The 3M Model of Motivation and - John Mowen 47903 PDF

THE 3M MODEL OF MOTIVATION
AND PERSONALITY
Theory and Empirical Applications to
Consumer Behavior
THE 3M MODEL OF MOTIVATION
AND PERSONALITY
Theory and Empirical Applications to
Consumer Behavior
by
John C. Mowen
Oklahoma State University, U.S.A.
SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Mowen, John C.
The 3M model of motivation and personality: theory and empirical applications
to consumer behavior / by John C. Mowen.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4419-5091-8 ISBN 978-1-4757-6708-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4757-6708-7
1. Motivation research (Marketing) 2. Consumers' preferences.
3.Personality. 1. Title.
HF5415 .34 .M69 1999

658.8'342---dc21 99-047406
Copyright ® 2000 by Springer Science+Business Media New York

Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2000
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2000
Ali rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photo-
copying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
publisher, Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.
Printed on acid-Iree paper.

Dedicated to my parents, Hope and John Mowen,
who taught me to love learning and
to find my own road.
Contents
List of Figures .............................................. Xlll
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xv
Preface ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xvii
Part I. The Development of the Theory
Chapter 1. The 3M: A Meta-Theoretic Model of Motivation

and Personality .................................... 1
Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1
Some Problems with Current Approaches to Personality and
Motivation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3
Final Note ............................................... 9
Chapter 2. Theoretical Development of the 3M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
Control Theory and the 3M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12
Hierarchical Models of Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 15
Identifying the Traits at Each Hierarchical Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 24
Integrating Control Theory, Trait Theory, Hierarchical Personality
Models, and Evolutionary Psychology to Form the 3M . . . . . . .. 32
Two Examples of the Application of the 3M Model ............. 38
The Empirical Approach of the Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41
Summary ............................................... 42
viii Contents
Part II. The Elemental Traits
Chapter 3. Developing the Measures of the Eight Elemental Traits 47

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47
Introduction ............................................ , 47
The Pilot Studies ........................................ , 48
The Confirmatory Factor Analytic Studies .................... , 51
Is the Need for Arousal an Elemental Trait? ................... , 55
Discussion ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57
Part III. Investigating Compound Traits
Chapter 4. Task Orientation ................................. 61

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 61
The Development of the Task Orientation Scale ................ 63
Predicting Task Orientation with the Elemental Traits . . . . . . . . . . .. 64
Predicting Situational Traits with Task Orientation and the
Elemental Traits ...................................... 66
General Discussion ....................................... 68
Chapter S. The Need for Learning ............................ 71

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
The Development of the Need for Learning Scale ............... 72
Comparison of the Need for Learning Scale with the Need for
Cognition Scale ...................................... , 74
Is the Need for Learning an Elemental or a Compound Trait? . . . . .. 75
Does the Need for Learning Meet the Four Criteria for a
Compound Trait? ..................................... 76
General Discussion ....................................... 79
Chapter 6. Competitiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
The Development of the Need to Compete Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83
Predicting Competitiveness with the Elemental Traits . . . . . . . . . . .. 84
Does Competitiveness Account for Variance Beyond the
Elemental Traits? ..................................... 86
Discussion ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88
Contents IX
Chapter 7. The Need for Activity ............................. 91

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
Developing the Need for Activity Scale ....................... 92
Testing the Need for Activity Scale .......................... 92
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
Chapter 8. The Need for Play ................................ 97

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
Theory and Research on Play ............................... 98
Developing the Need for Play Scale ......................... 100
Predicting the Need for Play with the Elemental Traits .......... 101
Predicting Other Traits with the Need for Play . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 103
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 105
Chapter 9. General Self· Efficacy and the Discriminant Validity of

the Six Compound Traits ......................... 109
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 109
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 109
Developing the Self-Efficacy Scale ......................... 111
The General Self-Efficacy Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113
The Self-Esteem Scale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113
Predicting General Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem with the
Elemental Traits ..................................... 113
Predicting Other Traits with General Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem 117
Assessing the Discriminant Validity of the Compound Traits ..... 120
General Discussion ...................................... 120
Part IV. From Situational to Surface Traits
Chapter 10. From Health Motivation to Healthy Diet Lifestyle 127

Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127
Developing the Hierarchical Model ......................... 128
Methodology ........................................... 132
Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132
Discussion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138
x Contents
Chapter 11. From Impulsiveness to Compulsive Consumption. . .. 143

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 143
Does Keeping Up with the Joneses Result in Compulsive Buying? 145
Impulsiveness, Competitiveness, and Compulsive Buying. . . . . . .. 146
Predicting Compulsive Buying with the Rokeach Value Inventory
and the LOV Scale ................................... 149
Identifying Segments of Compulsive Buyers .................. 150
Chapter 12. From Value Consciousness to Bargaining Proneness . 157

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 157
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 157
Developing the Bargaining Proneness Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161
Study II: Further Investigations of Bargaining Proneness ........ 163
Discussion ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168
Chapter 13. From Sports Interest to Sports Participation . . . . . . .. 173

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 173
Method ................................................ 177
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 178
Discussion .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183
Chapter 14. From Frugality to Modest Living ................. 187

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 187
Study 1: Developing the Tightwad Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 189
Discussion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 192
Study 2: Comparing the Tightwad Scale to the Frugality Scale ... 193
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 194
Part V. Additional Investigations Into the Hierarchical Model
Chapter 15. What is an Extrovert? They are More Than

They Seem! ................................... 207
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 207
Assessing the Saucier (1994) Extraversion Construct ........... 209
Assessing the Eysenck Measure of Extraversion ............... 211
Contents Xl
Chapter 16. From Chick-Flicks to Guy-Flicks to Sci-Fi Junkies:

Traits of Movie Hounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 219
Study 1: Predicting Movie Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 223
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 224
Discussion ............................................. 229
Study II: Predicting Gender and Age ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 230
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 231
Discussion ............................................. 232
Chapter 17. The 3M and Developing Marketing Communications:

An Empirical Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 235
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 235
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 235
Study 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 237
Study 2 ................................................ 243
Overall Discussion ...................................... 247
Chapter 18. Hard Questions and Tentative Answers About the 3M 253
Abstract. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 253
Overview and Summary of Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 254
Does the 3M Make a Contribution to the Literature? ........... 261
Five Criticisms of the 3M ................................. 269
Future Directions for Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 275
Appendices ............................................... 279

Appendix A. Key Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 281
Appendix B. Final Items for the Eight Elemental Traits ......... 283
Appendix C. The Studies ................................. 284
Appendix D. Coefficient Alphas of Constructs Employed in
Eight Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 294
Appendix E. Means and Standard Deviations of Constructs
Employed in Eight Studies ............................. 295
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 297
xii Contents
Name Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307
Subject Index ............................................. 311

List of Figures
2.1. The Thermostat: A Basic Control Model ..................... 13
2.2. A Three-Level Control Model ............................ 14
2.3. Traditional Hierarchical Model of Personality ................ 18
2.4. The 3M Model of Motivation and Personality ................ 33
10.1. Path Diagram for Healthy Diet Lifestyle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135
11.1. Path Diagram for Compulsive Buying ..................... 148
12.1. Path Diagram for Bargaining Proneness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165
13.1. Path Diagram for Sports Participation .................... " 181
14.1. Path Diagram for Modest Living ......................... 198
17.1. Study 1: Path Diagram for Electronic Innovativeness ......... 242
17.2. Agreeability Message Theme by Electronic Innovativeness

Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 247
List of Tables
2.1. Definitions of the Four Levels of Personality Traits ........... 21

2.2. Definitions of the Eight Elemental Traits ................... 29
2.3. Definitions of the Major Components of the 3M Model . . . . . . .. 37
3.1. Elemental Traits ...................................... 53
3.2. Confirmatory Factory Analysis Fit Indices for Five Studies ..... 54
3.3. Mean Correlations and Standard Deviations Across the
Five Studies .......................................... 54
4.1. A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of Task Orientation Across Five
Studies .............................................. 65
5.1. A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of the Need for Learning .... 77
6.1. Predicting Competitiveness with Elemental Traits ............ 85
7.1. A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of Need for Activity Across Five
Studies .............................................. 94
8.1. A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of Need for Play Across
Three Studies ........................................ 102
9.1. A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of General Self-Efficacy
Across Three Studies .................................. 114
9.2. A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of Self-Esteem Across
Three Studies ........................................ 115
9.3. Correlation Among Seven Compound Traits ............... 123
10.1. Situational and Surface Trait Scales Employed in the
Research .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131
10.2. Healthy Diet Trait Clusters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138
11.1. Means of the Four-Cluster Solution for Compulsive Buying ... 151
12.1. Means of the Three-Cluster Solution for Bargaining Proneness . 167
13.1. Means of the Four-Cluster Solution for Sports Participation. . .. 182
14.1. The Initial Items in the Tightwad Scale .................. .. 190
14.2. Results of the Cluster Analysis of Tightwadism ............. 199
16.1. Results of Cluster Analysis of Movie Goers ................ 228
17.1. The Scales Employed to Measure General and Electronic
Innovativeness ....................................... 240
18.1. Meta-Analysis of the Relationship of Elemental Traits with
Compound Traits ..................................... 257
18.2. Lawlike Generalizations that Emerge from the 3M . . . . . . . . . .. 263
18.3. Selected New Empirical Findings and Relationships Identified by
the 3M .............................................. 266
18.4. Five Criticisms of the 3M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 269
18.5. Eight Arenas for Future Research ........................ 276
Preface
Why would anyone attempt to develop a new meta-theory of motivation

