Table of Contents

Chapter 2 Conventional and Unconventional Gas Reservoir .................................................... 2

2.1 Gas Well Performance (pp. 188-201) ......................................................................... 2
2.1.1 Vertical Gas Well Performance ........................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Horizontal Gas Well Performance ..................................................................... 15
2.2 Material Balance Equation Method for Gas Reservoir (pp 201-217) ....................... 17
2.2.1 Gas expansion factor and gas formation volume factor..................................... 17
2.2.2 The volumetric method ...................................................................................... 18
2.2.3 The material balance method ............................................................................. 21

1
Chapter 2 Conventional and Unconventional Gas Reservoir
Natural gas is a subcategory of petroleum that is a naturally occurring, complex mixture of
hydrocarbons, with a minor amount of inorganic compounds. Natural gas is primarily
comprised of hydrocarbons. Methane or CH4 is the major component. The other components
include C2H6 (ethane), C3H8 (propane), C4H16 (butane), and heavier, more complex,
hydrocarbons. In addition to hydrocarbons, natural gas also contains impurities. These
impurities include: nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and water
vapor (H2O). The impurities do not add any calorific value to natural gas. They can be either
neutral (such as nitrogen), or can cause harmful effects such as corrosion (i.e., water vapor)
or poisoning (i.e., H2S). During the processing of gas, the heavier hydrocarbons beyond
butane are removed from the gas as liquids, and sold as liquids. Therefore, the majority of gas
after processing is methane. The impurities are also removed at the surface to improve the
calorific value of gas as well as to minimize the corrosion. Table 2-1 shows composition of a
typical natural gas. It indicates that methane is a major component of the gas mixture.

Table 2-1. Typical Composition of Natural Gas

Methane CH4 70-90%
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8 0-20%
Butane C4H10
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0-8%
Oxygen O2 0-0.2%
Nitrogen N2 0-5%
Hydrogen sulphide H2S 0-5%
Rare gases A, He, Ne, Xe trace

The objective of this chapter is to evaluate and predict:

• Vertical and horizontal gas well performance
• Conventional and unconventional gas field performance

2.1 Gas Well Performance (pp. 188-201)

2
The objective is to determine the inflow performance relationships under pseudo-steady state
flow condition. The solution is achieved by solving the fluid flow equation (Darcy’s Law) at
the specific flow regime.

2.1.1 Vertical Gas Well Performance

2.1.1.1 Gas flow under laminar (viscous) flowing conditions

Gas flow rate

Qg =
(( )
kh m pr − m( p wf ) )
r
1422T (ln e − 0.75 + s )
rw （2.1）

Where:

Qg = gas flow rate, Mscf/day

k = permeability, md

h = thickness, ft

re = drainage radius, ft

rw = wellbore radius, ft

m(pr) =real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to average reservoir pressure pr,

psi2/cp

m(pwf) =real gas potential as evaluated from 0 to Pwf, psi2/cp

s =skin factor

Considering the shape factor CA in equation 2.1, the equation changes to the following

formula:

Qg =
(( )
kh m pr − m( p wf ) )
1
1422T [ ln(4 A / 1.781C A rw2 ) + s ] (2.2)
2

Where:
A = drainage area, ft2;
CA = shape factor with values specified in the table 2.1.

3
Table 2.1 Shape factors for various single-well drainage areas (after Earlougher, R.,
Advances in well testing analysis, permission to publish by the SPE, copyright SPE, 1977)

4
Productivity index (PI) J

Qg kh
J= =
( )
m pr − m( p wf ) 1
1422T [ ln(4 A / 1.781C A rw2 ) + s ]
2 (2.3)
The most used case is the single-well in a circular drainage area. The productivity index is
represented as:
Qg kh
J= =
( )
m pr − m( p wf ) 1422T [ln(re / rw ) − 0.75 + s ]
(2.4)
The absolute open flow potential (AOF), maximum flow rate, is defined when the bottomhole
flow pressure is set to zero or atmospheric pressure. The AOF can be obtained using the PI:
AOF = Qg max = J × m( pr ) (2.5)

The linear representation of the PI and pressures:

( )
m( p wf ) = m pr −
1
J
Qg (2.6)

