, of adults' 50. Wolf. SL. Thol1lp,on. PA. Morris. DM. et al. The EXCITE Trial:
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E,erc 3ol: 1996. ~002. ,troke. eurorehabil eural Rcpair 19: 194. 2005.
Case Studies
247
outcomes. The majority of case studies included filming over a 4- to 6-week
period. Following is a brief description of each visual segment.
• Examination (Video Clip I): The first video segment focuses on elements of
the physical therapy examination. Content varies based on patient presentation.
The intention is to provide a more complete understanding of the patient's
impairments and activity limitations as well as how they affect function.
• Intervention (Video Clip 2): Based on the contributing therapists' interven-
tion strategies selected to improve functional outcomes, the second video
segment presents elements of a physical therapy treatment session.
• Outcomes (Video Clip 3): The third video segment depicts functional out-
comes toward the end of the episode of care (i.e., the efficacy of interventions
on the resolution of impairments and activity limitations). Some case studies
depict activities similar to those presented in the first video clip (examination)
to provide a before and after comparison of the impact of intervention.
During each visual segment, the accompanying narration directs the viewer
to the specific elements depicted or calls attention to unique aspects of the case. A
text version of each narration is included with the written case content.
The following is a recommended sequence for using the case studies.
However, based on desired learning strategies, goals, and objectives, the se-
quence may vary considerably. A collaborative learning environment with
small groups of students working on a single case will likely optimize learn-
ing. Although not specifically indicated in the series of case study activities
listed below, each component of the sequence should include discussion among
group members. This will provide an opportunity to compare your thoughts
and ideas with those of classmates, instructors, or colleagues.
1. Consider the text case content. Begin with the written case content.
Assume you are the physical therapist managing the case and you have just
completed the initial examination. Analyze and organize data from the
history, systems review, and tests and measures.
2. View Examination. View the clip several times while observing the
impairments or activity limitations (examination data) presented.
3. Answer the text guiding questions. With information gained from the
examination data and observing the patient's motor performance, progress to
the case study guiding questions. These questions are designed to promote
clinical decision-making skills through evaluating the examination data,
determining the physical therapy diagnosis, establishing the prognosis,
and developing the plan of care.
4. View Intervention. The second video clip presents segments of a
patient/therapist treatment session. It provides a unique opportunity to
observe a sample intervention selected by the contributing therapist to
248
improve functional outcomes. While viewing this segment, compare and
contrast the interventions presented with those you selected.
5. View Outcomes. Finally. the third video clip depicts functional outcome at
the end of the episode of care as well as the impact of training on the resolu-
tion of impairments and functional limitations. While viewing this segment,
compare and contrast the goals and expected outcomes you identified with
the functional outcomes achieved.
6. View Answers to the Case Study Questions. (This activity should be com-
pleted in student groups.) The therapists presenting the cases have shared
their perspectives by providing answers to the guiding questions. These are
available online at DavisPlus (www.fadavis.com). While reviewing the
answers provided:
• Compare and contrast your responses with those presented.
• Develop a rationale for the answers provided. Does the rationale match the
one you based your response on?
• Be aware that your answers will not concisely match those provided. Remem-
ber that this does not necessarily mean your answers are incorrect. Often
there is more than one acceptable response to the questions. Determining the
efficacy of your response requires careful reflection about the rationale for
your clinical decisions. It may also require one or more of the following: dis-
cussion with peers, returning to text content (or other resources) to confirm or
refute your response, and/or consultation with a physical therapy faculty
member or colleague.
Outcome Measures A variety of outcome measures are incorporated into
the case studies. Some are general measures of function applicable to a broad
spectrum of patients, while others are diagnosis-specific. These standardized
instruments provide important information about a patient's activity limitations
and participation restrictions. In clinical practice, outcome measures have a
range of applications, including providing baseline patient data on which to
base function-oriented goals and outcomes at the start of an episode of care, as
a measure of patient progress toward goals and outcomes, as indicators of
patient safety, and as evidence to support the effectiveness of a specific inter-
vention. Appendix A, "Outcome Measures Organized by the International
Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) Categories," pro-
vides key references to guide exploration of specific outcome measures.
The clinical reasoning process that leads to sound clinical decision-
making is a course of action involving a range of cognitive skills that physical
therapists use to process information, reach decisions, and determine actions.
In a health-care environment that demands efficiency and cost-effectiveness,
physical therapists are required to make complex decision under ignificant
practice restraints. Owing to the importance of this critical phase of phy ical
therapy intervention. clinical decision-making requires continual practice and
feedback throughout professional preparation. The intent of Pan III i to offer
an opportunity to guide and facilitate development of thi important process.
249
CASE STUDY
Traumatic Brain Injury
J1 TEMPLE T. COWDEN, PT, MPT, RANCHO
NATIONAL REHABILITATION CENTER, DOWNEY,
CALIFORNIA
Los AMIGOS
251
252 PART III Case Studies
an episode of asystole after the removal of a triple lumen • Skin color: Black, necrotic tissue of left second and
catheter, which required cardiopulmonary resuscitation third toes. Face is pale, sweaty, and warm to the touch.
(CPR) and atropine to resolve. Due to closure of the right • Skin integrity: Healing tracheostomy scar. Excessive
hip wound and suspicion of necrotizing fasciitis, he under- dl! ne~s and flaking of both feet. Excessively thick and
went further wound debridement and inigation of the long toenails bilaterally. Left DE excoriation.
subcutaneous tissue and muscle on August 13. It was then • ;'1usculoskeletal System:
discovered that the patient had bilateral common femoral • Gross symmetry: Obvious right shoulder deformity due
popliteal and left peroneal deep venous thromboses to separation. Patient maintains right elbow flexed at
(DVTs). and an inferior vena cava filter was placed. By about 90 degrees. Patient does not have normal mid-
early September, the patient was considered medically line orientation. He requires some assistance to main-
stable. He was able to tolerate a tracheostomy collar; he tain upright sitting balance without back support.
was more alert and able to respond to questions and com- • Gross range of motion (ROM): Right DE limitations
municate his basic wants and needs at times. However, noted at shoulder (flexion, abduction, and external rota-
he frequently became agitated. Patient was decannulated tion). elbow. and wrist. Left UE ROM within functional
(removal of tracheostomy) prior to transfer to the rehabilita- limits (WFL). Decreased ROM evident at both knees
tion facility, but the exact date was not indicated. (Fig. CSI.I).
• Gross strength of right extremities: Right UE demon-
Admission to Rehabilitation Facility strates significant weakness and is typically maintained
in a flexed position (Fig. CS 1.2). The patient is able to
• Chief Complaints:
actively move the right lower extremity (LE) against
At the time of the initial examination (September 10).
gravity (Fig. CS 1.3).
patient appears to be very agitated, restless, and impul-
• Height: 6 ft 4 in. (2.9 m)
sive. He complains of stomach and back pain. He also
• Weight: 198 Ib (89.9 kg)
repeatedly yells out for his girlfriend and "Doc" (doctor).
~ Neuromuscular System:
Patient appears to have hypersensitivity to touch and pain
• Gross coordinated movement: Patient is able to move
throughout right upper extremity (UE). Patient appears to
from supine-to-sitting at the edge of the bed without assis-
be diaphoretic, with blood pressure of 150/110 mm Hg
tance. However, he requires supervision when sitting
and a heart rate of 132 beats per minute.
without a back SUpp0l1 for prolonged periods, owing to
• Functional Status:
poor balance and forwardly flexed posture with decreased
Prior to injury, patient was independent with all basic ac-
trunk control. When sitting, he is unable to reach outside
tivities of daily living (BADL) and instrumental activities
of his base of support (BOS) without loss of balance. He
of daily living (lADL).
is unable to perform sit-to-stand transfers, even with the
• Medications:
bed elevated, without maximal assistance from the thera-
Upon admission, patient was taking the following med-
pist due to difficulty with task planning and diminished
ications: Colace, Dulcolax, Buspirone, Clotiapine,
LE strength (Fig. CS 1.4). Patient requires maximal
Metoprolol, Omeprazole, Ranitidine (changed to Pre-
assistance to move from bed-to-wheelchair due to
vacid upon admission), Levetiracetam. Lovenox,
Sertraline, and Olanzapine. The patient was also taking
Vicodin and Keppra for prophylactic use (patient has no
history of seizures). Upon admission, this was changed
to Neurontin because Keppra (Levetiracetam) has been
found to increase agitation in some patients.
Systems Review
• Cardiovascular/Pulmonary System:
• Heart rate: 132 beats per minute seated at edge of bed
with regular rhythm
• Respiratory rate: 18 breaths per minute
• Blood pressure: 150/110 mm Hg
• Oxygen saturation: 98 percent on room air
• Temperature: 98.2 degrees Fahrenheit (36.8°C)
• Edema: Mild bilateral pitting edema of legs and feet;
right foot 2+, left foot 1+
• Integumentary System:
• Scar(s): Right hip with well-healed scar. Upper abdominal
FIGURE CS 1.1 ROM limitations are evident in the right knee
midline scar (from gastrostomy tube placement). Right (lacks full extension). Not shown: Limitations also exist in the
hand has sutures in place on fourth and fifth fingers. left knee.
CASE STUDY 1 Traumatic Brain Injury 253
FIGURE CS1.2 In sitting, significant weakness is evident in the FIGURE CS1.4 Patient requires maximal assistance to transfer
right UE (unabie to move against gravity). The right UE is from wheelchair-to-platform mat. The patient iacks extension
flexed and adducted with the hand tightly fisted. The left UE control at both hips and knees. Right UE remains flexed and
is able to move against gravity (shoulder abducts, externally adducted with hand tightly fisted.
rotates with elbow flexion).
Elbow Flexion WFL 15-150 Note: Prior to considering the guiding questions below, view
the Case Study 1 Examination segment of the DVD to
Wrist Flexion WFL 0-60 enhance understanding of the patient's impairments and
activity limitations. Following completion of the guiding
Extension WFL 0-30
questions, view the Case Study I Intervention segment of
Hip Flexion WFL WFL the DVD to compare and contrast the interventions presented
with those you selected. Last, progress to the Case Study I
Extension WFL WFL
Outcome, segment of the DVD to compare and contrast the
Abduction WFL WFL goals and expected outcomes you identified with the func-
tional outcomes achieved.
Knee Flexion 5-110 3-110
GUiding Questions
Extension Unable to achieve full
knee extension I. Describe this patient's clinical presentation in terms of:
a. Impairments
Ankle Dorsiflexion WFL* WFL* b. Activity limitations
Plantar flexion WFL WFL c. Participation restrictions
2. Identify three impairments you would address initially to
*Indicates movement was accompanied by pain. improve this patient's activity limitations and participa-
Abbreviation: WFL, within functional limits. tion restrictions.
CASE STUDY 1 Traumatic Brain Injury 255
3. Identify three goals to address the impairments you 6. Identify factors. both positive (assets) and negative, that
identified above and the expected outcomes to improve playa part in determining the patient's prognosis for
the patient's activity limitations and participation recovery.
restrictions. 7. De cribe trategies that can be used to develop self-
4. Describe three treatment interventions focused on func- management skills and promote self-efficacy in achieving
tional outcomes that could be used during the first goals and outcomes.
2 weeks of therapy. Indicate how you could progress 8. How can the physical therapist facilitate interdisciplinary
each intervention, and include a brief rationale that teamwork to assist in reaching identified goals and func-
justifies your choices. tional outcomes?
5. What important safety precautions should be observed
Reminder: Answers to the Case Study Guiding Questions
during treatment of this patient?
are mailable online at Da\isPllIs (\\ww.fada\is.com).
Examination since buying the scooter. Prior to his injury, patient was
independent with all BADL and IADL.