and personality? The project is extremely risky. Critics will view the effort as
challenging classic work by the luminaries of psychology, including Abraham
Maslow, Gordon Allport, Hans Eysenck, and David McClelland. To make
matters worse, the endeavor will inevitably, but unintentionally, step on the toes
of current theorists actively developing their own models. Another possibility
is that the magnitude and difficulty of the task will overwhelm the author.
Despite these obstacles, however, I am pursuing the goal for three reasons.
First, I am convinced that indi vidual differences in personality account for more
variance in behavior than consumer researchers recognize. As described by
Bowers (1973), depending upon how the research question is constructed, one
can find that the situation or the person accounts for more variance in behavior.
One goal of the book is to demonstrate empirically that we must account for
enduring dispositions to act if we are to understand consumer behavior.
The second reason for my pursuit is that the field is currently awash in
conflicting ideas, theories, and approaches. As a psychologist teaching in a
business college for twenty plus years, I have taught courses in consumer
behavior at the undergraduate, masters, and Ph.D. levels. I have co-authored
a textbook, now in its fifth edition, on consumer behavior. I have published
over 70 articles in the fields of consumer behavior, marketing, and psychology.
Yet I have never been able to effectively teach the topics of motivation and
personality. As currently conceptualized, the field ;p so fragmented that it
harms not only pedagogical efforts, but research effort. well. The possibility
of bringing order out of chaos is a goal worth pursuing.
The third reason for writing this book is more personal in nature. In 1993,
Simon & Schuster published my book, Judgment Calls: High Stakes Decisions
in a Risky World. Writing for a professional audience, I described how to make
decisions when the stakes are high, experts disagree, information is ambiguous,
and values conflict. One chapter, "Reason Versus Emotion," discussed the role
of motivational factors in high-stakes decision making. While writing the
chapter, I realized that motivation plays a critical role in shaping our most
important choices. As a result, I set out to write another book for the general
public, called Pushing Hot Buttons.' Its goal was to identify the motivational
hooks and emotional triggers employed by marketers, politicians, and
charlatans to manipulate us.
IThe name, Pushing Hot Buttons, is copyrighted by John C. Mowen, 1999, All Rights
Reserved.
Preface XVlll
After several false starts on Hot Buttons, I realized that current models of
motivation do not provide an adequate foundation for identifying our flash-
points of feelings. Thus, the third reason for writing this book is instrumental
in nature. If I am to succeed in my goal of writing Hot Buttons, I must first
develop a new model of motivation and personality.
The Meta-Theoretic Model of Motivation and Personality (the 3M) is the
product of six years of effort. Rather than challenging previous conceptions of
the field, the 3M integrates the work of selected past and current theorists into
a comprehensible whole. A metaphor for its development is the creation of the
first automobiles. Designers knew that they had to integrate into one package
a cargo box, seats, wheels, an engine, a steering mechanism, and brakes.
Today, the photos of the result of the first attempts to meld these disparate
components into a whole reveal an extremely clumsy machine. Thus, a car is
a type of meta-theory because it integrated diverse components into a whole.
Similarly, in developing the 3M, disparate theories were melded into a holistic
model. Like the first cars, however, the result is not as elegant as desired and
requires further development.
I am indebted to many people for their encouragement and assistance. I
would like to thank Nancy Spears, Mark Gavin, and Richard Germain for their
instruction in doing the structural equation modeling that the 3M requires.
Numerous colleagues reacted to various drafts of the chapters in the book. I
appreciate the efforts of Hal Arkes, Steve Brown, Tom Brown, Debra Nelson,
Terry Shimp, and Tom Stone. The thoughtful reactions of a number of doctoral
students were also critical to the effort, including Jerome Christia, Todd
Donovan, Jerry Grizzle, Eric Harris, Jim Lee, and James Stone. Special thanks
go to Beverlee Dunham for her capable work in putting the manuscript in
camera-ready form and in editing the work. Of particular importance was the
critical analysis and friendly ear of Maryanne Mowen. Finally, thanks also go
to my daughter, Katherine, who did yeoman's work as a capable copy editor on
the initial drafts of the manuscript. Of course, the errors and omissions found
in the manuscript are wholly my own.
Part I.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY
Part I of the book has two chapters. Chapter 1 introduces readers to the
3M - a new meta-theoretic model of motivation and personality. The chapter
identifies problems in the field of personality as applied to consumer behavior,
presents an overview of the 3M, and describes the organization of the book.
Chapter 2 presents the theoretical development of the meta-theory. Specifi-
cally, the chapter describes how elements of control theory, hierarchical trait
models of personality, and evolutionary psychology are integrated to create the
3M - The Meta-Theoretic Model of Motivation and Personality.
Chapter 1
THE 3M: A META· THEORETIC MODEL
OF MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY
Abstract
This chapter introduces the 3M-a new Meta-Theoretic Model of

Motivation and Personality. The 3M integrates control theory, evolutionary
psychology principles, elements of trait theories, and a hierarchical approach
to personality to provide an integrated account of how personality interacts with
situations to influence feelings, thoughts, and behavior. This chapter has four
goals. First, problems in the study of personality in the field of consumer
behavior are identified. Second, a brief overview of the 3M model and its
scientific goals are presented. Next, the empirical research that was used to
develop and begin testing the model is summarized. Finally, the overall
organization of the book is described.
Introduction
As described by Kassarjian and Sheffet (1991), for over four decades the
study of the relationship of personality to consumer behavior has been one of
the most enduring topics investigated by consumer researchers. They noted that
consumer researchers had studied the relationship of personality to automobile
purchases, cigarette smoking, media choice, innovation, risk taking, and
" ... almost anything else one can think of... " (p. 281). Since the Kassarjian and
Sheffet (1991) review, consumer researchers have linked personality to a host
of additional topics, including the tendency to purchase coupons (Lichtenstein,
Netemeyer, and Burton 1990), to reveal materialistic values (Richins and
Dawson 1992), to engage in compulsive buying (DeSarbo and Edwards 1996),
to reveal impulsive behavior (Puri 1996), and to live healthy lifestyles
(Moorman and Matulich 1993).
While consumer and marketing researchers have an implicit understanding
of what "personality" is, developing a clear definition is much harder.
Kassarjian and Sheffet (1991) noted that analysts fail to agree on any general
definition of the term. They suggested, however; that the concept is somehow
related to " ... the consistent responses to the world of stimuli surrounding the
individual" (p. 281). A leading psychology textbook on personality (Pervin and
John 1997) defined it as " ... those characteristics of the person that account for
consistent patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving" (p. 4). Unfortunately,
these definitions cannot distinguish personality from other methods of finding
consistent individual differences in the responses to stimuli, such as
demographics (e.g., age or sex differences) or cultural processes (e.g., a
Western culture from an Eastern culture).
2 The 3M: A Meta-Theoretic Model of Motivation and Personality
One also finds a variety of approaches to the study of personality.

Psychology textbooks view personality from divergent theoretical perspectives,
including: (1) psychoanalytic theory, phenomenology (e.g., Carl Rogers's
person centered approach), (2) learning theory (e.g., classical and operant
conditioning), (3) cognitive approaches (e.g., George Kelley's views), (4) social
cognition (e.g., Albert Bandura' s work), (5) information processing viewpoints
(e.g., an attribution theory perspective), (6) and trait theory (e.g., the Five-
Factor Model).
This book takes a trait theory approach to the study of personality. The
trait approach was selected because it encourages the use of scientifically sound
scale construction methods for developing reliable and valid measures of
individual differences. The trait approach is also compatible with other
approaches to personality. For example, the need for cognition scale (Cacioppo
and Petty 1982) emerges from an information processing perspective. A
consumer's need for cognition, however, can also be described as a trait. In
sum, in this book a trait is viewed as any intra-psychic construct that can be
measured validly and reliably and that predicts individual differences in
feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. By developing valid and reliable measures
of traits, it is possible to empirically identify relationships between behavior,
the situational context, and personality variables.
From this trait perspective, personality is defined in this book as the
hierarchically related set of intra-psychic constructs that reveal consistency
across time and that combine with situations to influence the feelings, thoughts,
intentions, and behavior of individuals. The goal ofthis definition is to indicate
that personality traits exist within the person. Indeed, some of the traits are
expected to have a genetic basis (Buss 1988). In addition, the definition
distinguishes personality from other factors that are associated with a
consistency of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors across time, such as
demographic and cultural variables. Indeed, from a radical trait approach, the
associations found between demographic and cultural variables with behavior
results from the relationship between these extra-psychic variables and traits.
For example, recent research by Wang et al. (in press) has shown that the trait
of connectedness-separateness accounts for the variance in responses to
advertisements that results from the ethnicity of the respondents (Le., native-
born Chinese and native-born U.S. citizens).
The trait approach has a number of important advantages. Foremost, it is
compatible with and encourages the development of valid and reliable measures
of intra-psychic based sources of individual differences. The development of
valid and reliable scales is a necessary step if researchers are to identify means
for assisting managers and public-policy makers. As described by Mowen and
The 3M: A Meta- Theoretic Model of Motivation and Personality 3
Minor (1998), an understanding of personality, as well as the closely related

field of motivation, has three applied functions for consumer researchers.
The first managerial use of personality traits is for the segmentation of the
marketplace into homogeneous subsets of consumers who possess a similar
intra-psychic basis for their characteristic needs and wants. Target markets can
be defined in part by the dominant traits that distinguish consumers in the target
market from those not in the target market. For example, one target market for
consumer credit counseling organizations around the country is consumers with
the compulsive buying trait.
Second, products can be positioned based upon individual difference
variables by using the traits of the target market to develop brand personalities.
For example, the "We Build Excitement" slogan of Pontiac positions its brands,
such as the Firebird, so that they are consistent with the need for arousal trait
of their testosterone-driven, young, male target market. The positioning
strategy of Wheaties breakfast cereal also illustrates the point. The "Breakfast
of Champions" is targeted to consumers who have an enduring tendency (i.e.,
a trait) to focus on sports and athletic achievement.
Once the target segment's personality has been identified and the
positioning strategy of the brand developed, the marketing manager can then
develop promotional themes that link the personality of the brand to that of the
consumer. More technically, the goal is to create communications that tap into
the self-schema of the target market. That is, the dominant personality traits of
an individual are integrated into the person's self-schema and become reference
points for the implementation of behavior. When built into an integrated
marketing strategy, the themes can be employed as guides to product develop-
ment, to promotional strategy (i.e., in advertising, packaging, public relations),
and even to pricing. For example, the trait of a high need for arousal represents
one component of the self-schema of Pontiac's target market. As a result, the
company builds cars that are sporty and performance oriented. They promote
the cars around the theme of "We Build Excitement." In contrast, Toyota
focuses on a target market that seeks value and reliability. The styling,
advertising, and even the pricing of their vehicles match the enduring trait of
their target market of value-consciousness consumers.
Some Problems with Current Approaches to Personality and Motivation

Despite the fundamental importance of the study of motivation and
personality to consumer researchers, in seeking to find a holistic view of the
topic in consumer behavior or psychology, one discovers a reliance on classic
work by Abraham Maslow, David McClelland, H.A. Murray, Gordon Allport,
and Sigmund Freud. As discussed by Bristow and Mowen (1998), however,
many of the classic theories of motivation have been criticized (Noerager 1979;
Rauschenberger, Schmitt, and Hunter 1980). For example, Maslow's work has
been cited for lacking empirical support as well as for internal redundancy (e.g.,
Wahba and Bridwell 1976). Partially in response to such criticisms, Clayton
Alderfer's (1969) ERG theory was developed. ERG theory proposes that
people are motivated by three core needs: to obtain material existence needs,
to maintain interpersonal relatedness needs, and to seek opportunities for
personal development and growth. However, the ERG model has also been
criticized. Research by Rauschenberger, Schmitt, and Hunter (1980) indicated
that while the three categories suggested by ERG theory might exist, the theory
was of limited value in practice. Interestingly, the ERG model bears some
resemblance to David McClelland's social need model in which needs for
affiliation, achievement, and power are proposed. In turn, McClelland's model
has been criticized by Cassidy and Lynn (1989), who argued that research
findings related to McClelland's theory suffer from a lack of consistent
reliability and validity. In sum, one problem with the current view of
personality and motivation is that empirical evidence for the classic general
models is scant.
A second problem with current approaches to personality (particularly
prior to 1985 or so) is the charge that the constructs accounted for little variance
in behavior. As described by Kassarjian and Sheffet (1991), the results of the
dozens of research articles that they reviewed are "equivocal" (p. 292). Four
factors were identified as responsible for why so little variance in the criterion
variable could be explained by personality traits. First, the approaches
reviewed by these authors typically accounted for less than 10 percent of the
variance of the variable. Second, researchers frequently adapted existing scales
in unknown ways. Third, the researchers employed "psychological" scales to
investigate consumer phenomena, which the authors viewed as inappropriate.
They suggested that consumer researchers should focus on developing their
own scales. Fourth, researchers failed to have adequate theoretical justification
for selecting scales to employ.
In part because of the weak relationships found between personality traits
and behavior, since the 1970s consumer researchers have moved away from
investigating broad theories of personality to focus on narrowly defined traits.
Heeding calls from researchers (e.g., Kassarjian and Sheffet 1991), consumer
investigators began to develop their own individual difference constructs, such
as value consciousness (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton 1990), impulsi-
vity (Puri 1996), frugality (Lastovicka et al. 1999), and compulsive consump-
tion (DeSarbo and Edwards 1996, Faber and O'Guinn 1988). These efforts
have generally resulted in an increase in the amount of variance accounted for
in the criterion variable.
The 3M: A Meta-Theoretic Model of Motivation and Personality 5
As will be described in the next chapter, however, these constructs exist

at a surface level (Buss 1989) in a hierarchy of personality traits. It is not
enough to know that someone is impulsive, frugal, or value conscious. One
also needs to have a deeper understanding of more basic motives for the surface
trait. That is, researchers must also identify what underlying psychological
traits contribute to someone being impulsive or frugal. The focus on surface-
level traits acts to fragment the study of personality and motivation. That is, a
plethora of indi vidual difference measures has emerged with little effort to find
linkages between the constructs. As a result, communicating the field to
students and practitioners is extremely difficult. In addition, the task of
researchers is unnecessarily complicated because no organizing model exists
for understanding the possible relationships among the hundreds of extant
personality scales. McCrae and Costa's (1995) description ofthe current state
of personality and motivation literature in psychology closely matches the state
of affairs in consumer research. They said, "Unfortunately, existing personality
theories as a body do not give any coherent view of the field" (p. 55). In sum,
the third problem in personality research is that current models being developed
by consumer researchers lack a theoretical network (i.e., a nomological net) that
explains their underlying psychological antecedents of the surface traits that
have been identified.
As a summary statement, with a dearth of acceptable unified theories as
well as a wealth of disconnected surface-level traits, the field can be described
as incoherent. McCrae and Costa (1996) noted that at the end of a course in
personality, students " ... do not know whether they should be concerned about
dreams, conditioned responses, or personal constructs, or motives, or identities"
(p. 55). I would add that a similar result occurs after students study the chapter
on personality found in most consumer behavior textbooks-including my own
(Mowen and Minor 1998). Perhaps the zeitgeist of the consumer psychology
field is ready for the development of a new theory of motivation and
personality, which is the ultimate goal of this book.
The Elements of the Meta-Theory