Different representations
To present the equations using the integration:

r p
kh 2p
Qg =
re ∫ µ Z
dp
1422T (ln − 0.75 + s ) wf
p g
(2.7)
rw

5
 Figure 2.1 Gas PVT data.
• High-pressure region
When the bottom-hole flowing pressure Pwf and average reservoir pressure ���
𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟 are both
2p 1
higher than 3000 psia, the pressure functions �𝜇𝜇 𝑍𝑍� and (𝜇𝜇 ) are nearly constant.
𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝐵𝐵𝑔𝑔

or

(2.8)
where:
Qg = Gas flow rate, MSCF/day
Bg = Gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
k = Permeability, md

Including the shape factor CA:

(2.9)

• Intermediate-pressure region
Between 2000 and 3000 psia, the pressure function shows distinct curvature.

(2.10)

6
 For a non-circular drainage area:

(2.11)

• Low-pressure region
2p 1
The pressure is usually less than 2000 psia, the pressure functions �𝜇𝜇 𝑍𝑍� and (𝜇𝜇 )
𝑔𝑔 𝑔𝑔 𝐵𝐵𝑔𝑔

exhibit a linear relationship with pressure.

Golan and Whitson (1986):

(2.12)
or

(2.13)
for a non-circular drainage area:

(2.14)

Example 2.1: The following table presents the gas PVT data from a dry gas reservoir; the
reservoir is producing under the pseudo-steady state condition. Additional data is available as
k=65 md, h=15 ft, T=600°R, re=1000ft, rw=0.25ft, and s=-0.4. Calculate the gas flow rate
under the following conditions:
• 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 =4000 psia, and Pwf=3200 psia;
• 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 =2000 psia and Pwf=1200 psia.

7
Solution:
• Calculation of Qg at 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 = 4000 and Pwf = 3200 psi:
Step 1. Select the approximation method. Because 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 and Pwf are both greater than
3000, the pressure approximation method is used, i.e., Equation 2.8.
Step 2. Calculate average pressure and determine the corresponding gas properties.

Step 3. Calculate the gas flow rate by applying Equation 2.8:

Step 4. Recalculate Qg by using the pseudopressure equation, i.e., Equation 2.1, to

give:

Comparing results of the pressure approximation method with the pseudopressure

approach indicates that the gas flow rate can be approximated using the “pressure
method” with an absolute percentage error of 2.25%.

• Calculation of Qg at 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 = 2000 and Pwf = 1200:

8
 Step 1. Select the appropriate approximation method. Because 𝑃𝑃�𝑟𝑟 and Pwf ≤2000, use
the pressure squared approximation.
Step 2. Calculated average pressure and the corresponding µg and Z:

Step 3. Calculated Qg by using the pressure –squared equation, i.e., Equation 2.13:

Step 4. Using the tabulated values of real-gas pseudopressure, calculate the exact Qg
by applying Equation 2.1:

Comparing results of the two methods, the pressure- squared approximation predicted
the gas flow rate with an average absolute error of 0.27%.

2.1.1.2 Gas flow under turbulent flowing conditions

• Pressure-squared approximation method

(2.15)
Where D is the turbulent flow factor and is given:
Fkh
D= (2.16)
1422T
And F is the non-Darcy flow coefficient, and is defined as:

(
F = 3.161 10 −12 ) µβThg r
2
g
(2.17)
g w

Where k = Permeability, md
T = Temperature, °R
9
 γg = Specific gravity
rw = Wellbore radius, ft
h = Thickness, ft
β = Turbulent parameter given by the following equation
β = 1.88(10 −10 )k −1.47φ −0.53
• Pressure approximation method

(2.18)

• Real-gas pseudo-pressure method

(2.19)
To solve above three equations, the following methods are used:
• The simplified treatment approach (Rawlines and Schellardt (1936) method)

Introducing the performance coefficient C into the above equation, as defined by:

(2.20)

The performance coefficient C above is included to account for:

• Reservoir rock properties;
• Fluid properties;
• Reservoir flow geometry

Taking the logarithm of both sides:

10
 (2.21)

(2.22)

Given n, any point on the straight line can be used to compute the performance
coefficient C from:

(2.23)

Figure 2.2. Well deliverability graph.

• The laminar-inertial-turbulent treatment: direct solution

Pressure – squared quadratic form Equation 2.15 can be written in a more simplified
form as:

(2.24)
Rearranging this equation gives:

(2.25)
With:

11
 (2.26)

(2.27)

Figure 2.3. Graph of the pressure-squared data.