History • Medications:
Upon admission to outpatient services, the patient was
• Demographic Information: taking the following medications: Metformin, 500 mg
Patient is a 47-year-old, right-handed, Caucasian male. twice a day; Metoprolol, SO mg twice a day: Trazadone,
• Social History: SO mg once a day; Zanaflex, 2 mg four times a day;
Patient is single; patient's mother lives in the area. Hydrochlorothiazide, 25 mg once a day; Vitamin B I,
• Employment: 100 mg once a day; Prilosec, 20 mg once a day; Reglan.
Patient has not been employed since his injury 2 years 10 mg three times a day; Dicyclomine. 20 mg twice a day:
ago, but he previously worked for a garage manufacturing Amantad (Amantadine), 100 mg once a day; Tramadol,
company. SO mg every 6 hours as needed; Folic Acid, I mg once a
• Education: day; Ibuprofen, 800 mg three times a day as needed;
Patient has a college degree. multivitamin, once a day; Buspar HCL 5 mg twice a day.
• Living Environment:
Patient currently resides in an assisted living apartment.
Systems Review
• General Health Status:
Patient is in generally good health, mildly overweight, • Communication/Cognition:
with decreased activity tolerance. • Rancho Los Amigos Levels of Cognitive Functioning
• Social and Health Habits: (RLA LOCF). Scale: Level 7.
Patient leads a primarily sedentary lifestyle, is a cigarette • Although the patient is independent with verbal commu-
smoker, and reports drinking five to six alcoholic bever- nication. he demonstrates concrete thinking. decreased
ages per week. His social network is limited to visiting short-term memory, increased time for new learning, and
his mother and other residents at the assisted living decreased safety awareness.
facility. He reports using a local gym occasionally. • Learning:
• Family History: • Patient requires multiple demonstrations of new activi-
Patient does not report any significant family history of ties, with both written and verbal reinforcement.
major medical conditions. • CardiovascularlPulmonary System:
• Medical/Surgical History: • Resting heart rate (HR) = 72; Exercise HR = 90;
Patient suffered a traumatic brain injury approximately Five minutes postexercise HR = 82
2 years ago during a motor vehicle collision. • Resting blood pressure (BP) = 130/76; Exercise
• Cunent Condition/Chief Complaint: BP = 146/92; Five minutes postexercise BP = 138/80
The patient presents for outpatient physical therapy • 6-Minute Walk Test = 418 feet with straight cane
services. He reports a decline in endurance and difficulty • Edema = absent
moving his left leg. He also reports a worsening of bal- • Integumentary System:
ance with falls at home (two falls in the past 2 months). • ~o skin abnormalities are noted.
• Activity Level: • Musculoskeletal System:
Patient is independent in the home environment in all • Height: 5 ft 10 in. (1.77 m)
basic activities of daily living (BADL) and requires assis- • Weight: 220 Ib (99.8 kg)
tance in the community and for instrumental activities of • Gross strength: Bilateral upper extremities (UEs)
daily living (IADL) (e.g., managing his finances and \\ithin functional limits (WFL); decreased strength
medications). He reports walking with a cane at times. noted in bilateral lower extremities (LEs), with
but he also uses a rolling walker. He recently purcha~ed a left lower extremity (LE) weaker than right LE
motorized scooter and reports a decrease in activit: lewl I Table CS2.1).
257
258 PART II Cast.' Studit.'s
o Gross range of motion (ROM): WFL throughout decreased gait speed. He ambulates with a decreased
bi lateral UEs and LEs. step length (right> left), decreased left weight shift, de-
o Neuromuscular System: creased left knee extension during stance, and decreased
o Gross coordinated movement: Decreased coordination
left terminal knee extension (Fig CS2.1). He also ex-
and speed of movement bilaterally, more exaggerated in hibits a wide 80S, decreased left push-off at terminal
left upper extremity (DE) and left LE. stance. decreased left heel strike (initial contact), and
o Spasticity: Increased spasticity noted throughout left LE
(Table CS2.2).
o Sitting balance: Independent with static and dynamic
diminished arm swing bilaterally. During swing phase • Among the data reported in Table CS2.3 are scores from
of the left LE, spasticity is increased and inadequate the Functional Reach Test. This is a practical, easily
dorsiflexion is noted. Decreased left hip extension is admini tered screen for balance problems originally de-
evident during terminal stance. Although the patient \'eloped for use with older adults. It is the maximal dis-
typically demonstrated a wide walking BOS, when tance one can reach forward beyond arm's length as
asked to negotiate an obstacle course placed on the floor measured by a yardstick attached to a wall. The patient
(requiring heightened cognitive monitoring), his BOS stands sideward next to a wall with the shoulder flexed
tended to decrease (Figure CS2.2). to 90 degrees, the elbow extended, and the hand fisted
• Community mobility: Prior to purchase of motorized (Fig. CS2.3). Using the yardstick, an initial measure-
scooter, the patient ambulated with a cane and repol1s ex- ment is taken of the position of the third metacarpal.
periencing frequent loss of balance with curbs, ramps, un- The patient is then asked to lean as far forward as possi-
even sUifaces, and busy environments. Primary means of ble without losing balance or taking a step (Fig. CS2.4).
community mobility is now the scooter (past 5 months). A second measure is then taken and subtracted from the
first to obtain a final measure in inches.
Tests and Measures
• Sensation:
• Diminished light touch distal to left knee.
• Proprioception: Intact at right ankle, knee, and hip; left
hip and knee intact, left ankle decreased joint position Test Initial
sense (4110 accuracy). Performed Examination 4 Weeks 8 Weeks
• Strength:
6-Minute 413 518 602
• Manual muscle test (MMT) scores at initial examination
Walk (ft) (126 m) (158 m) (183 m)
and at discharge (8 weeks later) are reported for both
LEs in Table CS2.1. 10-Meter 22 20 15
• Spasticity: Walk (sec)
• Modified Ashworth Scale scores for both LEs are re-
ported in Table CS2.2. Scores were unchanged from Gait Speed 0.45 0.50 0.67
(m/sec) (1.5 ft/sec) (1.6 ft/sec) (2.1 ftlsec)
initial exam to discharge (8 weeks later).
• Endurance, Balance. and Gait: Timed Up 24 21 20
• The results of standardized tests for endurance, balance, and Go
and gait are reported at initial exam, at 4 weeks. and at (sec)
8 weeks (discharge) in Table CS2.3.
Dynamic 7/24 11/24 17/24
Gait Index
Rhomberg 5 10 30
(EO) (sec)
Rhomberg o 3 10
(Ee) (sec)
Tandem o o o
Stance
(right or left
LE front)
(sec)
Semitandem 7 10 30
Stance (sec)
Guiding Questions
I. Describe this patient's clinical presentation in terms of:
a. Impairments
b. Activity limitations
c. Participation restrictions
2. Identify five patient assets from the history and exami-
FIGURE CS2.3 Patient is standing sideward next to a wall nation that would positively influence his physical ther-
with the lett shoulder flexed to 90 degrees and the elbow
extended (start of the Functional Reach Test). Note the apy outcomes.
relatively wide stance. Typically, this test is performed with a 3. Identify five factors from the patient's history and ex-
fisted hand. Owing to the patient's decreased short-term amination that might negatively influence his physical
memory and increased time required for new learning, diffi-
culty was experienced understanding the directions for keep- therapy outcomes.
ing the hand in a fisted position. Based on this limitation, the 4. What impairments would you focus on during the
test was modified and measures taken from the tip of the physical therapy episode of care to address the patient's
middle phalanx.
activity limitations and participation restrictions?
5. Identify anticipated goals (8 weeks) for balance and
gait and the expected functional outcomes.
6. Describe three interventions focused on improving bal-
ance and gait that you would implement during the first
I or 2 weeks of therapy. Indicate how you could
progress each intervention, and include a brief rationale
for your choice.
7. What strategies would you utilize to optimize motor
learning within a therapy session as well as for carry-
over (retention) of learned activities?
8. Identify appropriate goals for the home exercise pro-
gram (HEP).
9. Describe the elements and activities of a HEP.
10. What strategies can you include in your plan of care
(POC) regarding fall prevention in the home?
Reminder: Answers to the Case Study Guiding Questions
are available online at DavisPlus (www.fadavis.com).
R
'--'f
MOTOR
KEY MUSCLES
f:btlfH
R L
r;:--,--,----,
SENSORY
KEY SENSORY POINTS
qg
~ ".
11~~e::~:rs
C2 ~." C2
C3 r-"i r·····j
. .'.
C3
'"~'"
~ ~~~
1 1
:\ -)
C8 > Finger ffexors (dista/ phalanx of middle finger) C8
TI Finger abduc/ors (PttJe finger) Tt
-~
1
r'j
r1
2 • aetIv~ movement,
g1tMtyellmlnated
T4
T5
T6
T7 !--j H 3 - active movement. T7
T8 r---i 1 '-I against 9r&vtIy T8
T9 11 ,=j 4. =nst~srance T9
710 Cj ! _I 5 ... active mo\lfJlT18nt. T1 0
TIl '
Tl2 I-I rtl . ! against full 18S/slarK;e
NT - nottestable
Ttl
Tt2
~
LS.
I'T i! '~£:;;;:rs
Long toe extensors
~
L5
·K""
"""""
Poinb
FIGURE CS3.4 The patient's sensory and motor scores using the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Examination Form:
Standard Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury. (American Spinal Injury Association. International Standards for
Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury. American Spinal injury Association, Chicago, 2006.)
Item Score
3. Sitting with back unsupported but feet 4-able to sit safely and securely for 2 minutes
supported on floor or on a stool
6. Standing unsupported with eyes closed O-needs help to keep from falling
-- - - --------------
7. Standing unsupported with feet together O-needs help to assume position and unable to stand
for 15 seconds
8. Reaching forward with outstretched arm O-Ioses balance while trying, requires external support
while standing
9. Picking up object from the floor from a 0- is unable to try/needs assistance to keep from
standing position losing balance/falling
10. Turning to look behind over your left and O-needs assistance while turning
right shoulders while standing
12. Place alternate foot on step or stool O-needs assistance to keep from falling/unable to try
while standing unsupported
13. Standing unsupported one foot in front O-Ioses balance while stepping or standing
14. Standing on one leg O-is unable to try or needs assist to prevent fall
Balance Portion
Gait Portion
Step Length and Height a. Right swing foot does not pass =0 o
left stance foot with step
Gait Portion
'Tinetti, ME. Performance-oriented assessment of mobility problems in elderly patients. JAm Geriatr
Soc 34:119-126, 1986.
CASE STUDY 3 ,",pinal Cord Injury: Locomotor Training 269
TABLE CS3.5 Stand Retraining TABLE CS3.8 Stand Adaptability: Step Weight
Shifting (Right Foot Forward)
level of Percent
Body Segment Assistance ofBWS Level of Percent
Body Segment Assistance of BWS
Right Knee Minimal 10
Right Knee Moderate 50
Right Ankle Independent 10
Right Ankle Independent 50
Left Knee Independent 10
Left Knee Minimal 50
Left Ankle Independent 10
Left Ankle Independent 50
Trunk Moderate 10
Trunk Independent 50
Hips/Pelvis Moderate 10
HipslPelvis Maximal 50
Abbreviation: BWS, body weight support.