As noted earlier in the chapter, because of the superior ability of surface
trait scales to predict behavior, an explosion of alternative measures of surface
traits has taken place in the consumer and marketing literatures. For example,
the Marketing Scales Handbook (Bruner and Hensel 1992) listed over 500
different scales that have been used to investigate marketing and consumer
behavior phenomena. While many of the scales represent multi-item measures
used as dependent variables, a significant proportion represent surface-trait
measures of individual difference variables. Not only does this multitude of
traits create problems for teachers and for researchers, it also violates the
concept that a goal of science is to parsimoniously explain phenomena with as

few constructs as possible (Tybout 1995, Morgan and Hunt 1994).
In this book I present the results of six years of effort to develop an
integrated model of motivation and personality. The goal is to circumvent the
problem of dealing with a multitude of disconnected constructs in consumer
behavior by developing a meta-theory. If successful, the meta-theory will
integrate diverse psychological theories and consumer behavior constructs into
a coherent general theory of motivation and personality that more
parsimoniously explains a broad set of phenomena.
The 3M integrates work from control theory (Carver and Scheirer 1990,
Hyland 1988), evolutionary psychology (Buss 1988), hierarchical personality
models (Allport 1961), and the Five-Factor Model of personality (Wiggins
1996). Described more fully in the next chapter, control theory identifies how
feedback systems explain the means through which organisms adjust to a
changing environment. Work on control theory in the psychological literature
by Carver and Scheier (1981, 1990) and Hyland (1988) provides the framework
that describes how personality traits function to guide behavior. This work
meshes nicely with work on hierarchical models of personality by Allport
(1961) and others (e.g., Lastovicka 1982). In the 3M, four levels of traits will
be identified. The most basic are the elemental traits that result from genetics
and early learning. Elemental traits combine with cultural processes and early
learning to develop compound traits. In tum, compound traits combine with the
context of behavior to create situational traits. (Situational traits are individual
differences expressed within a specific context such as health or general sports
interest.) Finally, the situational traits interact with enduring attitudes and
involvement regarding product classes to create surface traits, which represent
enduring tendencies to act with respect to categories of products or a specific
domain of behavior.
In sum, the 3M is a hierarchical model in which a limited number of
elemental traits combine with the environment to create compound traits, which
combine with the situation to form situational traits. Situational traits, such as
value consciousness, represent predispositions to act within general contexts of
behavior. In tum, situational traits may combine with compound and elemental
traits to result in surface traits, which represent enduring tendencies to act with
respect to specific categories of behavior. For example, coupon proneness
(Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton 1990) represents the predisposition to
behave with regard to the use of this sales promotion technique. The specific
traits that compose the hierarchies, and how these traits are linked to the control
theory model, will be discussed in detail in Chapter 2. The definitions of key
concepts in the model are found in Appendix A.
The Scientific Goals of the 3M

As a meta-theory, the 3M has three scientific goals. First, a meta-theory
acts to connect different mid-range theories. Revealing that phenomena
previously thought to be separate and discrete are in fact interrelated funda-
mentally changes the understanding of the phenomena (Baccarach 1989).
Second, a meta-theory improves parsimony by accounting for a broader array
of phenomena with fewer constructs than was previously possible. One of the
principle means of advancing science is the development of more parsimonious
theories (Tybout 1995, Morgan and Hunt 1994). Finally, meta-theories
generate new knowledge (Kaplan 1964) by providing new, empirically testable
hypotheses. Importantly, meta-theories should be distinguished from meta-
analysis. Meta-analysis is a methodology for statistically analyzing the results
of multiple studies to identify patterns in the data. In contrast, a meta-theory
integrates two or more less-inclusive theories to create a larger integrative
model.
The 3M was developed to provide a means for inserting into a control
theory based nomological network a limited set of mid-range trait theories that
provide the elemental, compound, situational, and category specific surface
traits proposed to underlie consumer behavior. Thus, control theory not only
provides the structure within which the traits are arranged, but also identifies
how these traits influence behavior. By linking traits in a hierarchy and by
showing how they operate within situational contexts with regard to category
specific interests, I hope that the 3M can improve upon the ability of traditional
models to account for variance in behavior.
Criteria for Evaluating the 3M

How should one evaluate the success of the 3M? I would like to propose
four tests. First, can the model account for more than 5 to 10 percent of the
variance in measures of behavioral tendencies to act within specific domains of
behavior? Second, does the 3M have practical value? Kurt Lewin, one of the
fathers of social psychology, is reputed to have said, "There is nothing so
practical as a good theory." Unless the model shows promise for applied uses
by managers and public-policy makers, it will not have made a contribution to
the literature. In this book, I will investigate the ability of the 3M to account for
variance in such behaviors as: compulsive buying, healthy diet lifestyles,
frugality, sports participation, and bargaining proneness. Third, does the theory
add parsimony to the literature? If the model cannot identify a limited set of
individual difference variables that influence behavior across a diverse range
of situations, it will not be successful.
The Empirical Research

Each of the criteria for evaluation can be assessed via empirical research.
Chapters 3 through 17 present the results of a series of empirical studies that
were run to develop and test the model. In total, 15 research studies are
presented in this book. Over 3,500 respondents were surveyed. Appendix B
presents the scales developed for the 3M. Appendix C provides the details of
the methodology for each study. Appendix D provides the coefficient alphas
for the constructs that were developed and tested in eight of the studies.
Appendix E gives the means and standard deviations of the same constructs
across these studies.
A wide variety of respondents were sampled in the studies. Five of the
studies employed student respondents. One study employed a household
research panel. Another used a mall intercept methodology. One study, which
focused on the construct of compulsive buying, used individuals enrolled in a
consumer credit counseling program. Another study, which focused on sports
participation, obtained adult respondents from Sweden and the United States.
Other studies collected data from a large church congregation and from
employees in banks and in restaurants.
One outcome of the l~ge number of studies conducted was the possibility
of conducting a meta-analysis of the research results for a number of research
questions. For example, one research question concerned the issue of whether
the proposed set of eight elemental traits would account for high levels of
variance in the compound traits under investigation (e.g., the need for activity,
task orientation, the need for learning, and effectance motivation). For each
construct, the results of multiple studies could be analyzed using meta-analytic
techniques.
The Book's Organization

Part I of the book contains the two introductory chapters. This chapter
introduces readers to the 3M model and outlines the goals of the book. Chapter
2 develops the theoretical structure of the 3M. It first discusses hierarchical
models of personality, control theory, and evolutionary psychology. It then
integrates these approaches to present the 3M model.
Part II of the book consists of one chapter. It presents a series of studies
that developed and tested the eight-factor model of elemental traits that is
proposed in Chapter 2.
Chapters 4 through 9 compose Part ill of the book. These chapters
investigate a set of compound traits proposed in the 3M. Using multiple
empirical studies, the chapters provide evidence that task orientation (an
alternative measure of need for achievement), the need for learning (an
alternative measure of need for cognition), competitiveness, the need for play,
the need for activity, and effectance motivation represent compound traits.
Part N of the book focuses on the situational traits and category-specific
surface traits. Composed of Chapters 10 through 14, it presents research that
shows how a hierarchical model can account for high levels of variance in
enduring dispositions to act within specific behavioral domains, including:
healthy diet lifestyles (Chapter 10), compulsive buying (Chapter 11), bargaining
proneness (Chapter 12), sports participation (Chapter 13), and modest living
(Chapter 14).
Part V investigates a number of additional application areas of the 3M.
Chapter 15 investigates the extraversion2 trait. It shows that as conceptualized
by authors such as Eysenck (1947), the scale is actually a collection of separate
elemental traits. Chapter 16 employs the hierarchical model to identify the trait
characteristics of consumers who prefer alternative categories of movies, such
as romantic comedies versus action/adventure flicks. Chapter 17 presents an
experiment that begins the testing of the 3M's ability to be used to develop
communications to influence and persuade consumers. Part V concludes with
an assessment of the current status and future directions of the 3M. Thus,
Chapter 18 takes a critical look at the 3M and asks five tough questions,
including: what is the evidence for the construct validity of the traits proposed?
In addition, it summarizes the overall findings and proposes future directions
for research.
Final Note
It is critical at this juncture not to over-promise the 3M to readers. The

theory is still under construction. Undoubtedly, it will change over time as
more tests are performed and shortcomings identified. Some of the modifica-
tions needed are described in Chapter 18. I hope, however, that readers will
view the ideas as moving the field of consumer psychology ahead. It is
interesting to speculate on what would happen if Gordon Allport, Sigmund
Freud, David McClelland, or Abraham Maslow attempted to publish their
theories today. Would their efforts be acceptable to our journals? While their
models represent the basis for the integrative models of personality and
motivation used at the present point in time, I believe that it is unlikely their
approaches would be accepted into our journals. Today, journal editors and
reviewers focus on developing very tight, mid-range theories that are good at
identifying relationships among a limited set of constructs within a single
2Throughout the book, the construct "extraversion" is spelled with an "a" while the
word "extroversion" is spelled with an "0."
domain of behavior. However, they exclude research that seeks to show how
the constructs interrelate to form a larger nomological network. I believe that
with the new methodological/statistical tools available (e.g., structural equation
modeling) and the advances made in the development of surface trait measures,
the time is right for consumer researchers to begin creating competing models
of personality that link the many piecemeal developed constructs available
today into a coherent general structure that shows the relationship among traits,
situations, and the enduring behavioral tendencies of consumers.
Chapter 2
THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE 3M
Abstract
This chapter deri ves the theoretical structure of the Meta-Theoretic Model
of Motivation and Personality (the 3M). It first reviews background literature
on control theory-based models of motivation. Next, it examines work on
hierarchical personality models and evolutionary psychology. From this work
it is proposed that personality traits differ in their degree of concreteness, and
that a four-level hierarchy can be identified. The chapter then describes the
sources of the traits found in the four levels of the hierarchy. Next, it integrates
these literatures to propose the theoretical structure of the 3M. Two examples
are given illustrating how the 3M describes the motivational-personality system
that causes individuals to set goals and engage in tasks and activities to reach
the goals. The chapter concludes with a description of the empirical approach
taken to develop and test the 3M.
Introduction
As described in Chapter I, the 3M is grounded upon principles identified