Assumptions for Equation 2.25:

• Single phase flow
• A homogeneous and isotropic reservoir
• The permeability is independent of pressure
• The product of the gas viscosity and compressibility factor, i.e., (µgZ), is
constant.

12
Pressure quadratic form Equation 2.18 can be rearranged and expressed in the
following quadratic form:

Rearranging gives:

(2.28)

(2.29)

(2.30)

In a linear form, the equation could be expressed as:

(2.31)

Figure 2.4. Graph of the pressure method data.

13
 Figure 2.5. Graph of real-gas pseudopressure data.

2.1.1.3 Future inflow performance relationships

• Back-pressure equation
Recall the back-pressure equation:

Where the coefficient C describes the gas and reservoir properties by:

Assume the reservoir pressure has declined from Pr1 to Pr2:

The value of n is considered essentially constant. Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the

properties at Pr1 and Pr2:

• LIT method
Pressure-squared method equation is written as:

The coefficients of the above expression are given by:

14
 The proposed relationships for adjusting the coefficients are as follows:

(2.32)

(2.33)

• Pressure approximation method

With

The recommended methodology for adjusting the coefficients a and b is based on

applying the following simple two expressions:

(2.34)

(2.35)

Where Bg is the gas formation volume factor in bbl/scf.

2.1.2 Horizontal Gas Well Performance

The Joshi (1991) model to calculate the gas flow rate from a horizontal well:
1) Calculate the effective wellbore radius rw\

reh ( L / 2)
rw\ = (2.36)
a[1 + 1 − ( L / 2a ) 2 ][h /(2rw )]h / L
and
L
a= [0.5 + 0.25 + (2reh / L) 4 ]0.5 (2.37)
2

15
 and
reh = 43560A / π (2.38)
Where
L= Length of the horizontal well, ft
h = Thickness, ft
rw = Wellbore radius, ft
reh = Horizontal well drainage radius, ft
a = Half the major axis of the drainage ellipse, ft
A = Drainage area of the horizontal well, acres

2) Calculate the gas flow rate from a horizontal wellbore

a. Pressure-squared method

(2.39)
b. Pseudo-pressure method

(2.40)
Example 2.2: A horizontal gas well 2000 ft long is draining an area of approximately 120
acres. The available data is listed below. Please calculate the gas flow rate by using the
pressure-squared and pseudo-pressure methods. Assume pseudo-steady state flow condition.

Solution:

Step 2. Calculate half the major axis of the drainage ellipse by using Equation 2.37:

16
 Step 3. Calculate the effective wellbore radius rw form Equation 2.36:

Applying Equation 2.36 gives:

Step 4. Calculate the flow rate by using the pressure-squared approximation approach
by using Equation 2.39:

Step 5. Calculate the flow rate by using the approach as described by Equatino
2.40:

2.2 Material Balance Equation Method for Gas Reservoir (pp 201-217)

• Estimate Original Gas In Place (OGIP)

• Predict recovery
• Identify drive mechanism

2.2.1 Gas expansion factor and gas formation volume factor

• Gas formation volume factor Bg is defined as the volume occupied by n moles of
gas at certain pressure p and temperature T to that occupied at standard conditions.

(2.41)

17
 • Gas expansion factor is the reciprocal of Bg, or:

(2.42)

2.2.2 The volumetric method

The objective is to estimate the gas-bearing reservoir pore volume.

2.2.2.1 Data for volumetric analysis

• Structural and stratigraphic cross-sectional maps help to establish the reservoir’s areal
extent and to identify reservoir discontinuities such as pinchouts, faults, or gas–water
contacts.
• Subsurface contour maps, usually drawn relative to a known or marker formation, are
constructed with lines connecting points of equal elevation and therefore portray the
geologic structure.
• Subsurface isopachous maps are constructed with lines of equal net gas-bearing
formation thickness.

2.2.2.2 Gas-in-Place calculation

• Assumptions to a volumetric reservoir
 The pore volume occupied by gas is constant.
• Primary equations
The equation for calculating gas-in-pace is:

(2.43)

18
 Gas produced = initial gas in place – remaining gas

or

When p = 0, the gas expansion

factor is also zero, Eg = 0, and that
will reduce the equation to:

Applying Equation 2. 43 to both the initial and abandonment conditions:

or:

where Bga is evaluated at abandonment pressure.