TABLE CS3.6 Stand Adaptability: Static Standing TABLE CS3.9 Stand Adaptability: Step weight" :
Shifting (Left Foot Forward)
Level of Percent
Body Segment Assistance of BWS level of Percent
Body Segment Assistance ofBWS
Right Knee Minimal 75
Right Knee Moderate 50
Right Ankle Independent 10
Right Ankle Independent 50
Left Knee Independent 10
Left Knee Minimal 50
Left Ankle Independent 10
Left Ankle Independent 50
Trunk Independent 25
Trunk Independent 50
HipslPelvis Minimal 75
Hips/Pelvis Moderate 50
'Unable to raise BWS to greater than 55 percent because patient no longer able to achieve foot flat (loading response) during stepping at greater BWS.
Abbreviations: BWS, body weight support, TM, treadmill.
decision about ambulatory potential. consider: (a) the the patient using sessions I and 20 as examples. Exam-
patient's performance during the step retraining portion ine the focus of progression for both BWS and TM
of the initial examination (see Table CS3.10), and (b) training and the overground progression. Next, examine
the principles of LT (weightbearing is maximized, kine- the sample progression of LT for the case study patient
matics and sensory cues are optimized with emphasis (sessions I and 20). Based on each example, list two
placed on motor recovery while minimizing compensa- goals for progression during the next treatment sessions
tory strategies). Consider also the patient's LE motor (2 and 21) in each of the following areas:
score identified in question I and the patient's impair- • Step training on the BWS system
ment scale classification identified in question 2. • Sit-to-stand transfers
7. Identify the duration of the episode of care needed to • Standing balance
achieve the level of ambulation identified in question 5 • Overground ambulation
(e.g., household or community ambulator or primarily a
Reminder: Answers to the Case Study Guiding
wheelchair user).
Questions are available online at DavisPlus
8. Identify the duration of the episode of care needed to
(www.fadavis.com).
achieve the level of ambulatory potential identified in
question 6 using activity-based therapy, including the
use of locomotor training (LT).
9. Table CS3.12 identifies a series of assistive devices and TABLE CS3.12 Assistive Device/Orthoses:
one entry labeled orthotic intervention. In the spaces Consistency/Inconsistency With
provided in the table, state how these devices are, and locomotor Training Principles
are not, consistent with the following LT principles.
Assistive
• Maximize LE weightbearing: Patients are encouraged
Device/ Consistent Inconsistent
to stand as often as possible, using the UEs as little as
Orthoses Aspects Aspects
possible.
• Provide appropriate sensory cues: These cues include Rolling Walker
providing the correct tactile information during stepping
on the treadmill and while walking at as close to normal Bilateral
Lofstrand
walking speed (2.0 to 2.6 mph [3.2 to 4.2 kmlhr]) as
Crutches
possible.
• Provide appropriate kinematics: Patients are encour- Bilateral
aged to attain an upright trunk with a neutral pelvis Single-Point
throughout the entire gait cycle, hip extension during Canes
terminal stance, and heel strike at initial contact.
Unilateral
• Maximize independence and minimize compensation:
Single-Point
Patients attempt to use the least restrictive assistive
Cane
device possible and minimize the use of bracing.
10. Box CS3.2 identifies the focus of progression for LT Orthotic
using (A) BWS and a TM and (B) using overground Intervention
walking; as well as (C) a sample progression of LT for
272 PART III Case Studie,
BOX CS3.2 Focus of Progression for LT Using BWS and a TM, Focus of Progression for LT Overground, and Sample
Progression of LT for the Case Study Patient.
A. Focus of Progression: LT Using BWS and a TM Once standing, he required increased UE support to
• Decreasing the amount of body weight supported maintain standing balance and minimal assistance at
(i.e., increase LE weightbearing) the right LE to prevent knee buckling. He ambulated
• Achieving a normal walking speed (2.0 to 2.6 mph 10 feet (3 m) with a rolling walker, with minimal
[3.2 to 4.2 km/hr]) assistance of one physical therapist at his pelvis and
• Improving endurance (the goal is to maintain minimal assistance of two physical therapists (one at
60 minutes of weightbearing on a TM with at each LE) to advance the limb during swing and to
least 20 minutes of stepping) maintain hip and knee extension during stance.
• Promoting independence of body segments (initial Increased lumbar lordosis was noted during all
focus on the trunk and pelvis) standing and ambulation activities.
Session 20 Example: During session 20 using the
B. Focus of Progression: LT Overground BWS system and a TM, the patient completed a total of
• Achieving proper kinematics during functional 60 minutes of weightbearing, with 30 minutes of step
mobility (e.g., sit-to-stand transfers, standing, and retraining at aTM speed of 2.6 mph (4.2 km/hrl, with
ambulation) an average of 33 percent BWS. He required minimal
• Minimizing the use of compensatory strategies assistance at the pelvis to attain proper alignment,
• Minimizing the use of assistive devices moderate assistance at the right knee and ankle, and
minimal assistance at the left knee and ankle. In the
C. Sample Progression of LT for Case Study Patient overground environment, he performed sit-to-stand
Session 1 Example: During session 1 using the BWS transfers from a standard-height mat, with minimal
system and a TM, the patient completed a total of assistance at the pelvis without UE support. Using a
49 minutes of weightbearing, with 22 minutes of wide BOS, he was able to maintain standing balance
stepping at a TM speed of 2.4 mph (3.9 km/hr) with an with supervision without UE support for 30 seconds.
average of 37 percent BWS. He required moderate He ambulated 250 ft (76.2 m) using bilateral Lofstrand
assistance at his pelvis, maximal assistance at his right crutches with contact guard at pelvis for balance and
knee and ankle, and moderate assistance at his left alignment. The patient was independent in advancing
knee and ankle. In the overground environment, he each LE. He continued to present with increased
performed sit-to-stand transfers from a standard-height lumbar lordosis, although it is slightly diminished
mat table with UE support from a rolling walker; he compared to session 1.
required minimal assistance at pelvis and right knee.
274
- E STUDY 4 Spinal Cord Injur~ 275
Tests and Measures Left ~houlder pain with activity without pain medica-
o
tion 6/10
o Arousal, Attention, and Cognition: o Poture:
o signs or symptoms of traumatic brain injury (TBI) o Examined in short-sitting with UE support
noted by psychologist o Forward head posture
o Oriented to time, place, and person
o Trunk stabilized in TLSO
o Arousal, attention, cognition, and recall appear to be
o Neutral pelvic tilt
within normal limits (WNL) o LEs in neutral alignment
o Sensory Integrity:
o Range of Motion (ROM):
o American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) sensory test
o Goniometlic measures of the LEs indicated bilateral
(Fig. CS4.1) tightness in hip flexion. hip internal and external rotation.
o Pinprick sensation normal C2-T 12 bilaterally
straight leg raises. ankle dorsitlexion: contracted left
o Light touch sensation normal C2-T I0 left: C2-L I right
plantartlexors (right plantarflexion WNL) (Table CS4.1).
o sensation at S4-5 or deep anal sensation o UE ROM limitations included shoulder flexion, abduc-
o Muscle Pelformance:
tion. and internal and external rotation. Greater limita-
o ASIA motor test (Fig. CS4.1)
tions noted at left shoulder secondary to left scapular
05/5 strength: C5-TI bilaterally body fracture and associated pain.
o 0/5 strength: L2-S I bilaterally
o Environmental, Home. and Work Barriers:
o No voluntary anal contraction
Review of house tloor plans and discussion with patient
o Trunk and upper abdominal muscles present but unable
and family provided the following information:
to test owing to TLSO o The one-story private home has one 6-inch ( 15-cm)
o Pain:
step to enter. The bedroom, kitchen, and living areas
o Left shoulder pain at rest without pain medication 2/10
are wheelchair accessible from the main entrance. The
Patient Name _
Examiner Name _ Datemme of Exam _
C51
TOUCH PRICK
I
Elbow flexors
R L R L
C6 Wnst extensors .. ,Mp.II'
~
(MAXIMUM) (25) (25J (50) CB 7- 2
T/
?
2.- 2-
T2 "2- 7 2. l
T3 2..- 2.... 2. 2
T4 2... L 2.-
\~\
T5
T6 .7
T7 1-... II "
TB
T9
T/O ?
?.. ~ ' .,
T/ f Z. ?- I.:)...
II
T/2 Z
L.. ::;
?
z
0
G 12 II
L!'-)
c if)
-, 01 i
""' S'
~
L2
L3 Hip flexors
Knee extensors L3
L4 , r LS
~
L4 Ankle dorsiffexors L5 'l :' C
L5 Long toe extensors S, 0 • Key
51 Ankle plantar flexors 52 C- V V Sensory
S3 , lJ
VOl;mIJry(~:="iJCIIQl1[El2]S4 -51 U / Points
~ AAj.1mi SBru:lO,n(Y6sNo)
! ,
00-00- lliJ PIN PRICK SC ORE (m 112~'
LO~~~A~MB [1JI + [J;CZ2J TOTALS{IRHB-- Ci±J UGHT TOUCH SCORE (MJ.I 112
FIGURE CS4.1 The patients' sensory and motor scores USI g -'Ie ':'~e' ca~ SOlnallnjury Ass~ciation (ASIA) Examination Form:
Standard Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord InjUry (A~e' cc- Sc '10 njury AssOciation, International Standards for
Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury. America SC ~G ~ ~r. : . oCiatlon. Chicago. 2006.)
276 PART III ('a~e Studie_
External Rotation 0-35 0-30 'American Spinal Injury Association. International Standards for
Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury. American Spinal Injury
Association, Chicago, 2006.
Straight Leg Raise 0-70 0-70
-----
Ankle Dorsiflexion 0-3 None b
2. What Preferred Practice Pattern from the Guide to
Plantarflexion 0-55 13-50 Physical Therapist Practice should be used?
3. How many weeks of treatment would you anticipate will
'All other ROM values WNL. be needed for inpatient rehabilitation?
bUnable to achieve neutral starting position for measurement. 4. Identify the patient's impairments and the resulting
activity limitations.
5. From the information gathered during the examination,
master bathroom doorway is 30 inches (76 cm) wide. what impairments do you anticipate will affect the
The toilet is in a separated area of the bathroom with patient's prognosis?
a 28-inch (71-cm) wide entry and privacy wall. The 6. List the interventions that you would include in the plan
shower stall is 60 x 60 inches (1.5 x 1.5 m) with a of care (POC).
1.5-inch (3.8-cm) lip at the entrance. 7. What will the patient need to consider to ensure home
• At work. administrative areas, office. and desk are accessibility?
accessible. The patient must give presentations and 8. Identify three pieces of equipment the patient will
speeches frequently and would like to stand at lectern require at discharge.
in bilateral knee-ankle-foot orthoses (KAFO). 9. What is the patient's prognosis with respect to func-
tional outcomes at the end of his rehabilitation stay?
How would you describe his anticipated activity limi-
Evaluation, Diagnosis and Prognosis, tations and participation restrictions at I year after
and Plan of Care discharge?
Note: Prior to considering the guiding questions below, view Reminder: Answers to the Case Study Guiding Queqions
the Case Study ..J. Examination segment of the DVD are available online at Da\isPlus (\\w\'..rada\is.com).
to enhance understanding of the patient's impairments and
activity limitations. Following completion of the guiding
questions, view the Case Stud) ..J. Intervention segment of
the DVD to compare and contrast the interventions pre-
sented with those you selected. Last, progress to the Case
Stud) ..J. Outcomes segment of the DVD to compare and con-
trast the goals and expected outcomes you identified with
the functional outcomes achieved.
GUiding Questions
I. Review Figure CS4.1. What is the patient's physical
therapy diagnosis? More specitically. what is the neuro-
logical level of injury and where does the patient place
on the ASIA Impairment Scale (Box CS..J..I)?
Spinal Cord lnjllr~ 277
278
CASE ST 0 I -5 Peripheral Vestibular D~sf\lnction 279
TABLE CSS.l Modified Clinical Test for Sensory Integration and Balance (mCTSIB)
Abbreviations: C5, compliant surface; EO, eyes open; EC, eyes closed; FT, feet together;
min, minimal, min-mod, minimal to moderate, N/A, not applicable; 55, solid surface; WNL,
within normal limits.