in evolutionary psychology, hierarchical models of personality, control theory,
and trait theories of personality. The work in evolutionary psychology and trait
theory provides a set of personality traits for inclusion in the meta-theory.
Hierarchical models of personality supply the basis for the idea that traits
diverge in terms of their abstractness. Control theory provides a framework that
describes how the hierarchical arrangement of traits results in goals, emotions,
and ultimately in behavior.
In developing the 3M, the fundamental assumption was made that it is
possible to integrate diverse personality approaches into a unified meta-theory.
This assumption guided four decisions in the formulation of the 3M. First,
wherever possible existing personality scales were adapted for use in the model.
For example, a critical issue concerned selecting the elemental traits that would
form the most abstract reference point for programs of behavior. Because a
large number of studies have supported the Five-Factor Model of personality
(Wiggins 1996) as providing the most fundamental set of traits, a decision was
made to incorporate these into the model.
A second decision concerned how to integrate evolutionary psychology
into the 3M. Evolutionary psychology (Buss 1988) was incorporated because
it provides a theoretical rationale for the development of personality traits. In
addition, it provides the basis for proposing two additional primary dispositions
that will be added to the Five-Factor Model traits to provide seven of the eight
elemental traits proposed.
12 Theoretical Development of the 3M
A final set of decisions was made regarding how the personality traits
could be integrated into the control theory model. Here, it was assumed that
traits act as reference points for a desired state of being. Further, it was
assumed that the traits should have a logical relationship to the control theory
components of the model.
The chapter is organized around the major components of the meta-theory.
Because of the importance of control theory to the 3M, the chapter begins with
a review of its basic concepts. Next, hierarchical models of personality are
discussed. The chapter then identifies the personality traits that are incorpo-
rated into the four levels of the hierarchical model. Finally, the chapter
describes how these components can be integrated to create a meta-theory of
motivation and personality.
Control Theory and the 3M
Control theory has been used to describe human motivation for over 50
years (Klein 1989). The most fundamental element of control theory is the
feedback loop. Going back to work in cybernetics in the 1940s, researchers
have investigated the feedback loop as a fundamental component in under-
standing action and its control. In the psychological literature, researchers such
as Carver and Scheier (1990) and Hyland (1988) developed sophisticated
control theory models of motivation. Klein (1989) employed a control theory
model as a meta-theory to explain a variety of constructs in the work motivation
literature, including goal-setting theory (Locke and Latham 1990) and
expectancy theory (Vroom 1964). In the psychological literature, Hyland
(1988) employed control theory to integrate work on need for achievement, goal
setting, and attribution theory.
Four basic elements are found in control theory models. First, one finds
an input function in which a sensor assesses the level of the environmental
stimuli processed. Second, an internal reference standard identifies the
preferred level of the stimulus. Third, a comparator evaluates the level of the
stimulus in comparison to an internal standard of reference. Finally. based
upon this comparison, an output function (or behavior) results.
A thermostat illustrates the basics of control theory. A thermometer
assesses the actual temperature in a room. A person sets a desired temperature
to be maintained. A mechanism (i.e., a comparator) is built into the thermostat
to compare the actual temperature to the desired temperature range. If the
temperature falls outside the desired range, the comparator activates either
cooling or heating to occur (i.e., the output function). Figure 2.1 diagrams this
simple control model.
Theoretical Development of the 3M 13
Figure 2.1
The Thermostat: A Basic Control Model
Reference Value
(Temperature
Setting)
~
,;
H
Sensory
W
Input
Furnace
Outcome ..,.
(Temperature) ~
I~
Environmental
Influences
Notes: C =Comparator
In developing the 3M, the control process model of Carver and Scheier
(1990) was adapted for the purpose of understanding the relationship between
control theory, personality, and behavior. Figure 2.2 presents an adaptation of
the control process model advocated by Carver and Scheier (1990). The model
employs three feedback loops. Each feedback loop involves the operation of
a comparator and a reference value. In the Carver and Scheier (1990) approach,
at the most abstract level, one finds that an idealized self-image acts as the
reference value for comparator 3. At a middle level of abstractness, one finds
that principles derived from the idealized self-image are employed for the
reference values of comparator 2. At the most concrete level, programs of
behavior act as the reference value for comparator 1. Thus, each of the three
reference levels provides desired states of being of the person at divergent
levels of concreteness.
Figure 2.2
A Three-Level Control Model
Output 3.
Reference 3:
Generalized I--~ >-_...~ Reference 2:
Behavioral
Self-Concept
.............•
•••• Principles
............ Programsffasks
'.
Output 2:
Reference 1.
Output 1.
Activities:
Program
Execution
Notes:
~ standard behavior paths
----~ intemIptloop
> actual state input
C = Comparator
In the control model shown in Figure 2.2, Output I represents the activities
that take place to implement the program of behavior. As a result of the
activities along with environmental influences, outcomes result. It is also
important to note that the outcomes influence the environment and are
influenced by the environment as well.
In Figure 2.2, a path connects the outcome to the three different compara-
tors. These paths represent the perceptual inputs (i.e., the actual state) that the
comparator matches against the desired state that emerges from the reference
points. When the actual state diverges sufficiently from the desired value at any
of the comparators, an interrupt occurs. This elicits a path from the comparator
to a process of cognitive appraisal. The cognitive appraisal process then results
in the execution of a new program of behavior.
Carver and Scheier (1990) provided an example of their control theory
model based upon a hypothetical situation in which one person considers
shoveling snow for a neighbor. In the example, the idealized self-image of a
person at reference level 3 leads to the "be kind" principle, which acts as
Reference 2. Reference 2 leads to Output 3, which is consistent with the more
concrete behavioral principle of helping others in need. Emerging from
Reference 2 and Output 3 are programs of behavior that form Output 2 and
Reference 1. In the example, the program of behavior was shoveling snow off
the neighbor's walk. Programs of behavior are composed of the planned sets
of activities performed by an individual that are necessary to reach goals.
Examples of programs identified by Carver and Scheier (1990) include going
to the store, cooking dinner, and writing a report. Finally, Output 1 represents
the implementation of the activities that take place in order to execute the
program of behavior. The implementation of activities involves movement
sequences, which consist of the coordination of activities that take place in
order to execute the programs of action.
A problem with control models such as Carver and Scheier's (1990) work
is that they fail to provide a basis for hypothesis development and empirical
research. That is, while doing a good job of providing an overarching meta-
theory that can be employed to link relationships, the models have generally
failed to identify new relationships for empirical investigation. The 3M
proposes that by integrating control theory principles with hierarchical models
of personality, it will be possible to derive hypotheses for testing.
Hierarchical Models of Personality
A number of different researchers, including Eysenck (1947), Allport

(1961), Buss (1989), Paunonen (1998), Lastovicka (1982) and loachimsthaler
and Lastovicka (1984), have proposed that personality traits exist within a
hierarchy based upon their degree of abstractness. More recently, Mowen and
Spears (1999) proposed a hierarchical personality model. Using terminology
developed by Allport (1961), they defined cardinal traits as the basic,
underlying predispositions of individuals that arise from genetics and the early
learning history of people. In their study of compulsive buying among college
students, Mowen and Spears (1999) used as cardinal traits the Five-Factor
Model of personality developed by Saucier (1994). Cardinal traits were viewed
as predictive of central traits, which mayor may not mediate their effects on
surface traits. Based upon Buss (1989) and Allport (1961), they conceptualized
central traits as narrower in application and as emerging from the interplay of
cardinal traits, from the culture in which an individual lives, and from the
learning history of the individual. In their research Mowen and Spears (1999)
identified the need for arousal (Zuckerman 1979) as exemplifying a central
trait.
Mowen and Spears (1999) proposed that surface traits exist at the
narrowest level and represent individual differences in behavioral tendencies
within particular situational contexts. Because they are context specific, surface
traits can be expected to account for more variance in behavior than can either
central or cardinal traits. These authors further proposed that surface traits may
represent cells in a person-by-situation matrix. They identified a number of

examples of such surface traits found in the consumer literature, including
compulsive consumption (Faber and O'Guinn 1989), coupon proneness
(Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton 1990), consumer ethnocentrism (Shimp
and Sharma 1987), and consumer innovativeness (Raju 1980, Venkatraman and
Price 1990). In each case, the traits describe individual differences that
influence behavior within the context of a specific consumption situation.
Thus, surface traits predict behavioral tendencies in the person-by-situation
interactions described by Endler and Rosenstein (1997).
In their research, Mowen and Spears (1999) used structural equation
modeling to investigate the surface trait of compulsive buying (Faber and
O'Guinn 1989). In Study I, traits from the Five-Factor Model of personality
were employed as cardinal traits, the needs for arousal and materialism were
employed as central traits, and compulsive buying was the dependent variable.
Structural equation modeling was employed to find the best fitting model,
which accounted for 18 percent of the variance in compulsive buying. In Study
II this model was confirmed on a new sample of respondents, and it accounted
for 27 percent of the variance in compulsive buying. In sum, Mowen and
Spears (1999) obtained evidence supportive of a three-level hierarchical
personality model.
An Alternative View of Hierarchical Models

The hierarchical approach to personality identified by Mowen and Spears
(1999), however, differs from that proposed by researchers publishing in the
psychological literature. In the Mowen and Spears (1999) approach, it was
assumed that central traits result from the combined effects of multiple cardinal
traits. For example, the need for arousal was found to be predicted by measures
of extraversion, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and stability. In a
similar manner, surface traits result in part from the combined effects of the
central and cardinal traits. Thus, the surface trait of compulsive buying was
predicted by the cardinal traits of stability (negative relationship), conscien-
tiousness (negative relationship), and agreeability as well as by the central trait
of materialism.
The view of Mowen and Spears (1999) that more concrete traits result
from combinations of more abstract traits is inconsistent, however, with that
found in the psychological literature. For example, Paunonen (1998) described
a hierarchical model in the following manner.
The model shows that, startingfrom the lowest level of the hierarchy,
several specific responses or narrow behaviors of a person define a
habitual response pattern, or a characteristic mode of behavior.
Several such habitual response tendencies combine to form what is

commonly called a personality trait. And it is a combination of these
lower level traits that constitutes what is typically considered a broad
factor of personality, residing at the top of the hierarchy (p. 538).
Paunonen (1998) illustrated this view of a hierarchical model with an

example provided by Eysenck (1947). In the example, the "factor" of conscien-
tiousness stood at the top of the hierarchy. Below it were five traits that
represent components of the conscientiousness factor-responsibility, orderli-
ness, ambition, endurance, and methodicalness. Below the traits were habitual
response-level modes of behavior. Finally, below these were the specific
response-level behaviors.
An adaptation of the example is found in Figure 2.3 in which only two of
the five trait components of conscientiousness are identified-responsibility and
ambition. The trait of responsibility feeds into the habitual response character-
istics of helping others and keeping sound finances. In turn, "helping others"
feeds into shoveling snow for a neighbor and coaching a little league team.
Moving along a different route from responsibility, one finds that the habitual
response characteristic of keeping sound finances feeds into "avoiding
compUlsive buying." In contrast, consider the trait of ambition. It feeds into
the habitual response-level characteristics of competitiveness and value
consciousness. In turn, competitiveness results in the specific response-level
behaviors of sports participation and high grades in school. Value
consciousness results in bargaining proneness and buying frugality.
As can be seen in the figure, this conceptualization of a hierarchical model
by Paunonen (1998) assumes that responsibility and ambition result only from
conscientiousness and not from other "factors," such as stability or openness.
The perspective taken by Paunonen (1998) on hierarchical models is the same
as that employed by Costa and McCrae (1995) in their version of the Five-
Factor Model. While they employ a different vocabulary, the idea is the same.
That is, the basic elements of the Five-Factor Model (i.e., openness, conscien-
tiousness, agreeability, extraversion, and neuroticism) have facets that are
narrower representations of only one broad factor.
This view held by Paunonen (1998) and Costa and McCrae (1995) directly
conflicts with that of Mowen and Spears (1999), who proposed that more
concrete central traits, such as responsibility and ambition, result from
combinations of more basic traits. In turn, dispositions to perform behaviors,
such as shoveling snow, result from a combination of more concrete traits, such
as conscientiousness and agreeability. It is not the purpose of this book to
conduct the studies that seek to definitively settle which of the two approaches
Figure 2.3
Traditional Hierarchical Model of Personality
Factor Conscientiousness
Level Factor
Trait
Level
Habitual
Response
Level
Specific
Response
Level
Coach Participate PI~y