Example2.3: A gas reservoir has the following characteristics:

19
Calculate the cumulative gas production and recovery factor at 1000 and 400 psi.

Solution:
Step 1. Calculate the reservoir PV:

Step 2. Calculate Bg at every given pressure by using Equation 2.41:

Step 3. Calculate initial gas-in-place at 2600 psi:

Step 4. Since the reservoir is assumed volumetric, calculate the remaining gas at 1000
and 400 psi.
Remaining gas at 1000 psi:

Remaining gas at 400 psi:

Step 5. Calculate cumulative gas production Gp and the recovery factor RF at 1000
and 400 psi.

20
2.2.3 The material balance method

2.2.3.1 Important reading

• Pletcher (2000): Improvements to reservoir material balance methods. SPE 62882,
SPE Annual Technical Conference, Dallas, TX, Oct. 1-4.

2.2.3.2 Assumptions
If enough production-pressure history is available for a gas reservoir in term of:
• Cumulative gas production Gp as a function of pressure,
• Gas properties as a function of pressure at reservoir temperature, and
• The initial reservoir pressure, pi

2.2.3.3 Derivation of the general equation for gas reservoirs

(2.44)

21
 Figure. 2.6. Idealized water-drive gas reservoir.

The gas moles can be replaced by their equivalents using the real-gas law, to give:

Knowing Zsc = 1,

psc G p piV p[V − (We − BwW p )]

= −
RTsc Z i RT ZRT (2.45)

Equation 2.45 is the general material balance equation (MBE).

2.2.3.3.1 The general material balance equation for volumetric gas reservoirs
• Volumetric reservoir
• No water production
I. MBE in the form of p/Z

(2.46)
or equivalently:

(2.47)
Figure 2.7. Gas material balance equation.

22
m is the slope as shown in Figure 2.7. This straight line relationship is perhaps one of
the most widely used relationships in gas reserve determination.

Example 2.4: production history

Calculate the gas initially in place volumetrically and from the MBE.

Solution:
Step 1. Calculate Bgi from Equation 2.41:

Step 2. Calculate the gas initially in place volumetrically by applying Equation 2.43:

Step 3. Plot p/Z versus Gp as shown in Figure 2.8 and determine G as:

G = 14.2 MMMscf

The value of the gas initially in place

as calculated form the MBE
compares reasonably with the
volumetric value.

23
 II. MBE in the form of field average p/Z Figure 2.8. Relationship of p/z vs. Gp.

(2.48)

Figure 2.9. Effect of water drive on p/z vs.

Gp relationship.

III. MBE in the form of

(2.49)

Figure 2.10. Gas-in-place in a depletion driver

reservoir.

Example 2.5: After producing 360 MMscf of gas from a volumetric gas reservoir, the
pressure has declined from 3200 psi to 3000 psi.
a) Calculate the gas initially in place given:

24
 b) Recalculate the gas initially in place assuming that the pressure measurements were
incorrect and the true average pressure is 2900 psi, instead of 3000 psi. The gas
formation volume factor at this pressure is 0.00558ft3/scf.
Solution:
• Using Equation 2.49:

• Recalculate G by using the correct value of Bg:

IV. Gas recovery factor

The gas recovery factor (RF) at any depletion pressure is defined as the cumulative
gas produced Gp at this pressure divided by the gas initially in place G:

(2.50)

(2.51)
2.2.3.3.2 The general material balance equation for water drive gas reservoirs

(2.52)

• Typical ways to expressing the MBE in convenient graphical forms

o Energy plot

(2.53)

o MBE in a straight line

25
 (2.54)
 Drive indices for gas reservoirs

o Cole plot

(2.55)
o Modified Cole plot

(2.56)
 Rock collapse theory
 Shale water influx theory
o Roach plot for abnormally pressured gas reservoir

(2.57)
Where

(2.58)
Defining the rock expansion term ER as:

(2.59)
(2.60)
o Modified Roach plot for pot aquifer gas reservoir

(2.61)
With:

26
 o Fetkovich et al. plot for abnormally pressured gas reservoir
(2.62)

o Paston et al. plot for abnormally pressured gas reservoir

o Hammerlindl method for abnormally pressured gas reservoir

• Effect of gas production rate on ultimate recovery

27