• The Right Hallpike-Dix Test4 Using the Infrared Video 2. Which clinical examination findings reveal abnormality in
Goggles: The right Hallpike-Dix Test was positive for the vestibular system? Analyze and interpret these results.
an up beating, counterclockwise nystagmus of short 3. Determine a working diagnosis (diagnostic hypothesis)
duration. The patient complained of feeling dizzy while for this patient.
in the test position and reported that she was "slightly" 4. Describe this patient's clinical presentation in terms of:
dizzy upon returning to the sitting position. a. Impairments
• The Left Hallpike-Dix Test Using the Infrared Video b. Activity limitations
Goggles: The patient denied symptoms with the left c. Participation restrictions
Hallpike-Dix Test but demonstrated a consistent left 5. Using the Guide to Physical Therapist Practice, identify
beating nystagmus. the appropriate practice pattern for the patient.
• The Right Roll Test Using the Infrared Video Goggles: 6. Describe the plan of care (therapeutic interventions) you
This test revealed a left beating nystagmus. will use to address the impairments.
• The Left Roll Test Using the Infrared Video Goggles: 7. What are your anticipated goals and expected outcomes
This test also revealed a left beating nystagmus. for the patient? State the time frame in which you expect
to meet these expectations.
8. Explain how your working diagnosis would change if a
Evaluation, Diagnosis and Prognosis, positive Hallpike-Dix test was your only abnormal
and Plan of Care finding.
9. De cribe the therapeutic intervention you will employ
Note: Prior to considering the guiding questions, view the to address impairments associated with a positive
Case Stud) 5 Examination segment of the DVD to enhance Hallpike-Dix test.
understanding of the patient's clinical presentation. FollO\...·- Reminder: Answers to the Case Study Guiding Question~
ing completion of the guiding questions, view the Ca~e are a\ ailable online at Da\ isPlus (W\\ \l..fadavis.com).
Stud) 5 Intervention segment of the DVD to compare and
contrast the interventions presented with those you selected.
Last, progre s to the Cae Stud) 5 Outcome. egment of Ja ob.,en. GP. and Newman. CWo The de\elopment of the dizzine s
the DVD to compare and contrast the goals and expected handicap in\·emory. Arch Otolaryngol Head ;'\eck Surg 116A2J. 1990.
2. Ro,e. OJ. Fallproof l : A Comprehen,i\'e Balance and \lobllit~ Training
outcomes you identified with the functional outcome Program. Human Kinetics. Champaign. IL. 2003.
achieved. -" Ham. TC. Fetter. M, and Zee. O. Head-shal..ing n~ 'tagmu m pa em,
\\ Ith unilateral peripheral vestibular lesion.,. Am J OtolJ0 r;:: ;3(,.
19 ~.
Guiding Questions J 01\. R. and Hallpike. CS. The palholog) . .,) mptomat k,,~ .,nd
diagnlN" of certain common disorder, of the \e tI uldI"' <e
I. Given this patient's report at the initial examination. Ot. I Rhinol Laryngol 6:987. 1952.
identify the mo t likely cause(s) of her complaints of
dizziness. disequilibrium. and motion sensitivity.
280 PART /I Case Studies
281
282 PART "' Case Studies
o Motor function (motor control, motor learning): The o AROM values for the hips, ankles, and shoulders are
patient's impaired motor control is apparent; increased presented in Table CS6.4.
difficulty is noted during initiation of bed mobility, o Passive ROM (PROM) values for the hips, ankles, and
transfers, and ambulation. The patient presents with shoulders are presented in Table CS6.5.
daily freezing episodes (inability to continue an activity). o Deep Tendon Reflexes:
When he is asked to perform functional activities, Patient presents with bilateral I+ (present but depressed,
including transfers, ambulation, and fine motor tasks low normal) triceps response and 0 (no response) for
with increased speed or with additional task demands, bilateral bicep, hamstring. patellar, and ankle responses.
the quality and safety of movement deteriorate. o Tone:
2
o Tone: Moderate cogwheel rigidity is present in both o On the Modified Ashworth Scale bilateral hamstrings
UEs and LEs and is particularly apparent during elbow present with minimal resistance through range and mod-
and knee extension. The left UE and LE are more erate resistance at end range (3/4)
impaired than the right. o Bilateral quadriceps present with minimal resistance
Locomotion: Stairs 2 Note: Plior to consideling the guiding questions below, view
the Case Study 6 Examination segment of the DVD to en-
'Scoring: 7 = Complete independence (timely, safety); 6 = Modified hance understanding of the patient's impairments and activity
independence (device); 5 = Supervision (subject = 100%); 4 = Minimal
assistance (subject = 75% or more); 3 = Moderate assistance (subject = limitations. Following completion of the guiding questions,
50% or more); 2 = Maximal assistance (subject = 25% or more); 1 =Total view the Case Study 6 Intervention segment of the DVD to
assistance or not testable (subject less than 25%).
compare and contrast the interventions presented with those
you selected. Last, progress to the Case Study 6 Outcomc~
• Disease-Specific Measures: segment of the DVD to compare and contrast the goals and
• The Parkinson's Disease Quality of Life (PDQL)J2 expected outcomes you identified with the functional out-
questionnaire: comes achieved.
• Parkinsonian symptoms: 37
GUiding Questions
• Systemic symptoms: 23
• Social functioning: 22 I. Identify or categorize this patient's clinical presentation
• Emotional functioning: 28 in terms of the following:
• Total: 1101185 a. Direct impairments
Note: The PDQL is a self-administered measure that b. Indirect impairments
contains 37 items in four subscales: Parkinsonian symp- c, Composite impairments
toms, systemic symptoms, social functioning, and emo- d. Actvity limitations and participation restrictions
tionalfunctioning. An overall score can be derived, with 2. Identify anticipated goals (remediation of impairments)
a higher score indicating better perceived quality of life, and expected outcomes (remediation of activity limitations/
• The Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS)Jl: participation restrictions) that address the attainment of
• Mentation, behavior, and mood: -+ functional outcomes.
·ADL: 19 3. Formulate three treatment interventions focused on func-
• Motor: 23 tional outcome that could be used during the first 2 or
• Total: 46/199 3 weeks of therapy. Indicate a progression for each
'-' .... ,t STUDY 6 Pal'kinson's Disease 285
selected intervention. Provide a brief rationale for your 5. Berg. K. Wood-Dauphinee. S. Williams. J. et al. Measuring balance
in the elderly: Validation of an instrument. Can J Public Health 83
choices.
(,uppl 21:S7. 1992.
4. For each of the three phases of motor learning (cogni- 6. Duncan. P. Weiner. D. Chandler. J. et al. Functional reach: A new
tive, associated, and autonomous) describe what strate- clinical measure of balance. J Gerontol 45:M 192. 1990.
7. Duncan. P. Studenski. S. Chandler, J, et al. Functional reach:
gies can be used to enhance achievement of the stated
Predicti\e \alidity in a sample of elderly male veterans. J Gerontol
goals and outcomes. -17::'.193. 1992.
5. What strategies can be used to develop self-management . Weiner. D. Duncan. P. Chandler. J, et al. Functional reach: A marker
of physical frailty. J Am Geriatr Soc 40:203. 1992.
skills and promote self-efficacy to enhance the achieve-
9. Shumway-Cook. A. and Woollacott. M. Motor Control Translating
ment of stated goals and outcomes? research into Clinical Practice Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
Baltimore. MD. 2007. pp 395-396.
Reminder: Answers to the Case Stud; Guiding Question.., 10. Podsiadlo. D. and Richardson. S. The timed "up and go": A test of
arc available online at Dm isPIlII (II II "".fada\ i..,.com). basic functional mobility for frail elderly patient". J Am Geriatr Soc
39: 142.1991.
II. Guide for the Uniform Data Set for Medical Rehabilitation (including
RErt:REr\JCES the FIM instrument), Version 5.0. State University of New York.
I. Schenkman. M. Cutson. T. Kuchibhatla. M, et al. Reliability of Buffalo, 1996.
impairment and physical performance measures for persons with 12. Hobson. P. Holden. A. and Meara. J. Measuring the impact of
Parkinson's disease. Phys Ther 77:19,1997. Parkinson's disease with the Parkinson's Disease Quality of Life
2. Bohannon, R, and Smith, M. Interrater reliability of a modified questionnaire. Age and Ageing 28:341, 1999.
Ashworth scale of muscle spasticity. Phys Ther 67:206, 1987. 13. Fahn. S. and Elton. R. Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale. [n
3. Berg, K, et al. Measuring balance in the elderly: Preliminary Fahn. S. et al (eds): Recent Developments in Parkinson's Disease,
developmelll of an instrument. Physiother Can 41 :304, 1989. vol 2. Macmillan Health Care Information. Florham Park. NJ. 1987.
4. Berg. K, et al. A comparison of clinical and laboratory measures of pp 153-163.
postural balance in an elderly population. Arch Phys Med Rehabil
73: I073, 1992.
• To avoid flexion contractu res of the trunk and limbs, the Outcomes:
patient often exercised in prone. Contract-relax stretching • This outcomes video was filmed 6 weeks after the treat-
of the restricted iliopsoas and rectus femoris increased ment video. Note that the patient is now able to roll to both
the patient's hip extensibility. the left and right independently with improved speed.
• Here pelvic anterior elevation and posterior depression were • The patient is also able to scoot independently. Note that
initially taught followed by distal resistance to the femur. wearing sneakers increases traction and improves effi-
• Mass trunk patterns were used to improve mobility. ciency of movement.
Emphasis was on improved motor recruitment, timing, • The patient was successful in transfelTing from supine-to-
and strength during roll ing to the left. sitting but uses an inefficient movement pattern.
• The Smart Balance Master was effective in strengthening • Rocking is no longer required to transfer from sit-to-stand.
the vestibular system, increasing limits of stability, and • Gait and dynamic balance improved over the episode of
improving righting reactions. care. However, inadequate trunk rotation persisted. Three
• Braiding is an important activity because it emphasizes hundred sixty-degree turns required increased time and
lower trunk rotation with stepping and side-stepping several steps to complete.
movements. • Success was achieved in reaching the goal of indepen-
• Group classes provide opportunities for socialization, dently climbing 20 steps with one handrail using a step-
camaraderie, and support. The patient attended a Tai Chi over-step gait pattern.
class for patients with Parkinson's disease. He enjoyed
the class and verbalized a sense of accomplishment with
successful performance of each new sequence. The bene-
fits of Tai Chi include relaxation, improved confidence,
balance, flexibility, and increased strength and endurance.
CASE STUDY
Spinal Cord Injury
1
I
287
288
Thoracolumbar x-rays of Tll-L3 posterior spinal stabilization using cross-linking devices (A and B: posterior views;
C and 0: lateral views),
vomiting. She had pneumonia and asthma as a small BOX CS7.1 ASIA Impairment Scale 1
child but has had no problems as an adult.
• Heart rate: Normal (regular) heart rate and rhythm with- A = Complete: No motor or sensory function is
preserved in the sacral segments S4 to S5.
out murmurs
B = Incomplete: Sensory but not motor function is
• Respiratory rate: 15 breaths per minute (deep breaths
preserved below the neurological level and includes
were painful) the sacral segments S4 to S5.
• Vital capacity: 1 liter C = Incomplete: Motor function is preserved below the
• Blood pressure: 110/68 mm Hg neurological level, and more than half of key muscles
below the neurological level have a muscle grade less
than 3.