Shovel Little in Sports DuplIcate
Snow Bridge
League
B . Buy
argam Frugally
Balance Avoid
Check Compulsive
Book Buying
to hierarchical models is correct. If, however, the studies reveal that multiple
basic traits are predictive of central traits, then the results will be more
consistent with the view of Mowen and Spears (1999). Similarly, if
combinations of basic and central traits are found to be predictive of surface
traits, the results will be more consistent with the Mowen and Spears (1999)
view. As shown in Chapters 3 - 17, the results clearly support the Mowen and
Spears (1999) view.
Linking the Hierarchical Personality Model to Control Theory

The hierarchical approach to personality is compatible with control theory.
Using the vocabulary of Mowen and Spears (1999), the cardinal traits represent
Reference level 3, the central traits represent Reference level 2, and the surface
traits represent Reference level 1 of the control theory model found in Figure
2.3. Two problems, however, can be found in this simple integration of the
Mowen and Spears (1999) hierarchical model with control theory. First, how
the terms "cardinal," "central," and "surface" traits are employed by Mowen
and Spears (1999) do not precisely match the definitions provided by Allport
(1961). In particular, Allport (1961) viewed a cardinal trait as representing a
master quality by which an individual is known. He stated that such master
qualities have sometimes " ... been called the eminent trait, the ruling passion,
the master-sentiment, the unity-thema, or the radix of a life" (p. 365). This
conceptualization is different from the idea that a limited set of basic traits
influences behavior across settings. Indeed, the author of this book has found
it very difficult to discern exactly what Allport (1961) meant by cardinal,
central, and surface traits. For this reason, in developing the 3M model, I will
use a different terminology to describe the levels of the 3M model.
A second problem with the Mowen and Spears (1999) view of hierarchical
models is that they may have proposed too few levels in the hierarchy.
Paunonen (1998) discussed the issue of determining the number of levels in the
hierarchy and argued that it is an important research question. He identified
four levels in his work, but he also acknowledged that five may be possible as
well. As will be seen in the empirical studies presented in this book, the 3M
model will employ a four-level hierarchy. This number is consistent with the
work of Paunonen (1998). In addition, it appears to match the pattern of
empirical results found in the studies reported in this book.
Defining the Four Reference Levels from the Hierarchy of Traits

In the 3M, the names of the four levels of traits that provide the reference
points for the control theory model are: (1) elemental traits, (2) compound
traits, (3) situational traits, and (4) surface traits or category-specific disposi-
tions. (Table 2.1 provides the definitions of each of the four levels of
personality traits.) These names were selected so as to be as descriptive as

possible of the characteristics of each level of traits. The next four subsections
discuss each of the levels of traits and why these particular names were
selected.
Reference Level 4: Elemental Traits. Consistent with the Mowen and Spears
(1999) definition of cardinal traits, elemental traits are defined as the basic,
underlying predispositions of individuals that arise from genetics and a person's
early learning history. The term "elemental trait" was selected because within
the 3M these basic dispositions are assumed to be unidimensional and combine
to create compound traits. Like elements in the periodic table, elemental traits
are the most basic components of the personality-motivational structure of the
individual. In addition, similar to physical elements, the elemental traits will
combine with each other to form compound traits.
In the 3M, it is proposed that the elemental traits act as self-schemas (Fiske
and Taylor 1984) and provide the broadest reference point for evaluating the
outcomes of programs of behavior. Another way of describing these trait-based
self-schemas is that they provide abstract values for guiding behavior. For
example, the elemental trait of conscientiousness provides a schema that
includes the abstract value of the same name. Thus, it is proposed in the 3M
that elemental traits (and compound traits as well) are the source of individual
differences in values.
Consistent with Mowen and Spears (1999), the Five-Factor Model of
personality (Goldberg 1993, Costa and McRae 1985, Wiggins 1996) provides
a subset of the elemental traits. Goldberg (1993) suggested that the approach
having the greatest impact on personality psychology today is the Five-Factor
Model. The possibility that five factors could be used to describe personality
originated with the work of Thurstone (1934). Fiske (1949) supported a five-
factor structure and replicated it across samples of self-ratings, observer ratings,
and peer ratings. More recently, prolific work by Costa and McCrae (1985)
among others has supported the existence of five factors: extraversion, stability
(or neuroticism), agreeability (or psychoticism), conscientiousness, and
openness to experience (or creativity).
A central issue in research on personality concerns whether the funda-
mental factors that delineate individual differences among humans are limited
to five constructs. For example, according to Goldberg (1993), the respected
psychologist R.B. Cattell believes that many more than five factors make up
human personality. Similarly, in a critical analysis ofthe five-factor approach,
Block (1995) noted that five factors may emerge because of " ...unrecognized
constraints on the variable sets analyzed" (p. 187). As will be described in
more detail later in the chapter, two ofthe elemental traits (material needs and
Table 2.1
Definitions of the Four Levels of Personality Traits
Reference Level 4: Elemental Traits

Elemental traits are the unidimensional underlying predispositions of individuals
that arise from genetics and early learning history and represent the broadest
reference for performing programs of behavior. For example, the traits of
conscientiousness and agreeability provide a reference for running a program of
shoveling snow for a neighbor.
Reference Level 3: Compound Traits

Compound traits are the unidimensional predispositions that result from the effects
of multiple elemental traits, a person's learning history, and culture. They provide
a second reference point for how to run programs of behavior. For example, the
traits of need for activity and of task orientation influence the likelihood that the
program of behavior will be implemented and the level of performance in
completing the task of shoveling snow.
Reference Level 2: Situational Traits

Situational traits are the unidimensional predispositions to behave within a general
situational context. They result from the joint effects of elemental traits, compound
traits, and the situational context. For example, the situational trait of value
consciousness influences the likelihood that an individual will run a broad number
of programs of behavior that involve the situational context of deciding how to
spend money.
Reference Levell: Category-Specific Surface Traits

Surface traits delineate the programs of behavior that individuals run in order to
complete tasks. These traits occur as a result of person, by situation, by product
category interactions. Expectations for the level of performance are found at
reference level 1. For example, the category-specific programs of behavior
involving exercise or consuming a healthy diet result from the joint effects of the
person (i.e., the elemental and compound traits), the situation (i.e., the task
definition of maintaining a healthy lifestyle), and the product category (exercising
and/or eating healthy foods).
physical needs) will be obtained from evolutionary psychology in addition to

those derived from the Five-Factor Model. In addition, the need for arousal will
be proposed as the eighth elemental trait. In sum, a total of eight elemental
traits will be identified in the 3M Model.
Reference Level 3: Compound Traits. Compound traits represent the second

category of individual difference variables found in the hierarchical model.
Compound traits are defined as unidimensional dispositions emerging from the
interplay of elemental traits, from the culture in which an individual lives, and
from the learning history of the individual. They provide the second reference
point for how to run programs of behavior. Because compound traits are more
narrowly focused than the elemental traits, dozens may exist. In the 3M, the
term "compound trait" was selected to replace the term "central trait" in order
to separate the ideas from the work of Mowen and Spears (1999) and from
Allport (1961). Examples of traits that possess the characteristics of compound
traits include constructs such as task orientation (Chapter 4) and the need for
learning (Chapter 5). Chapters 4 - 9 discuss six compound traits.
The term "compound trait" was selected because these dispositions are
proposed to result from combinations of elemental traits while also possessing
their own unique properties. For example, water is a compound composed of
two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen. However, due to the molecular bonds,
its characteristics are different from its component elements. In this sense,
compounds are unidimensional. Unless one breaks apart its molecular bonds,
no matter how you slice H2 0, it still remains water. Similarly, in the 3M
compound traits are proposed to result from combinations of elemental traits.
Yet, when factor analyzed, they will reveal only one factor. In addition, they
will possess characteristics that differentiate them from the elemental traits.
For example, task orientation will be shown to account for variance in
situational traits (e.g., value consciousness) that is additional to that accounted
for by the elemental traits.
Reference Level 2: Situational Traits. The third category of individual

difference variables are unidimensional situational traits. Situational traits
represent a new category of individual difference variables that identify
tendencies to express consistent patterns of behavior within a general
situational context. Situational traits result from the joint effects of elemental
traits, compound traits, previous learning history, and the situational context in
which the behavior occurs.
Because of their specificity, many situational traits are likely to exist in the
consumer behavior domain. These traits account for variance in behavior
occurring within a person-by-situation interaction. As such, situational traits
may be described as representing cells in a person by situation matrix. For

example, innovative purchasing (Raju 1980) represents the enduring disposition
to purchase new products. The situation is the task definition (Belk 1974)
involving the purchase of a product new to the market. Examples of other
situational traits found in the consumer psychology literature include health
motivation (Moorman and Matulich 1993) and buying impulsiveness (Puri
1996). In each case, the situational traits describe individual differences that
influence behavior within the context of a specific consumption situation.
Because they are closer to behavior than compound or elemental traits,
situational traits can be expected to account for more variance in behavior than
the more basic dispositions. A risk, however, is that when situational trait
scales are developed, the researcher and ultimately managers and public-policy
makers forgo developing a deeper understanding of the processes that account
for the trait. Thus, while a consumer innovativeness scale or an impulsiveness
scale may correlate highly with the behaviors they are developed to predict,
they cannot provide information on why someone is innovative or compulsive
because they measure only dispositions within a singular situational context.
This is one of the reasons why hierarchical models are powerful. They can
identify the more basic traits that account for a portion of the variance in the
situational traits.
Reference Levell: Surface Traits. Surface traits are found at reference level
1. Such category-specific dispositions delineate predispositions to behave with
respect to a particular product category or domain of behavior. From these
predispositions to behave, expectations emerge. These expectations are
evaluated against outcomes by the comparator. Surface traits occur as a result
of person, by situation, by product-category interactions. For example, the trait
of coupon proneness (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton 1990) represents
individual differences (i.e., the person variable) in the tendency to make
purchases (Le., the situation) within the response category of using coupons.
Alternatively, consider the surface trait of leading a healthy diet lifestyle. In
order to fulfill the goal of expressing high levels of health motivation (which
represents a situational trait) an individual must consume a healthy diet (which
represents a surface trait). In order to consume a healthy diet, a person must
watch how much sugar and fat is consumed, take certain vitamins, eat copious
fruits and vegetables, and avoid snacks and treats. In sum, surface traits
represent the enduring tendency of consumers to behave with respect to a
product category or behavioral domain. An example of behaving with respect
to a product category is the propensity to be innovative with respect to
electronic devices. An example of behaving with respect to a behavioral
domain is consuming a healthy diet.
Table 2.1 summarizes the definitions of the four levels proposed in the
hierarchical model. From the perspective of the 3M, the traits at each level are
unidimensional. As one moves from the more abstract traits (e.g., elemental
traits) to more concrete traits (e.g., category-specific dispositions), each trait
adds unique variance in the prediction of behavior above and beyond that
accounted for by the previous levels of traits. The more concrete traits can be
expected to fully mediate the effects of some higher-level traits, partially
mediate others, and be unrelated to the effects of others on behavior. Thus,
within the control theory framework it is possible for an elemental trait to
directly impact a surface trait. For example, as will be shown in Chapter 10, the
need for body resources will influence effectance motivation (a compound
trait), health motivation (a situational-level trait), and healthy diet lifestyles (a
surface trait).
Identifying the Traits at Each Hierarchical Level
The 3M proposes that a limited set of elemental traits influence programs

of behavior across situations and product categories/behavioral domains. A
larger number of compound traits and even more situational traits and category-
specific dispositions are proposed. This section develops ajustification for the
eight proposed elemental traits. It also provides procedures for identifying and
developing measures of compound, situational, and surface traits.
Sources of the Elemental Traits