Tests and Measures D = Incomplete: Motor function is preserved below the
neurological level, and at least half of key muscles
• American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Impairment
below the neurological level have a muscle grade of
Scale: 1
3 or more.
• The patient is classified as a complete spinal cord injury E = Normal: Motor and sensory function is normal.
(ASIA designation: A [Box CS7.1]).
• Sensory and motor neurological level is T9 bilaterally
(Fig. CS7.2). • At admission, right shoulder ROM was limited to
• Functional Independence Measure (FIM):" 90 degrees of flexion and 90 degrees of abduction. Pain
Results from the FIM are presented in Table CS7.1. noted as 9/1 0 on numeric pai n scale (10 = worst pain;
• Strength: o
= no pain); described as a sharp pain. An empty end-
Results from the Manual Muscle Test (admission data) feel was noted.
are presented in Table CS7.2. • Balance:
• Range of Motion (ROM): • On admission Modified Functional Reach Test" =
• Left DE ROM was within normal limits (WNL). 10.5 in. (26.67 cm)
Patient Name _
iI
C5 Elbow flexors
C6 5 Wrist extensors R L
C7 5 Elbow extensors C2
C8 .5 Finger flexors ("1S1a1 phalanx of middle finger) C3
n Fmger abductors {lIttle fingl1l} ~
UPPER LIMB
TOTAL 0+0= CillO C6
(MAXIMUM) (25) (25) ISOI
C7
C8
,------------------,n
Comments T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
no I o. \ L
~; ~ . I' '::-~=~.
L4
LS
51
0
0
Ankle dorsiflexors
Long toe extensors
Ankle plantar flexors
~: Ig!i!
L5,...g,...o-.( )
S1
52
~ 0
0
0
0 u--o • Key
VOiUlIlSl}'anlllcontrllclionlliQJ
(YesiNo)
~3_
45
:B:~~
~
_._
......l'iCL- .:. s.'NC1I
Sensory
Points
TOTALS{ ~- 3I
, ~-~_ 1,"
"(p
I P PRICK SCORE
UG,rr TOUCH SCORE
/MA,X/MUMI (251 '.l!>
FIGURE CS7.2 The patient's sensory and motor scores us 9 -~;,:; ~S ~ S-anaord Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury.
290 PART III Case Studie,>
,
~:t~BLE CS7.1 Functional Independence TABLE CS7.2 Manual Muscle Test Scores . \:.~:
~ , "'< :' " Measure (FIM)2 '(January 18)0 :
FIM Scores·: FIM Scores·: Joint Muscle Right Left
Admission Discharge
January 16 February 29 Shoulder Medial rotators 3/5 5/5
Social interaction 7 7
o At discharge Modified Functional Reach Test = 27.5 in.
Problem-solving 7 7 (70 em)
o Tone and Reflexes:
Memory 7 7 o Deep tendon reflexes (DTR) for bilateral quadriceps
discharge.
o See the ROM ~ectIon above for shoulder pain information.
CASE STUDY 7 Spinal Cord Inju\") 291
Evaluation, Diagnosis and Prognosis, additional wheelchair skills should be included in her
and Plan of Care POC)
6. How might your treatment plan for mobility skills and
Note: Prior to considering the guiding questions below, view transfers differ if the patient had presented with an
the Case Stud; 7 Examination segment of the DYD to en- ASIA designation of B, C, or D (as described in
hance understanding of the patient's impairments and activity Box CS7.1)?
limitations. Following completion of the guiding questions. 7. Based on her history of being a dancer and dance
view the Case Study 7 Intcf\cntion segment of the DYD to teacher. what are the patient assets that can be used to
compare and contrast the interventions presented with those her advantage during rehabilitation?
you selected. Last, progress to the Case Stud; 7 Outcomes 8. What additional goals would you develop for the
segment of the DYD to compare and contrast the goals and patient's post acute rehabilitation? What functional
expected outcomes you identified with the functional out- outcomes would you identify?
comes achieved. 9. Considering that the patient lives in a rental property,
what basic recommendations would you have for home
Guiding Questions modifications?
10. What durable medical equipment needs do you
I. In addition to those mentioned in the case, what other anticipate?
examination tools could you perform to measure the
patient's activity level? Reminder: Answers to the Case Study Guiding Questions
2. Organize and analyze the available data to develop a are available online at DavisPlus (www.fadavis.com).
problem list. Identify:
a. Impairments, direct
-;. [ f , l ' ,j r= '"
I. American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Examination Form.
b. Impairments, indirect Standard Nellrological Classijicarion of Spinal Cord Injllry. American
c. Activity limitations Spinal Injury Association. International Standards for Neurological
Classilication of Spinal Cord Injury. American Spinal Injury
d. Participation restrictions
Association. Chicago. 2006.
3. What are the concerns with the patient losing I I pounds 2. Guide for the Uniform Data Set for Medical Rehabilitation (including
since the injury? the FIM instrument). Version 5.0. State University of New York,
Buffalo. 1996.
4. This patient presents with T9 paraplegia with an ASIA des-
3. Lynch. SM, Leahy. P, and Barker, SP: Reliability of measurements
ignation of A. What classification is this (see Box CS7.1)? obtained with a modified functional reach test in subjects with spinal
S. Describe components of transfer training for this patient. cord injury. Phys Ther 78(2): 128, 1998.
What modifications are necessary? Progression? What
chair and with placement of the sliding board. The Jewett • Here the patient practices transferring from commode
brace impacts transfer ability. as it limits forward rotation seat to wheelchair using a sliding board. The block under
of the trunk and head. The transfer is accomplished using the patient's feet provides a pivot point to improve bal-
slow, inefficient movements. The head and trunk remain ance as she prepares to transfer into the wheelchair. It
relatively upright. The orthosis also limits use of the also provides a stable surface to assist balance during her
head-hips principle, which requires the head and shoul- bowel program. Once in the wheelchair, the patient
ders to lean opposite the desired direction of the hips. places feet on footrests and removes the sliding board.
• Finding a balance point is an important precursor to per-
InteNention:
forming wheelies. Note how the patient's hands interact
• This intervention segment was filmed 2 weeks after the
with the wheel to maintain balance.
examination. It focuses on transfers and wheelchair mo-
• Here, a small wheelie is used to progress up a 2-inch curb.
bility skills. The patients is progressed to performing the
sliding board transfer upward a softer surface. Outcomes:
• The patient practices assuming a long-sitting position • The patient performs a depression transfer from bed to
from prone on elbows. In addition to its direct functional wheelchair with contact guarding. She is able to inde-
implications, this activity is also an impol1ant strengthen- pendently reposition herself in the wheelchair.
ing exercise for shoulder extensors and scapular adductors. • Following discharge. intervention for lower extremity
• Lower extremity management is a skill with important management will continue in the outpatient setting. Inde-
functional can'yover for bed mobility, dressing, personal pendence in this area is anticipated with continued im-
hygiene, and movement transitions. Using the upper provements in strength, dynamic balance, and awareness
extremities, weight shift, and momentum, the patient of her new center of mass. Her bed mobility skills are
practices moving the lower extremities up onto the mat. now independent for rolling, supine-to-sit, and scooting
Minimal assistance is required from the therapist. Here in all directions.
the patient transfers from wheelchair to a tub seat using • Here the patient practices ascending and descending a
a sliding board. The patient is practicing sliding board 4-inch curb. Note improvements in using her head for
placement, forward rotation of the upper body at the balance; however, she continues to exhibit decreased
hips. lifting the body along the sliding board surface, trunk flexion.
and lower extremity management. Moderate assistance • Note head position while practicing curb descent.
is required from the therapist. Note that the spinal 0l1ho-
sis is no longer worn.
CASE STUDY
Patient With Stroke: Home
f35 Care Rehabilitation
LYNN WONG, PT, MS, OPT, GCS
CARITAS HOME CARE, METHUEN, MASSACHUSETTS
293
294 PART III Case Studies
o Skin color is slightly pale. requires standard straight cane to maintain initial
o No scars are noted, and her skin is normally mobile. balance
o Musculoskeletal System: o Stand-to-sit: Supervision; lowers self using right DE
(WNL) except the left lower extremity (LE) presents • Ambulated 75 feet (23.6 m) with standard straight
with 0 degrees of dorsiflexion. cane and supervision
o Strength: Manual Muscle Test (MMT) grades are pre- • Gait deviations include decreased step length bilater-
sented in Table CS8.1. ally, decreased left stance time and weightbearing,
and minimally decreased left toe clearance during
Tests and Measures swing
• Balance
o Sensation:
• Static sitting: Able to withstand minimal challenges
o Light touch: Intact
(perturbations) in all directions
o Proprioception: Decreased in left upper extremity (UE)
• Dynamic sitting: Able to reach minimal distances
o Functional Status:
outside her base of support (BOS) in all directions
o Bed mobili ty
• Static standing: Able to maintain static standing
o Rolling: Modified independence; pulls on rail of hos-
without an assistive device or assistance; unable to
pital bed with right UE to assist
withstand any challenges (perturbations)
o Scooting: Supervision (minimal verbal cues required
• Dynamic standing: Requires supervision and use of a
for technique and foot placement)
standard straight cane at all times for balance and
o Sit-to-supine: Supervision for LE placement
safety
• Supine-to-sit: Independent; requires increased time
• Activities of daily living (ADL):
and effort
• Able to dress self while sitting in a chair once clothing
is laid out on an adjoining table
o Requires increased time to don and doff socks and tie
Hip flexion 4/5 4/5 Note: Prior to considering the guiding questions below, view
the Case Study 8 Examination segment of the DVD to en-
Hip extension 3/5 4-/5 hance understanding of the patient's impairments and activity
limitations. Following completion of the guiding questions,
Hip abduction 3/5 4-/5
view the Case Study 8 Intervention/Outcomes segment of the
Knee extension 4+/5 4+/5 DVD to compare and contrast the interventions and functional
---- outcomes presented with those you identified.
Knee flexion 4+/5 4+/5
--- GUiding Questions
Dorsiflexion 4/5 5/5
---- - -- I. Develop a problem list for this patient, including:
Plantarflexion 4/5 5/5
a. Impairments
'All scores are based on a 0 to 5 scale: 5, normal; 4, good; 3, fair;
b. Activity limitations
2, poor; 1, trace; 0, no contraction. c. Participation restrictions
CASE STUDY 8 Patient" ith Stroke: Homc Carc Rehabilitation 295
2. Using the Guide to Physical Therapist Practice, deter- 6. What mOlOr learning strategies would enhance this
mine the physical therapy diagnosis for this patient. patient\ ability to achieve the stated goals and
Provide justification for your decision. outcome "
3. Identify five goals and outcomes for this patient that 7. The patient and her family express a desire for her to
could be accomplished within the next 4 weeks. return to her one-level condominium and live alone.
4. Using three goals and outcomes identified in question 3. How realistic is this goal? Provide a rationale for your
describe the interventions you would use to achieve each. decision.
If appropriate, indicate a progression for each interven- 8. What do you think is an appropriate discharge plan for
tion. Provide a brief rationale for the interventions you this patient? Provide justification for your response.
selected.
Reminder: Answers to the Case Study Guiding Questions
5. What activities should be included in the patient's home
are a\ ailable online at DavisPIIl.\ ('WI\ w.fadal is.com).
exercise program (HEP)? Provide a brief rationale for
each activity selected.
296
A<;c -,TUL'Y 9 Patient \\ith Stroke: Con-.traint-Induced MOHlllent Therap) 297
displayed in Ca e Appendix A (located at the end of thi health status interview that measures changes in eight
case study). impairment, function, and quality of life subdomains
298 PART III Case Studies
Total Score: 4
"The patient was asked to stand using three foot positions: side-by-side. semitandem (heel of one foot
next to the great toe of the other foot). and full tandem (heel of one foot directly in front of other foot)
for 10 seconds each.