As described earlier in the chapter, because of the large amount of research
support for the Five-Factor Model of personality, the traits of openness to
experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeability, and neuroticism (or
emotional stability) were proposed to be elemental traits. (Note, the acronym
"OCEAN" is a useful device for recalling the traits from memory.) Consistent
with Block (1995), however, it was felt that the five traits may be insufficient
to act as the most abstract reference points for assessing outcomes and
implementing programs of behavior. In order to identify candidates for
additional traits, the work of Arnold Buss (1988) in evolutionary psychology
was investigated.
Evolutionary psychologists propose that behavioral tendencies as well as
biological mechanisms (e.g., breathing and digesting) evolved as adaptations
to the environment over the eons. Arguably the leading researcher in the field
is Arnold Buss (1988), who proposed that humans share many of the same basic
psychological characteristics as primates (the great apes-orangutans, gorillas,
and chimpanzees). Buss (1988) suggested that such characteristics as
Theoretical Development o/the 3M 25
sociability, nurturance, jealousy, dominance, and intelligence are shared with

primates to a greater or lesser degree.
Buss (1988) identified four inherited primary personality traits: activity,
fearfulness, sociability, and impulsivity. In addition, he identified three derived
traits: nurturance, aggressiveness, and dominance. (Note that the primary traits
are analogous to elemental traits and the derived traits are analogous to
compound traits.) According to Buss (1988), the primary traits are displayed
early in life. In contrast, the derived traits appear later in life and emerge in
part from the effects of the primary traits.
Buss (1988) also noted that " ... different investigators sometimes label the
(same) traits with different terms or assemble their data into factors or
dimensions, but their reports document individual differences in behavior that
are generally consistent over time and across situations" (p. 10). As will be
described later in the chapter, there are similarities between the traits identified
by Buss (1988) and those in the Five-Factor Model. The 3M employs three of
the four primary traits identified by Buss (1988) as elemental traits (impulsive-
ness, sociability, and fearfulness). (The 3M, however, gives different names to
the traits.) In addition, the trait of nurturance is also categorized as an
elemental trait. Consistent with an evolutionary approach, nurturance is
considered to be a basic personality trait because the species could not survive
without it. In addition, the trait of nurturance shares many of the same features
as the Five-Factor trait of agreeableness. Thus, an individual who is nurturing
will reveal empathy, warmth, kind-heartedness, etc. In sum, the 3M Model
employs four of the traits identified by Buss (1988) as elemental traits. They
are: fearfulness, impulsiveness, sociability, and nurturance. As will be shown
later in the chapter, several of these traits have a high degree of overlap with
those in the Five-Factor Model. 3
Resource Needs as Elemental Traits. A question remains, however, as to

whether Buss (1988) identified all the elemental traits that can be derived from
an evolutionary perspective. One possible source of additional traits is to ask
the question, what resources do humans require for survival? That is,
consistent with the evolutionary perspective, the 3M proposes that people are
motivated to maintain and enhance a core set of resources in order to survive
and reproduce. Bristow and Mowen (1998) defined resources as personal
assets that have value, can be accumulated, have some degree of fungibility,
and can be transferred via exchange relations. They proposed that four
3In the empirical development of the 3M, in five studies the need for activity identified
by Buss (1988) was investigated as an elemental trait. The r~sults indicated that activity
appears to reside at a compound trait level. These studies are discussed in Chapter 7.
fundamental resources are required for human survival: social, information,

material, and body resources. The four categories of resources are discussed
below.
Social Resource Needs. Social resources represent the other people on

whom individuals depend for survival. The idea that mankind has a basic need
to affiliate reoccurs in theories of motivation (e.g., McClelland 1955, Maslow
1943, and Alderfer 1969). This need for social resources is closely related to,
if not identical to, the primary trait of sociability identified by Buss (1988). It
is also closely related to the trait of agreeability in the Five-Factor Model.
Information Resource Needs. Information resources include the

knowledge and skills that allow one to escape danger, solve problems, and
understand the causes for action. The ability to use information resources,
learn, and perceive causal connections is critical to the survival of the species.
Buss (1988) did not propose a trait similar in nature to information needs,
although openness to experience in the Five-Factor Model has some
similarities.
The Need for Material Resources. As hairless creatures that lacked sharp
teeth and claws, humans were ill-equipped for survival in a hostile environment.
As a part of evolutionary history, the 3M proposes that humans developed a
primary need to use tools, create clothing, develop weapons, and build shelters.
Without the desire to possess and create these material goods, the species would
not have survived. In the twentieth century, this desire for material goods is
called "materialism." Unfortunately, the word has taken on a pejorative tone.
Certainly, at extreme levels the desire to collect material things can have
negative effects, because it interferes with the ability to take care of other basic
needs such as the nurturance of others. However, in order to survive and
reproduce, humans require a basic level of material goods. Based upon this
analysis, the need for material resources is proposed as a primary need. Again,
this trait does not appear in either the Buss (1988) model or in any of the Five-
Factor Models.
The Need to Protect and Enhance the Body. Physical resources represent
the last category of assets that people seek to maintain and enhance. For our
ancestors, their perceptual systems, strength, agility, opposable thumb, and bi-
pedal gait were critical to the survival of the species. This desire to protect the
body from harm and enhance its capacities through exercise and good health
practices was necessary for survival. Both Maslow's (1943) physiological needs
and Alderfer's (1969) existence needs fit the category of body needs. In
addition, humans sought to enhance the body and make it more attractive. Even
the earliest human remains found by physical anthropologists show evidence
of tattooing. Based upon these ideas, the 3M proposes that individual
differences will be found in a primary need to protect and enhance one's
physical resources.
In sum, based upon the work of Bristow and Mowen (1998), four resource
needs are proposed: the needs for body, information, social, and material
resources.
Defining the Elemental Traits. As observed by Buss (1988), traits given

alternative names by different researchers may well be identical. In the 3M,
four sources of elemental traits are identified: the traits proposed by Buss
(1988), the resource need traits proposed by Bristow and Mowen (1998), the
traits identified in the Five-Factor Model of personality, and the need for
arousal proposed by Mehrabian and Russell (1974) and Zuckerman (1979).
When the traits from these sources are analyzed, one finds a high degree of
conceptual overlap. For example, the need for social resources proposed by
Bristow and Mowen (1998), the trait of extraversion found in the Five-Factor
Model, and Buss's (1988) trait of sociability all denote an interest in being with
other people. Similarly, the trait of conscientiousness appears to describe the
opposite pole of the trait of impulsiveness identified by Buss (1988). In like
manner, the nurturance trait identified by Buss (1988) bears strong similarity
to the agreeability trait found in the Five-Factor Model. (That is, in order to be
nurturing, one must reveal kind-heartedness, warmth, etc.) In addition, the
Five-Factor trait of openness to experience has strong resemblance to the need
for information proposed by Bristow and Mowen (1998). Finally, the Five-
Factor trait of emotional stability appears to be the opposite pole of the primary
trait offearfulness identified by Buss (1988). In sum, if one integrates the Five-
Factor Model with an evolutionary perspective, seven elemental traits appear
to emerge: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeability, neuroticism/stability, material needs, and physical needs.
The Need for Arousal as an Elemental Trait. One shortcoming of the seven
elemental traits identified above is that none of them appear to have properties
related to the activation of behavior and to how people control their level of
stimulation. While the openness to experience construct has some relationship
to this issue, the construct is more closely related to the use of information
resources than with activating behavior.
After examining the results of series of studies, the need for arousal was
included as the eighth trait in the 3M. (These studies are presented in Chapter
3.) The construct describes individual differences in the chronic need to
increase the level of stimulation experienced by the person. Formally, the need
for arousal is defined as the elemental trait that measures individual differences
in the propensity to seek to raise the level of stimulation.
Research on the need for arousal can be traced to work performed by
Mehrabian and Russell (1974) and Zuckerman (1979). The effects ofthe need
for arousal can be explained by optimum stimulation-level theory. An optimum
stimulation level is a person's preferred amount of physiological activation or
arousal. Activation may vary from very low levels (e.g., sleep) to very high
levels (e.g., severe panic). Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum
level of stimulation and will take action to correct the level when it becomes too
high or too low. The theory suggests that individuals who are chronically
overaroused tend to have low optimum stimulation levels and low needs for
arousal. As a result, they seek situations that tend to minimize the level of
stimulation received. In contrast, people who are chronically underaroused
prefer situations that increase stimulation levels (Zuckerman 1979). Examples
of such high-stimulation consumer situations include activities such as
parachuting, mountain climbing, gambling, and such.
From an evolutionary perspective, variations in the need for arousal
among individuals can be expected. That is, the species requires some
individuals to seek stimulation and the risk that accompanies it. In addition,
other individuals are required who actively avoid risk.
The need for arousal has been investigated within a consumer context.
Consumers purchase goods and services in order to experience the feelings that
result from accepting some level of risk (Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). As
a measure of the tendency to seek risk, the need for arousal can be expected to
relate to individual differences in the propensity to exhibit various compound,
situational, and surface traits in contexts in which emotions and strong feelings
are felt. Researchers have found that measures of the need for arousal have
been predictive of consumer innovativeness (Raju 1980), variety seeking
(Menon and Kahn 1995), and tendencies to engage in higher levels of risk-
taking behavior (Steenkamp and Baumgartner 1992).
In sum, eight elemental traits are proposed in the 3M. Table 2.2 defines
each of the traits.
Why Are There Individual Differences in the Elemental Needs? As

described earlier in the chapter, the elemental traits were derived from concepts
found in evolutionary psychology, from the Five-Factor Model of personality,
and from optimum stimulation level theory. It is further proposed that these
traits emerge in part from the basic needs of humans. For example, the need for
arousal trait describes variations in the tendency of individuals to have a need
Table 2.2
Definitions of the Eight Elemental Traits
1. Openness to experience The need to find novel solutions, express

original ideas, and use the imagination in
performing tasks.
2. Conscientiousness The need to be organized, orderly, and efficient
in carrying out tasks.
3. Extraversion Operationalized as introversion; the tendency to
reveal feelings of bashfulness and shyness.
4. Agreeability The need to express kindness and sympathy to
others.
5. Neuroticism (Emotional The tendency to emotionality as
Instability) expressed by moodiness and by being
temperamental.
6. Material needs The need to collect and possess material goods.
7. The need for arousal The desire for stimulation and excitement.
8. Physical/body needs The need to maintain and enhance the body.
Note: The acronym "ocean map" provides a mnemonic device for remembering
the traits.
to maintain high levels of stimulation. Similarly, the conscientiousness trait

describes variations in the tendency of individuals to have a need to maintain
order, precision, and accuracy in completing tasks. These ideas are consistent
with the evolutionary theory concept that elemental traits, and the needs on
which they are based, emerged as a result of evolutionary pressures selecting
them out. A question remains, however. If these traits are so important, why
would individual differences occur in their expression?
The argument employed by the 3M is consistent with that developed by
Buss (1988). That is, diversity in the gene pool is critical for the species to
survive changes in the environment. Thus, variations in height and intelligence
occur among individuals in part because environmental factors caused selection
pressures to influence differentially the genetic structure of divergent groups of
humans. Similarly, it is proposed that such selection pressures also caused
variations in the tendencies to display the elemental traits. For example,
consider the need for arousal. Individuals who possess a high need for arousal
will more likely engage in risky activities such as fighting mortal enemies,
whether human or animal. On the other hand, individuals who are low in
arousal may avoid such high-risk behavior and focus more on tasks that have
a great deal of tedium, such as making clothing and cooking food. One can
readily imagine how a mix of individuals high and low in this elemental trait
would be beneficial to the survival of the species. That is, the species may need
a mix of individuals, some of whom are willing to take great risks while others
are risk avoiders. The same logic applies to each of the elemental traits.
Defining Compound Traits