*For the determination of normal, the less involved UE can be utilized 6. Hand to box 3.21 2
as an available index for comparison, with premorbid UE dominance
taken into consideration.
(front)
Abbreviation: UE, upper extremity.
7. Reach and 0.93 3
retrieve
5. Reuben, DB. and Siu. AL. An objective measure of physical function II. Wolf. SL. Catlin. PA, Ellis, M, et al. Assessing Wolf Motor Function
of elderly outpatients: The Physical Performance Test. J Am Geriatr Test as outcome measure for research in patients after stroke. Stroke
Soc 38: 11 OS, 1990. 32: 1635.2001.
6. Berg, K. et al. Measuring balance in the elderly: Preliminary 12. \10rris. DM. Uswatte, G, Crago, JE. et al. The reliability of the Wolf
development of an instrument. Physiother Can 41 :304, 1989. \10tor Function Test for assessing upper extremity function after
7. Berg, K, et al. A comparison of clinical and laboratory measures of stroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 82:750, 200 I.
postural balance in an elderly population. Arch Phys Med RehabiI 13. Duncan. PW. Lai, SM, Bode, RK, et al. Stroke Impact Scale-16: A
73: 1073, 1992. brief assessment of physical function. Neurol 60(2):291, 2003.
8. Berg, K. Wood-Dauphinee. S. Williams, J, et al. Measuring balance in 14. Lai. SM. Perera. S. Duncan, P, et al. Physical and social functioning
the elderly: Validation of an instrument. Can J Public Health 83 after stroke: Comparison of the Stroke Impact Scale and Short Form-
(suppl 2):S7, 1992. 36. Stroke 34(2):488, 2003.
9. Fugl-Meyer, A, Jaasko, L, Leyman, L et al: The post stroke 15. Duncan, PW. Bode. R, Lai, SM, et al. Rasch analysis of a new stroke-
hemiplegic patient. I. A method for evaluation of physical specific outcome scale: The Stroke Impact Scale. Arch Phys Med
performance. Scand J Rehabil Med 7: 13. 1975. Rehabil 84(7):950, 2003.
10. Wolf, SL. Lecraw, DE, Barton, LA, et al. Forced use of hemiplegic
upper extremities to reverse the effect of learned nonuse among
chronic stroke and head injured patients. Exp Neurol 104: 125, 1989.
o While not visible on this video, the participant is wearing o Performance time is 6.26 seconds, and Functional Ability
a mitt restraint on his less affected arm and has been Rating is 3.
instructed to rest that arm in his lap. o The participant has maintained his improvements with this
o The therapist determined that the participant would be task a e\'idenced by the smoothness of his movements.
successful with a more difficult version of the task and o Performance time is 2.12 seconds, and Functional Ability
have selected other task elements to shape the task, immediately posttreatment and with greater ease.
including using a higher box, moving the box farther o Performance time is 0.81 second, and Functional Ability
mary feedback about the participant's performance by tained his ability to grasp and lift the can.
providing the average and best trial scores. The therapist o Performance time is l20-plus seconds, and Functional
also creates a graph depicting all 10 trial scores and Ability Rating is I.
reviews the graph with the participant. o The participant is still able to lift the pencil yet does so
less effort.
CASE APPENDIX
Components of the
Ai Fugl-Meyer Evaluation
of Physical Performance
Used to Examine Patient
RANGE OF MOTION
-------- -- - - - -
Joint Movement Score Scoring Criteria
Internal rotation
Elbow Flexion 2
Extension 2
--------
Wrist Flexion
Extension
Fingers Flexion
Extension 2
Forearm Pronation 2
Supination
PAIN
Elbow Flexion 2
Extension 2
Wrist Flexion 2
----- ------
Extension 2
(table continues on page 304)
303
304 PART '" Case Studie"
PAIN (CONTINUED)
Fingers Flexion 2
Extension 2
Forearm Pronation 2
Supination 2
SENSATION
2 = Normal
External rotation
Elbow flexion
Forearm supination
2 = Performed faultlessly
2 = Performed faultlessly
Pronation/su pi nation a = Correct position of shoulder and
of forearm with elbow elbow cannot be attained, and/or
at 90 0 and shoulder at 0 0 pronation or supination cannot be
performed at all
2 = Faultless motion
Shoulder flexion 90 0 - a a = Initial flexion of elbow or shoulder
180 0 , elbow at 0 0 , and abduction occurs
forearm in midposition
1 = Elbow flexion or shoulder abduction
occurs during shoulder flexion
2 = Faultless motion
Pronation/supination of a a = Supination and pronation cannot be
forearm, elbow at 0 0 , performed at all or elbow and shoulder
and shoulder between positions cannot be attained
30 0 and 90 0 of flexion
1 = Elbow and shoulder properly
positioned, and pronation and
supination performed in a limited range
2 = Faultless motion
(table continues on page 306)
306 PART III Case Studies
fiASI:E C~mponEmts of the Fugl-Meyer Evaluation of Physical Performance Used to Examine' :.. :: _'~'~.~
" Pa t'len t•(continued)
~","'''f':' ;
,,,c>,>~ :ii_~
.,l"lr.:r • _
.
. . ,
.
.' " • _
- l¥~~1
':' f.".
.- " -
Normal reflex Biceps and/or finger a a = At least two of the three phasic
activity (This stage flexors and triceps reflexes are markedly hyperactive
is included only
if the patient 1 = One reflex is markedly hyperactive,
attains a score or at least two reflexes are lively
of 6 in stage
2 = No more than one reflex is lively,
above: Movement
and none are hyperactive
out of synergy.)
1 = Dorsiflexion (extension) is
accomplished, but no resistance is taken
TABLE Components of the Fugl-Meyer Evaluation of Physical Performance Used to Examine '-<:~ -,:t1-- -
Patient (continued) . ,. ,:: :;·~'5:'..f·; :.,f.~
zi.l-
• • ":. • • • il< ¥', ...
2 = No dysmetria
27 Comb hair
29 Button a shirt
Mean Score:
"Amount of Use Scale: a = did not use my weaker arm (not used); 1 = occasionally tried to use my weaker
arm (very rarely); 2 = sometimes used my weaker arm but did most of the activity with my stronger arm
(rarely); 3 = used my weaker arm about half as much as before the stroke (half pre-stroke); 4 = used my
weaker arm almost as much as before the stroke (3/4 pre-stroke); 5 = used my weaker arm as normal as
before the stroke (same as pre-stroke),
bHow Well Scale: a = the weaker arm was not used at all for that activity (never); 1 = the weaker arm was
moved during that activity but was not helpful (very poor); 2 = the weaker arm was of some use during that
activity but needed some help from the stronger arm or moved very slowly or with difficulty (poor); 3 = the
weaker arm was used for the purpose indicated but movements were slow or were made with only some
effort (fair); 4 = the movements made by the weaker arm were almost normal but not quite as fast or accurate
as normal (almost normal); 5 = the ability to use the weaker arm for that activity was as well as before the
injury (normal),
CASE APPENDIX
Stroke Impact
(C (SIS): Pretreat
Scores
3
312 PART III Case Studie ..
6:00 am Wake up
6:05 am Make coffee
6:15 am Let dogs out/feed dogs
6:30 am Drink coffee/watch news on TV
6:45am Eat breakfast
7:00 am Shower
7:15 am Shave
7:20 am Brush teeth
7:30 am Get dressed
8:00 am Leave home for clinic
12 noon Leave clinic for home
12:30 pm Eat lunch
1:30 pm Walk dogs
2:30 pm Read mail/newspaper: check e-mails
4:00 pm Yard work/housework
5:00 pm Watch news on TV
6:00 pm Eat dinner \leat. \ eQ... alad. bread. iced tea
7:00 pm Watch TV
9:30 pm Wash face/brush teeth
9:45pm Put on pajamas
10:00 pm Go to bed
Time Activity
8:00 am Wake up
8:05 am Make coffee
8:15 am Let dogs out/feed dogs
8:30 am Drink coffee/watch news on TY
8:45am Eat breakfast -.' I e
9:00 am Shower
9:15 am Shave
9:20 am Brush teeth . - -:-_ h
9:30 am Get dressed
10:00 am Grocery shopping with wife
12 noon Lunch out with wife
1:00 pm Moyies. park. or mall with \\ife
3:30 pm Laundry
315
316 PART III Cas~ Studi~s
8:00 am Wake up
8:05 am Make coffee Automatic coffeemaker
8:15 am Let dogs out/feed dogs Dry dog food
8:30 am Drink coffee/watch news on TV
8:45am Eat breakfast Omelet. sausage. juice
9:00 am Shower
9:15 am Shave Disposable safety razor
9:20 am Brush teeth Electric toothbrush
9:30 am Get dressed
10:00 am Church with wife
12:00 noon Lunch out with family at brother's home Meat, veg., salad, bread. iced tea
2:30 pm Watch sports on TV with brother
4:30 pm Read mail/newspaper: check e-mails
6:00 pm Eat light dinner Sandwiches, chips. iced tea
7:00 pm Watch TV
9:30 pm Wash face/brush teeth
9:45pm Put on pajamas
10:00 pm Go to bed
CASE APPENDIX
Additional Materials
IE Available at DavisPlus
317
CASE STUDY
Stroke
Jl@ LAUREN SNOWDON, PT, DPT, ATP
KESSLER INSTITUTE FOR REHABILITATION,
WEST ORANGE, NEW JERSEY
Examination where the bedroom and bathroom are located. Both of his
parents are alive and healthy, and the patient denies a
History family history of diabetes, hypertension, or stroke. The
patient denies tobacco use and notes minimal use of alco-
• Demographic Information: hol for social occasions.
The patient is a 55-year-old, African American male pre- • Employment:
senting to inpatient rehabilitation status post left basal Patient was employed full time as a registered nurse in a
ganglia hemorrhage with right hemiparesis. rehabilitation hospital, working a l2-hour overnight shift
• Past Medical History: 3 or 4 days per week.
The patient has a medical history significant for
hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and chronic renal
Systems Review
insufficiency.
• History of Present Illness: • CardiovascularlRespiratory:
The patient presented to the emergency room I week ago • Heart rate: 68 beats per minute
with a complaint of right-sided weakness and was noted • Blood pressure: 108/76 mm Hg
to be hypertensive. During his acute hospital stay, he was • Respiratory rate: 18 breaths per minute
found to be positive for right posterior tibial vein deep • Cognition and Communication:
vein thrombosis (DVT), with resultant inferior vena cava • Alert and oriented times three and able to follow multi-
(IVe) filter placement. His acute hospital course was oth- step commands.
erwise uncomplicated, and he was transferred to inpatient • Independent for basic and social communication;
rehabilitation to address the chief complaints of gait and speech is fluent, with biographical naming intact.
balance deficits and difficulties with activities of daily • Pleasant and cooperative throughout the examination
living (ADL). process, with a mildly flat affect noted.
• Diagnostic and Laboratory Findings: • Mild difficulty with short- and long-term recall, number
• A computed axial tomography (CAT) scan of the brain skills, concentration, and auditory comprehension/
revealed left basal ganglia hemorrhage with minimal processing time.
mass effect (midline displacement) and no intraventricu- • Vision:
lar hemorrhage. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRl) • Slight ptosis of right eye noted.
showed a 0.59-in. (l.5-cm) intracranial hemolThage in • Extraocular motions intact, with pupils equally round
the left basal ganglia region, left lateral thalamus, and and reactive to light and accommodation.
left internal capsule. No neurosurgical intervention was • Reports no loss of vision, blurred vision, or double
recommended (the IVC filter was placed, as anticoagula- vision; wears glasses for distance.
tion was contraindicated). • Musculoskeletal System:
• White blood cell count = 5.2, hemoglobin = I lA, hema- • Gross range of motion (ROM): Right lower extremity
tocrit = 34.7, platelets = 221. (LE) shows mild limitations, with greatest limitations in
• Medications: hip extension and ankle dorsiflexion (Table CS 10.1).
• Prior to admission: Zocor, Coreg, Lopressor • Gross strength: Right LE shows mild losses in hip and
• Admission medications: Labetalol, Hydrochloroth- knee strength, with greatest loss in ankle dorsiflexion
iazide. Lon"el, Nexium, Singulair, Ambien (Table CS 10.2).
• Social History: • Height: 6 ft 5 in. (196 cm)
Prior to admission, the patient was independent in ambu- • Weight: 230 Ib (104 kg)
lation without an assistive device and independent in all • Neuromuscular System:
ADL. He lived alone in a two-level house with three • Patient presents with decreased initiation of movement,
steps to enter with one right-side railing. Inside the home, decreased smooth coordinated movements, and dimin-
12 steps lead to the second floor with a right-side railing, ished speed (velocity) of movement.
318
CASE STUDY 10 Stroke 319
Abduction 0-45 0-45 o Decreased to light touch and pinprick throughout distal
o No significant findings noted for integumentary, gas- (dysdiadochokinesia) bilaterally, including fore
trointestinal, and genitourinary systems. pronation/supination and foot tapping.
o Posture:
\.
~ ~_ _iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
..."" ""
FIGURE CS10.5 (A) In transferring from sit-to-stand. the patient experiences difficulty with for-
ward translation of the upper body over the feet. As the patient typically sits with a posterior
pelvic tilt and increased thoracic kyphosis, he attempted to bring body weight forward by
increasing thoracic kyphosis as he flexed the hips (body weight too far posterior) This brings
the head forward but does not effectively translate the body mass horizontally. In addition,
limitations in ankle ROM reduced the ability to position the feet behind the knees to allow
the lower leg to rotate effectively over the foot. (8) Attempts to achieve upright standing
posture and balance following sit-to-stand transfer. Note that the patient maintains a down-
ward gaze toward the floor and keeps the upper trunk flexed (instead of extended) when
weight is shifted forward. This posturing impairs his sense of postural alignment and vertical
orientation.
o Sit-pivot transfer from wheelchair to mat: Requires o Decreased endurance for upright tan
contact guard assistance ambulation.
o Sit-pivot transfer from mat to wheelchair: Requires • Stairs: Unable to examine ,econ
contact guard assistance trength. balance. and toleran e . -
o Balance: • Patient" Goal:
o Static sitting balance: Supervision "To \\ alk and do thing b\ m.
o Dynamic sitting balance: Supervision
• The patient's gait shows improvement in alignment, • The patient demonstrates improved standing balance con-
weight shifting, right knee control. step length, and recip- trol with practice of upper extremity tasks required for
rocal pattern. A dorsiflexor wrap is still used due to con- his job as a rehabilitation nurse. The therapist provides
tinuing limitations in dorsiflexor strength. supervision only. no hands-on assistance or cues.
APPENDIX
/;I
Outcome Measures
£lil Organized by the
International Classification
I of Functioning, Disability,
and Health (ICF)
Categories
Body Structure and Function
Measures References
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WCN_PWTG.html
The Manual Wheelchair Training Guide
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Abbreviations: CVA, cerebrovascular accident; SCI. spinal cord injury;TBI. traumatic brain injury.
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(table continues on page 330)
330 APPENDIX A Outcome Measures O,"!~anized by the lCF Cate~ories
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upper extremity skills, 216-231. See also Moditied Ashworth Scale. 2591. 262. 297. 32.+ Performance. definition of. 4b
Upper extremity skills Modified Clinical Test for Sensory Integration in Performance-Oriented Mobility Assessment
Interventions to improve motor control and Balance (mCTSIB). 2791. 327 cPOMA). 264. 266-2681. 327
learning, I:!~ I Modified constraint-induced mo\ement therap~ Performance test. as measure of motor learning.
Intrinsic feedback. in motor learning, :!O (mCIMT). in upper extremit~ ,kIll I .18b
Irradiation, for facilitation, 33b development. 128-230. 230b Peripheral vestibular dysfunction. case study on.
Modified plantigrade. 16b. 170-17.+. See alIa 278-280
Plantigrade, modified Personal factors. definition of. 3b
J Motor ability. 7 Placing. as NOT treatment strategy. 38h
Joint approximation, 39b
Motor Activity Log (MAl). in con,traint- Plantigrade. modified. 16b. 170-17.+. See also
Joint traction, 39h
induced movement therap~. 2r. 23 1.2391. modified plantigrade
297.305-3061.309-3101 Plasticity. brain. u,e-dependent. 232
K Motor control. 4. 5 P:'>1F. See Proprioceptive neuromuscular
Kneel-walking, 129-130. 130J definition of. 5b facilitation cPNF)
Kneeling, 16b. 120-132, 120J terminology on. 5h Postural alignment
general characteristics of. 121 Motor learning impairments in
prerequisite requirements for, 121 definition of. 4. 5h. 18 sitting. 98
student practice activity on, 136-137b feedback in. 32-33 standing. 16-1-166
Knowledge of performance (KP), in motor interventions for. 12~ I normal
learning. 20 measures of. 18. 18b sitting. 97
Knowledge of results (KR). in motor learning, 20 practice in. 20-22 standing. 163j, I64J
stages of. 18-19 Postural control
associative. 10. 19. 23-:!'+1 dynamic. 6-7, 81
L autonomous. 19. :!'+I static. 6. 81
lead-up activitie" in motor learning, :!:!
cognitive. 18-19. :!31 Postural fixation
Lead-up ,kills, 8
,trategies for. 18-25 in sitting. II I
Learned nonu,e, 6, 23:!
"'tructuring environment in. 22 in standing. 16.+
Learning
transfer of learning in. 22 Postural ,ynergies. normal. in standing. 16-+
context-specilic. in motor learning, :!:!
Motor mileslOnes. 5 Practice. in motor learning. 20-22
motor. See Motor learning
Mntor program. 4 blocked. :! I. 12b
negative. practice in. :!O-:! I
definition of. 5h concentrated, in constraint-induced mm'ement
tnlll,fer of. in motor learning. :!:!
Motor recm ery. 6 therapy. 2.+2-2.+3
Life span, motor ,kills across, 5-6
detinition of. 5b distributed. 21. 22h
lift. upper extremity pattern, Pi'\F. 31h, 32b
Mntor ,kill(s) home. in constraint-induced movement
in kneeling, 1:!8-1:!9, 1:!9J
acros, life span. 5-6 therapy. 2.+ I
in ,itting, 107, 109J
definition of. 7b maS\ed. :! I. 2:!b
Limits of stability (lOS)
Movement(s) mental. 21. 22b
in ,itting, 103
facilitated. 36. 38 pam-to-\\ hole. 8-9. 17
in ,tanding, 163
guided. 16-17. 17b random. 21. :!2b
standing on force platform, 188J
Movement time. 7-8 ,erial. 21. 22b
locomotor ,kill,
trial-and-error. I
demands of. varying, strategies for. 205,
Prehension. promoting
206-207b, 208/ 209 N compemator~ training in. 225-226, 225J
improving NOT. See Neuro-developmental treatment (NOT)
motor learning in. :!27
body weight support in, 209-21 I. 21 Ob. Negative learning. 20-21 neuromu,cular facilitation in. :!21-222
:!llh Neuro-developmental treatment (NOT). 36. 37-38b Prehension patterns. for self-feeding. 218.
intenention, for. 194-215 Neuromotor training approaches. to motor
21 :f
treadmill training in. 209-211. 210b. 211h learning. :!5~0 Pressure. inhibito~. 39~Ob
student practice activities on, 211. 212-213b Neuromll',cular facilitation techniques. 25~0
Pressure tapping. a, :"OT treatment
training in Nonuse. learned. 6. 23:!
strateg~. 3 I>
o\el'\ ie\\ of. 21-1-:! I5
Proacti'e motor control. detinitlon of. : b
logrolling. from 'Idel~ ing. '+8~9 . .+9J
Long-,,>itting o Problem-,ol\ ing. In comtraInt-lIlduced
mmement therap~. 2r. 240
acti\C holdlllg In, 101. 10 IJ Open em ironment. in motor learning. :!2
Open-loop system. .+ Prone on elbo",. I:b. 61--0
,cooting in. I 16-11-
Open mOlOr skill. definition of. 7b. lOb general characteri,tt ,of. 61
for tran,fer ,kill, practice. 151. 15 IJ
Overflow. for facilitation. 33b slUdent pra llce aCll\ [[~ on. 69- -01>
Lo\\er extremll~ pattern,. P\'F. 2 -31 b
Overground examination. in locomotor training. Prone exten,ion. 60-61. 611
01 F and E. 2\-2%
:!1-1-:!15 general characteri'llC' of. 60
O:! F and E. 2'-1-3';'
Proprioception. \ i,ual. 9-10
Lunge,. fr,'m ':anJIn;., I. I I t: I 2f
definition of. 101>
p Proprioceptive neuromu' ular facilitation
M Parkin,on's disease. ca,e ,tudy on. 2 1-:!86 (P F)
Manual COnLJd .... : r !.l...Iht31lvll. 3:b Participation. detlnition of. 3h foundation procedure, for. 33-~-tb
Ma,sed practi,e, In :, r Ie.mllng. 21. 12b Participation restrictions. detinition of. 3b in motor learning. 25. 26-36/J. 36
Mental praLtI,e. n ; - eilllllng. 21. :!2b Pathology. definition of. .+b pattern, of. 25
Mobilit~. n. 1.9 Pathophysiology. definition of. .+h head and trunk. 31-_ 3b
Modeling. In ,h", M,:: ~-J :_'. practice. Perceived barriers. a, predictors of adherence 10 lowerextremit~. T-31/J
2361 phy,ical acti\ it~. 236 upper eXlremit~. 26-2-b
334 Index
techniques of, 34-361> for walking Self-paced skills. definition of. JOb
terminology of, 36/ braiding. 204 Sensory components. of standing. 164
in upper extremity skills development. forward and hackward. 199-200. I99f: 200/ Sensory control. of balance in standing,
222-224, 223f 224{ side-stepping. 200. 20 If. 202. 202f interventions to improve, 190
Propulsion, of wheelchair, 156. 156{ Response time, 8 Sensory influence. on silting, 99b
on inclines. 156 Retention. as measure of motor learning, 18. 18b Sensory stimulation. in motor learning, 38
Psychosocial factors. rehabilitation and. 10 Retention interval. in motor learning, I ~ Serial motor skills, definition of. 7b
Retention test. as mea,ure of motor learning, 18, Serial practice, in motor learning, 2 L 22b
I~b Shaping. in constraint-induced movement
Q
Reversal, therapy. 234. 235f 2361. 243
Quadruped. I 51>. 70-~3
of antagonists. as PNF technique, 34-351> Shoulder
as,iS!-to-position
from pronc on elbow,. 70-7 L 7 If
dynamic. 49-50. 5Qr See also Dynamic stahility andmohility of. for self-feeding. 217,
rever,als 217/
from side-sitting. 71-72. 71/
stahiliLing. See also Stahili/ing reversals stabili/ation of
balance strategies in. 81-82
Re\erse chop. 311>. 321> compensatory training in. 224, 225{
creeping in. ~0-81. 80r 81/
Rever,e lift. 31b. 32b motor learning in, 226-227
general characteristics or. 70
Rhythmic initiation (RI). 49. 491' in upper extremity skill development.
improving control in. interventions for.
as PNF technique. 34b 222-223. 223{ 224f
70-82
Rhythmic rotation (RRo) Side-sitting
movement transitions from
as NDT trcatmcnt strategy. 38b active holding in. 101, 10 If
to bilateral heel-sitting position.
as PNF technique. 351> movement transitions between kneeling and.