As described earlier in the chapter, compound traits result from elemental
traits combining to form tendencies for action and from the effects of cultural
and subcultural processes. In forthcoming chapters, six compound traits will be
investigated: the need for learning, task orientation, the need for activity,
competitiveness, the need for play, and effectance motivation.
How do the compound traits differ from the elemental traits? In the 3M
the elemental traits provide general guides for selecting and running programs
of behavior. For example, the needs for arousal and conscientiousness provide
the overarching values for selecting tasks that may involve risk while
simultaneously being orderly and thorough in their handling. In contrast, the
compound traits provide more direct guidance in performing the task. Thus, the
construct of task orientation, which will be introduced in Chapter 4, identifies
individual differences in the tendency to set task goals and to perform tasks
better than some standard.
Unfortunately, the distinction between compound and elemental traits
based upon how specifically they guide task selection and completion is
somewhat vague and hard to operationalize. Based upon the definition of a
compound trait, however, an empirical means of differentiating them from
elemental traits can be derived. That is, the multiple correlation between any
single elemental trait and the remaining combination of elemental traits should
be lower than that between a compound trait and the elemental traits. This
definition will be employed in Chapter 3 as a means of determining whether the
traits investigated can be categorized as elemental or compound in nature.
Defining Situational Traits

Situational traits represent dispositions to act within general contexts of
behavior. Thus, situational traits result from the interaction of more basic traits
with the context to result in an enduring disposition to behave in that situation.
Belk's (1974) work on situational influences can be employed as a starting
point for identifying the contexts within which situational traits emerge. Thus,
dispositions to behave may emerge with regard to contexts involving the social
context, time, and the task definition.
Defining Surface Traits

Category-specific dispositions (i.e., surface traits) represent enduring
dispositions to act with regard to a specific product category or narrow domain
of behavior. Thus, surface traits emerge from the interplay of elemental traits,
compound traits, situational traits, and preferences for action with regard to a
product class or specific domain of behavior. Because of the close relationship
of category-specific dispositions to situational traits, the two types of disposi-
tions will be investigated together in Part IV of the book. Thus, the situational
trait of health motivation can be expected to lead to a category-specific
disposition to consume a healthy diet. It could also lead to a disposition to seek
exercise or to reduce stress. Similarly, the situational trait of sports involve-
ment could lead to distinct dispositions to play sports or to be a spectator of
sports.
From Traits to Values and Goals

Consistent with the work of many researchers (e.g., Bandura 1982, Oeci
and Flaste 1995), within the 3M humans are viewed as goal oriented. The
Model proposes that values and goals are directly tied to an individual's traits.
That is, values and goals represent divergent manifestations of traits at different
levels of abstraction. As a result, values and goals are arrayed on a continuum
of abstractness such that global values are the most abstract representation of
the continuum and category/domain specific objectives represent the most
concrete end of the continuum. These ideas are similar to the work of Vinson,
Scott, and Lamont (1977) who proposed that beliefs are held on a continuum
and range from global values, to domain-specific values, to the evaluation of
product attributes. Similarly, means-end-chain models (Gutman 1982a) also
propose a hierarchical relationship among values and more specific objectives.
The 3M goes beyond previous conceptualizations of values and goals,
however, to suggest that values and goals emerge from the dominant traits of
individuals. At the most abstract level, goals take the form of values. As
defined by Rokeach (1979), values are desired end states that provide the basis
for determining what is important in one's life. In the 3M, the elemental traits
are proposed to provide the basis for the most abstract values, such as being
conscientious, being agreeable with others, seeking risk, and having stability in
one's emotions. The values can be expected to endure over time. The
compound traits provide the basis for more concrete values, such as achieve-
ment, being active, and controlling one's destiny (i.e., effectance motivation).
Because they are based on the compound traits, these values may shift as a
result of changes in the cultural or subcultural environment. As one moves to

the situational traits, values become sufficiently concrete that they become
known as goals. Goals in the consumer domain that result from situational
traits include being healthy (health motivation), seeking out competition
(competitiveness trait), and seeking value in one's buying activities (value
consciousness trait). At the most concrete level, objectives are associated with
the category-specific surface traits. They include eating a healthy diet,
participating in sports events, and bargaining with others. The combination of
traits and their accompanying values, goals, and objectives influence the choice
of which tasks a person will attempt to accomplish and how programs of
behavior for completing the tasks will be run. This conceptualization suggests
that in order for a value or goal to influence behavior, it must be held as an
enduring disposition to act.
Integrating Control Theory, Trait Theory, Hierarchical

Personality Models, and Evolutionary Psychology to Form the 3M
Figure 2.4 provides a visual depiction of the structure of the 3M. While
it contains the basic elements of the control theory model shown in Figure 2.2,
the 3M makes a number of changes, including adding additional concepts. The
3M is based around eight constructs. They are: (I) task programs, (2) the
hierarchy of traits, (3) the comparator, (4) cognitive appraisal, (5) activities,
(6) outcomes, (7) resources, and (8) the environment. The next section
discusses each of the constructs.
The Components of the 3M

The eight elements of the 3M fit together into a behavioral-feedback
system. The model is built around the concept of the task.
Tasks. A task is a program of behavior that is run in order to achieve an

immediate short-term objective. Task selection and implementation are based
upon: (I) the traits that act as reference points for interpreting outcomes,
(2) the operation of the comparator, (3) the cognitive appraisal process, and
(4) the effects of the environment. A person's activities are organized in order
to accomplish tasks. These actions/activities result in outcomes. The outcomes
are interpreted to determine the degree of success in accomplishing the task.
Due to information-processing limitations, people can engage in only one task
at a moment in time. Tasks can, however, be interrupted. Thus, a consumer
may interrupt the task of buying groceries to engage in another task, such as
scolding a child.
Figure 2.4
The 3M Model of Motivation and Personality
Trait Hierarchy
\ Interrupt
\
\
Notes: C = Comparator
R = Reference Values
How a task is executed is influenced by the hierarchy of traits. For

example, consider the task of buying groceries. It may be influenced by various
traits, including dispositions: (1) to use coupons (a surface trait), (2) to express
the trait of value consciousness (a situational trait), (3) to be highly task
oriented (a compound trait), and (4) to be conscientious (an elemental trait).
The Hierarchy of Traits. Traits are proposed to exist within a hierarchy.

Moving from the abstract to the concrete, the traits are labeled: elemental,
compound, situational, and surface. Accompanying these traits are
corresponding values and goals. Indeed, it is suggested that the traits and their
accompanying values and goals are so intertwined that they are inseparable.
The Comparator. Consistent with control theory models, a comparator

evaluates outcomes in relation to the values/goals resulting from the traits ofthe
person. A difference in the diagram presented in Figure 2.4 and the model of
Carver and Scheier (1990) is that I have identified only one comparator instead
of mUltiple comparators. This approach was taken for reasons associated with
ease of presentation rather than because of a fundamental disagreement with
Carver and Scheier (1990). Thus in Figure 2.4, outcomes (which represent the
actual state of being) flow to a single comparator that compares the outcomes
to the desired state. The desired state results from the hierarchy of traits
providing reference goals and values for the person.
In the 3M, the comparator is viewed as analogous to the preattention stage
of information processing (J aniszewski (1993). As a result, it functions to scan
the environment in order to determine whether a current program of behavior
(i.e., a task) needs to be changed based upon the outcomes that result from
activities. The comparator constantly analyzes outcomes in relation to an
expected result. Expected results emerge from the operation of the
trait/value/goal complex. The actual result emerges from the interpretation of
outcomes.
The comparator also acts as the emotional center of the feedback system.
Depending upon the comparator's enduring level of stability (i.e., the
neuroticism/stability of the individual), it will react more or less strongly to the
difference between the desired and actual outcomes received. When the actual
state is higher than the desired state, positive affect is experienced. When the
actual state is lower than the desired state, negative affect is experienced. Ifthe
emotions experienced reach a critical level, an interrupt occurs and a cognitive
appraisal process is activated.
Cognitive Appraisal. Cognitive appraisal represents the information

processing that occurs after an interrupt is experienced. During the cognitive
appraisal process, thinking/planning and attributional processes occur (Klein

1989). When cognitive appraisal occurs, the individual is diverted from an on-
going task and steps back to ask "why." As a result of cognitive appraisal, the
task program may be modified, which in tum influences the activities that take
place.
One question concerns why the comparator acts as the emotional center
and why emotional responses activate cognitive appraisal to occur. The answer
is that the 3M is consistent with the view of Zajonc and Markus (1982) that
affect has primacy over cognitive appraisal. That is, affective processes occur
prior to and independent of cognitive processes. As a result, emotions will
precede the conscious recognition of information coming from the environment.
It should be noted, however, that this debate has not been resolved. Indeed,
whether the comparator acts as an emotional center or feeds into an emotional
center that is separate from cognitive appraisal is not a critical issue for the 3M.
A choice had to be made, and the Zajonc and Markus (1982) side was taken.
Activities. Activities are the actions that take place in order to perform tasks
and reach goals. At the most basic level, humans, animals, and even robots
perform certain fundamental activities. Within the 3M these fundamental
activities are:
1. Non-action. A state of inactivity in which no activities are occurring.
It may take the form of sleep in which the eyes are closed and
consciousness is suspended.
2. Locomotion. Actions involving moving from one physical place to
another.
3. Consumption/excretion. Acts involving the bodily functions, including
eating, drinking, breathing, and having sex. Consumption acts to
import energy into the resource system. Excretion acts to eliminate
wastes that result from the burning of energy.
4. Thinking/planning. The use of cognitive facilities to determine the
causes of actions, identify goals, plan activities, and developing under-
standing.
5. Tool use. Actions in which tools and materials are manipulated.
6. Signaling. Acts in which a person attempts to provide information to
another being.
7. Observing/listening. Taking in information through the senses in order
to learn by observing the actions of another being, by observing the
consequences of the actions of others of one's self, and by interpreting
signals from the environment.
8. Personal contact. Actions involving the physical touching of another
being.
Activities are intimately related to the four fundamental resources of

human beings. For example, personal contact and signaling are directly tied to
fulfilling social resource needs. Tool use is directly related to creating material
resources. Observing/listening and thinking/planning represent activities.
necessary for protecting and/or gaining information resources. Locomotion,
touching, and consumption/excretion are intimately tied to physical needs.
Outcomes. Outcomes represent the results, both good and bad, of the activities
of an individual in running programs of behavior to complete tasks. In addition,
outcomes can result from the direct effects of the environment on an individual.
For example, a consumer may be engaged in the task of completing a round of
golf. A lightening storm may suddenly appear, and the golfer must respond to
this environmental event. This information feeds into the comparator and is
analyzed in relation to the various goals/traits of the consumer, such as the
desire to preserve life (i.e., protection of the body). Because the lightening
storm is dangerous, the output of the comparator will be sufficiently strong that
it activates emotions. In tum, the strong emotions cause cognitive appraisal to
occur. The analysis of the problem will result in a change in the program of
behavior. The end result is the termination of the golfing program of behavior
to a new program that involves running as fast as possible for shelter from the
storm.
Not only can the environment impact outcomes, but outcomes can also
impact the environment. For example, social and material resources are found
in the environment. An on-going task may be to increase the number of
material resources of the consumer. Thus, a consumer may have a hobby of
restoring automobiles. The outcome of his or her efforts would be the creation
of additional material resources in the environment in the form of a new vehicle
on the road.
Resources. As defined earlier in the chapter, resources represent assets that