75-76.76/
Rhythmic stabilization (RS). as PNF technique. combination of isotonics in, 126-127, 127{
to hcel-sitting on one side. 76-77. 77/
351> transitions from quadruped to. dynamic
to side-sitting. 77. 771'
RI. See Rhythmic initiation (RI) reversals in, 77, 77f
student practicc activity on. ~2-831>
Risk factors. for disability, environmental. 9 Side-stepping. 200. 20 If, 202. 202f
Rolling. 45-54 Sidelying. control in. 56-60
R application of PNF extremity patterns to. general characteristics of, 56, 56f
Random practicc. in motor learning, 21. 221> 51-55 logrolling from. 48-49. 49f
Reach, upper extremity charactcristic, or. 45 student practice activity on, 60b
compensatory training for. 224-225 interventions for. 4S-49 trunk control in. improving. treatment
facilitating, 22 L 221f student practice activity on, 551> strategies for, 56
motor Icarning in. 226-227 ra,k analysis for with trunk counterrotation. 5~-59. 58f 59f
Reaction time, 7 components or. 47b trunk rotation in. 57-58
Reactive balance control guidelines for. 47--48 Simple motor skills, definition of, 7b
in kneeling. 130-131 ,tudent practice activity on. 4~I> Sit pivot transfer, 150-153, 150-1531
in quadruped. SI-S2 technique, and verbal cues for. 49-54 Silting, improving control. 15b, 97-119
in standing. 164 Rotation adaptivc balance control in, I 10-1 16. See also
Reactive motor control, delinition of, 5b rhythmic. See Rhythmic rotation (RRo) Balance strategies, in sitting
Recall schema, definition or. 5b trunk. See Trunk, rotation of alignment in. 97-9~, 97f 9~b, 98/
Reciprocal trunk patterns. outcome, and RP. See Resistcd progression (RP) long-. See Long-sitting
indications for, 59 RRo. See Rhythmic rotation (RRo) scooting off table from, to modified standing,
Recognition schema. definition of, 5b RS. See Rhythmic ,tabili/ation iRS) 117-11~. 117/
Recovery short-. scooting in. 117, 117{
function-induccd. 6 side-, activc holding in. 101, 10If
motor. 6 s sludent practice activities in. I 18-119b
definition of, 5b Safety mitt. in cOll'traint-induced movement Skill(5). 7-9, 8[
spontaneous. 6 therapy. 232. 2331 adaptability of. as measure of mOlor learning.
true. 242 Schema, definition or. 51> 18. 18b
Reference of correctnes,> Scooting closed. definition of. lOb
to enhance motor learning. 18 ollrable into modilied slanding. 117-118. criterion, 8
Rellex hierarchical theory. 5 117{ definition of. 7
Rellexes. tonic. functional rolling and. 46b in ,itting position" I 16-1 17. 117f externally paced. definition of. lOb
Regulatory conditions. definition or. 101> Segmental rolling. 57 functional mobility, 13
Repeated contractions. (repeated stretch) as PNF Segmcntal trunk patterns. 5~-59. SSt 59/ lead-up. 8
technique. 35b Self-efticacy, a., predictor of adherence to open. definition of. lOb
Repeated stimulation. temporal summation phy,ical activity. 236 self-paced. definition of. lOb
from. 38 Self-feeding, 216-220 ,pi inter. 9
Repetitive. task-oriented training. in constraint- activity analy,is of. 216 Slow reversals. See Dynamic reversals
induced movement therapy, 232. 234 activity demands of. 219-220. 219t 220j Social environment. rehabilitation and, 10
Replication. 50-51. 51/ el1\'ironmental factors for, 220 Social support. in constraint-inducedmovcment
Resistance, 39b lead-up ;,kilb for, 217-2IS. 217( 21St 219( therapy. 237
to contextual changc in locomotor ta,"'. 205 musculoskeletal performance components of. Somatosensory challenges, to improve sensory
for facilitation. 33b 217-219 control of balance. 190
Resisted progression (RP). as PNF technique. neurological performance component, of. Somato;,en;,ory control. in standing. 164
35-361> 217-219 Spatial ,ummation. 38
for creeping in quadruped. 80-81. 80t SI r treatment ~tratcgic" and consicJcra(ion~ for. Speciticit~. of training. 16
for kneel-walking. 129-130. 130/ 220-230 Spced-accuracy trade-off. ~
Index 335
Spinal cord injury home care rehabilitation in. ca,e ,tud) on. floor-to-standing. 181-182. 182f
ca,e ,tudie, on. 27+-277. 287-292 293-295 floor-to-wheelchair. 153-155. 15-1{. 155f
locomotor training in. case study on. 262-273 Stroke Impact Scale (SIS). 297-29 .311-3141. sit-to/from-stand. 138-149. 139! 14+-149f
Splinter ,kill,. 9 329 task analy,i, for. 138-142. 1401
Spontaneous recover). 6 ub,titution approach. See Compen-ator) stand-to-,it. 148
Squat,. panial wall. from ,tanding. 179-1 I. intervention to and from \I heelchair. 149-156
180r Summation sit pivot. 150-153. 1501 151): 152f. 1531
Stability. 6. 81 ,patial. in central nel\ou sy'tem. 3 See also Sit pivot transfer
Stabilizing re\er,als. a, P F technique. temporal. from repeated stimulation. 3 ,tand pi I'ot. 149-150
34-35b. 64 Summed feedback. 20b student practice acti\ ity on. 161-162b
Stair-climbing. 204. 205/ Sway envelope. in ,tanding. 163 Transfer of learning. in motor learning. 22
Stance phase. of gait cycle. 194. 1951 Swcep tapping. as NDT treatment ,trateg). 38b Transfer package in constraint-induced
Stand pivot tran,fer. 149-150 Sv. ing phase. of gait cycle. 194. 195-196/ movement the rap) . 23+-241
Stand retraining. in spinal cord injury. 265. 2691 Symmetrical tonic labyrinthine reflex (STLR). behavioral contract in. 237-240. 23 I
Sllllldard Nellmlogical C/assificaliol/ 0/ Spil/al functional rolling and. 46b caregi\'er contract in. 240
Cord 11/}lIr." of American Spinal Injury Symmetrical tonic neck reflex ( TNR). constraining panicipant to me less affected
Association (ASIA), 263. 264f. 289f functional rolling and. 46b UE in. 241
Standing 16h. 163-193 Sy,telm theory. 4 daily schedule in. 241
active limb movements in. 176. l77b. l77f home diary in. 240
balance conlrol in. interventions to improve. home practice in. 241
182-190. See also Balance control. in T home skill assignment in. 240
standing Tapping. as NDT treatment strategy. 38b motor acti\ it)' log in. 237. 2381. 239/
general characteristics of. 163-164. 16V Task(,) Transfer test. as mea,ure of motor learning. 18. 18b
impairments in. common. 164. 165-166h claxxilication of. 81 Traumatic brain injury
intervention,. 166-1l\2 cOl1lrolled mobilit). 6-7. 81 case study on. 251-256
to ensure safety. 170. 170b mobilit). 6. 81 case study on balance and locomotor training.
to improvc flexibility. 166. 167f. 1671 ,kill. 7-9. 81 257-261
to improve strength. 166. 168-169/. 168): ,tabilit). 6. 81 Treadmill (TM) training. in improving
169/ Ta,k analysi, locomotor skills. 209-211. 210b. 211b
to val') level of difficulty. 166. 169b. 170 acti\ it) -based. 12-13 Treatment planning
to val') po,tural stabilization delinition of. 5b understanding em ironment in. 9-10
requirements. 166. 169b. 170 in gait. 19+-195 undeNanding individual in. 9
verbal cueing for. 170. 170h in ,itting. ,tudent practice acti\ it) on. I 18b under,tanding task in. 6-9
in modified plantigrade. 170-174 in sit-to/from-stand tran,fer,. 138-142. 1401 Trendelenburg gait. 197/>
mo\'ement tran,itions to. from half-kneeling. ,tudent practice acti\ itie, on. 142. 143b Trial-and-error practice. in motor learning. 18
135.135f in ,tanding. student practice activit) on. 191 b Trunk
panial wall 'quat, from. 179-18\, 180/ in upper cxtremit) ,kill,. 216-220. 216b. control of. earl) intervention, to impro\'e.
single-limb stance in. 176 217-220/ 56-96
,tepping. 17l\-179. 178(. 1791 180 Ta,k organil<1tion. definition of. 5/> bridging a,. 87-96. See also Bridging
student practice activities in. 190. 191-I92h Ta,k practice. in cOllXtraint-induced mo\emel1l hooklying a,. 82-87. See also Hooklying
tran,fer, to/from floor. 181-182. 182/ therapy. 232. 234. 235f 2361 po,ition
weight shifts. 175-176 Tcmporal ,>ummation. from repeated ,>timulation. prone extension as. 60-61. 61f
Static-dynamic control. 7 38 prone on elbows a,. 61-70. See olso Prone.
Static postural control. 6. 8/ Terminal feedback. in motor learning. 20 on elbow,
Steppage gait. 198b Thrust. and withdrawal. PNF D I. bilateral quadruped as. 70-82. See also Quadruped
Stepping. symmetrical, in sitting. 109. 109f sidelying as. 56-60. See olso Sidelying
in modified plantigradc. 173 Thumb manipulation. for ,elf-feeding. 218. 219/ counten-otation of. sidelying with. 58-59. 58! 59/
in ,tanding. 164 167f. 178-179. 178f. 179f. Tilting reactions. in standing. 164 PNF pattern, for. 31-33b
180j, 183. 184r Timc postural ,tability of. for self-feeding. 217, 217/
Step training. 214 movement. 7-8 stabilization of. in upper extremity skill
STLR. See Symmetrical tonic lab) rinthine reflex rcaction.7 de\elopment. 222. 223/
(STLR) re'ponse. 8 Trunk rotation
ST R. See S) mmetrical tonic neck reflex Timing lateral. sitting on ball. 115. 115/
(ST R) al1licipation. 9 lower. in hookl) ing. 83-87. 8-1{. 87/
Strengthening. to improve definition of. lOb upper
,it-to/from-,tand tran,fer,. 147-148. 148f for empha,i,. P IF. 33b in ,idelying. 57-58
standing control. 166. 16'-169/. 16~r 169f for facilitation. 33b in sitting. 104. 104/
tran,fer ,kilk 15: Traction. for facilitation. 34b Turning. of wheelchair on even surfaces. 156
Stretch Training
for facilitation. 34h compen,atory. See Compen,ator) training
prolonged. 39/> dual-ta,k. to enhance motor learning. 19 u
quick. 39/> locomotor. 21 +-215 Unsupervi,ed practice. in motor learning. 22
repeated. a, P:\F technique. 35b pan,-to-whole. -9 Upper extremity WE)
Stroke repetiti\ e. ta,k-oriented. in con,traint-induced bilateral movement. for self-feeding. 218, 219/
ca"e . . IUU) OIl. 315-3~O movemel1l therapy. 232. 234 compensatory training for. 226
con,tramt-mduced mo\ ement therapy for. Tran,fer(sl.138-156 constraint-induced movemel1l therapy. 232,
ca,e ,tuU) t'll. 296-314 abilit) for. outcome mea,ure, of. 155-156 2331. 241
336 Index