have value, can be accumulated, have some degree of fungibility, and can be
transferred via exchange relations. In the 3M four fundamental resources are
proposed: material, information, social, and body resources. Through the
activities of a person, resources are employed to assist in the completion of
tasks.
The Environment. The environment is everything that is outside of the person

and impacts his or her outcomes. It includes all the events, acts of nature, and
actions of others that can impact an individual. Table 2.3 defines each of the
components of the 3M model.
Table 2.3
Definitions of the Major Components of the 3M Model
1. Resources. The four fundamental resources (i.e., social, information, body,

and material) are required for species survival and represent assets that have
value, can be accumulated, have some degree of fungibility, and can be
transferred via exchange relations.
2. Tasks. A task is a program of behavior that is run in order to achieve an
immediate short-term objective.
3. Traits. The elemental, compound, situational, and category-specific traits
form a hierarchy of personality, act as reference points for the comparator,
represent enduring dispositions, and are inextricably intertwined with needs,
values, and goals.
4. Activities. Activities are the actions that take place in order to perform tasks,
achieve goals, and fulfill values.
5. Comparator. The comparator compares outcomes with the referent
values/goals resulting from the traits of the person. It is the locus of feelings
and emotions. Emotions result from the comparison of desired outcomes to
actual outcomes. When the difference between the reference point and actual
state becomes sufficiently large, an interrupt occurs, which activates the
cognitive appraisal process.
6. Outcomes. Outcomes represent the results, both good and bad, of the
activities of an individual in running programs of behavior to complete tasks.
7. The Environment. The environment is everything that is outside of the
person and impacts his or her outcomes.
8. Cognitive Appraisal. After an interrupt is experienced, cognitive appraisal
occurs resulting in thinking, planning, and attributional processes.
Linking the Elemental Traits to Control Theory

In order to link the elemental compound traits to behavior, one must be
able to identify how they are related to the components of the control theory
model. As it turns out, the eight elemental traits proposed in the 3M mesh well
with the control model.
First, the four resource traits are found in the resource input construct
identified in Figure 2.4. Thus, in order to perform the tasks necessary for
survival, resources are required. For example, in order to complete the task of
purchasing a product over the Internet, a consumer requires material resources
(a computer), body resources (eyesight, fingers, etc.), social resources (e.g., a
friend who helps the person decide what color to order), and information
resources (knowledge of how to use the computer). Traits related to the four
resources identified in the 3M are: social resources-agreeability; body
resources-physical needs; material resources-material needs; and information
resources-openness to experience.
The elemental traits of emotional stability/neuroticism, introversion, and
need for arousal are found in the comparator, which also acts as the emotional
center of the individual. That is, as the level of emotional stability increases,
one finds decreasing reactions to outcomes by the comparator. Similarly, as the
elemental trait of the need for arousal increases, one finds that the comparator
sets a higher desired state for stimulation from the environment. Finally, as the
introversion trait increases in importance, the comparator sets a higher desired
state for avoiding situations inconsistent with being shy and reserved.
The last of the eight elemental traits is conscientiousness. This elemental
trait is proposed to relate to the task construct in the Model. That is,
conscientiousness influences the degree to which programs of behavior are run
efficiently, orderly, and precisely.
Two Examples of the Application of the 3M Model
In order to explicate the components of the 3M, two examples are

developed. The first interprets the case used by Carver and Scheier (1990) of
a person shoveling snow off a neighbor's walk. The second example concerns
a consumer attempting to follow a diet in order to lose weight. The develop-
ment of the diet example is based in part on the results of the empirical study
reported in Chapter 10.
Shoveling Snow from a Neighbor's Walk

From the perspective of the 3M, shoveling snow is a task whose perform-
ance requires the coordination of a set of activities including tool use,
locomotion, thinking and planning, and observation. Resources employed to
perform the task include a tool (the snow shovel), the body, and a modicum of
knowledge (information) resources. It could involve the use of social resources,
if the good samaritan enlisted the help of his family. The decision to perform
the task resulted from a goal being set to help a neighbor within the situational
context of a person in need. Thus, the goal emerged in part from a situational
trait that would be labeled "helping proneness," and from the category-specific
surface trait that would be labeled "proneness to help another person within the
context of heavy labor.,,4 Compound traits that may impact such a behavior
include task orientation, the need for activity, and effectance motivation.
Elemental traits that could be involved include agreeability, extraversion,
conscientiousness, body resource needs, and the need for arousal. The outcome
of the program of behavior would be the neighbor's gratitude for the act. If the
outcome were negative because the neighbor criticized the effort, the negative
emotions that result may cause an interrupt and cognitive appraisal to occur.
As a result, the person may decide to stop his efforts and not shovel snow for
the neighbor in the future.
Of course, the problem with this example is that the author does not have
empirical evidence for any of the assertions. The second example presented
below involves the case of an individual who has gone on a diet to lose weight.
The relationships proposed in this example were derived from the results in
Chapter 10.
Going on a Healthy Diet

The enduring tendency to consume a healthy diet represents a category-
specific surface trait. The goal of improving one's eating habits results from
the outcomes monitored by the comparator becoming inconsistent with higher-
level traits of the individual. That is, the elemental traits of the need to protect
the body, stability, and conscientiousness influence effectance motivation (i.e.,
the compound trait of the desire to control one's outcomes). In turn, a
combination of these traits and effectance motivation combine to create high
levels of health motivation (a situational trait).
The reason why the person starts a diet is that his outcomes (e.g.,
information from his doctor about his cholesterol level and his poorly fitting
clothing) do not match the desired state. Thus, the outcomes experienced are
inconsistent with the reference points. Specifically, the outcomes of being
overweight, having high cholesterol, and being out of shape do not match the
higher-order dispositions of the person. At some point the discrepancy between
desired outcomes and actual outcomes diverge sufficiently that an interrupt
occurs in the comparator and cognitive appraisal is activated. At this point,
attributions for cause are prompted and a decision is made to change the
program of behavior involving what is consumed in the diet. This involves
4A number of category-specific traits will emerge from the situational trait of helping
proneness. Helping proneness could also influence people to give money to charities,
adopt abandoned children, and engage in a host of other charitable acts. In the present
case, if the person had a bad back, he or she would be unlikely to shovel the walk
because of a need to protect the body. On the other hand, the person might fix a dinner
for the snow-bound neighbor.
deliberate efforts to change the enduring disposition to consume an unhealthy

diet. The changes include eating more fruits and vegetables, cutting back on fat
and sugar, and eating three meals a day. (Note, these are the items designed to
measure the healthy diet surface trait in the research.) Based upon the new
program of behavior, the person initiates a set of activities designed to
implement the program. The activities combined with the effects of the
environment result in outcomes. This feedback is monitored by the comparator
and compared to the reference points emerging from the traits.
Interestingly, a variety of outcomes will result from the diet. If successful,
the diet will result in a decrease in weight and lower cholesterol scores. If these
effects occur, positive emotions result and the person can be expected to
continue the new program of behavior. The diet, however, may also create
some negative outcomes, such as intense hunger, depression, and loss of energy.
Interestingly, these conflicting outcomes are likely to result in cognitive
dissonance (Festinger 1957). That is, the person is engaging in behaviors that
lead to pain. If these effects occur, negative feelings result and the person can
be expected to abandon the new program of behavior. In sum, a description of
the flow of behavior and of how dispositions and the environment impact
behavior can be derived from the constructs found in the 3M.
Linking Personality to Motivational Processes

One goal of the 3M Model is to explicitly link personality factors to the
field of motivation. The best definition of motivation that I have found was
developed by Jones (1955), who stated in an early Nebraska Symposium on
Motivation article that motivation has to do with how " ... behavior gets started,
is energized, is sustained, is directed, is stopped, and what kind of subjective
reaction is present in the organism when all this is going on" (p. vii). The
control theory based 3M Model does a credible job of fulfilling this definition
of motivation.
Behavior gets started as a result of a comparator matching outcomes to
goals and values resulting from the operation of a hierarchy of traits. These
traits emerge from a combination of genetics, learning, culture, and situations.
Behavior is energized by emotions that are experienced as a result of a
comparison between desired goal states and outcomes currently being
experienced. Behavior is sustained when the feedback system reveals that
outcomes are matching goals. Behavior is directed by programs of behavior
that accomplish tasks. In addition, behavior may also be directed by a cognitive
appraisal process that occurs when the comparator finds discrepancies between
the goals and the outcomes. Behavior is stopped when a sufficiently large
discrepancy between actual and desired outcomes occurs and the cognitive
appraisal indicates that a new program of behavior should be implemented.
Finally, subjective reactions occur in the comparator, which acts an emotional

center. Because of the control theory structure of the 3M, motivational
processes are intrinsically intertwined with personality traits. In sum, the 3M
Model identifies the motivation-personality system of individuals.
The Empirical Approach of the Book
Except for the final chapter, the remainder of this book presents the
empirical work that was performed to develop and test the 3M Model. A
number of critical decisions had to be made in developing a strategy for
performing the empirical tests and for presenting the results to the reader. First,
should structural equation modeling be employed as the sole analytical
technique in the book, or should hierarchical regression models also be
employed? Second, when no theoretical rationale exists for investigating
relationships, how should exploratory analyses be handled?
Choosing the Analytical Techniques. In the data analysis, a combination of

structural equation modeling (SEM) and hierarchical regression analysis
techniques will be employed. SEM will be employed for performing confirma-
tory factor analyses (CFAs). The CFAs will be used to create and confirm the
measurement models (Anderson and Gerbing 1988). In addition, structural
equation modeling will be employed to identify the paths that connect the
various levels of traits to the dependent variable being investigated. The Amos
structural modeling program (Arbuckle 1997) will be employed to analyze the
data. SEM will be supplemented in a number of the studies with hierarchical
regression. Hierarchical regression has some advantages over SEM. Foremost,
the results are easily interpreted. Second, the hierarchical regression procedure
in SPSS Version 8.0 employed in this book provides two useful statistics. It
provides a measure of the variance accounted for after it is adjusted for the
number of variables included in the analysis. This measure helps to compensate
for chance effects inflating the results of the analysis. In addition, it provides
a test for determining whether adding new variables in a hierarchical analysis
significantly increases the variance accounted for.
Exploring New Relationships. One of the problems in the use of SEM is that
it is a wonderful data snooping device. That is, by using modification indices
researchers can capitalize on chance relationships to create good fitting models.
On the other hand, because of the paucity of studies employing hierarchical
modeling using personality variables, it is often impossible to draw upon theory
to make a priori predictions. In particular, it is extremely difficult to predict
whether a compound trait will fully mediate, or partially mediate, an elemental
trait's effects on situational traits. The control theory model, however,

presented in Figure 2.4 of this chapter indicates that one can expect full
mediation, partial mediation, and no mediation to occur.
Within the control theory structure of the 3M, a motivational-personality
system is proposed in which the elemental, compound, situational, and surface
level traits combine to influence consumer responses. The empirical goal will
be to identify the network of relationships that operate for a number of surface
level traits, including: healthy diet lifestyles, compulsive buying, sports
participation, modest living, and bargaining. The research is unabashedly
exploratory in nature. The goal is to uncover empirical relationships that can
be tested across time and respondent populations. However, it is important to
guard against chance effects accounting for the relationships identified.
Particularly in our investigations among the elemental and compound traits, this
book will present multiple studies and perform meta-analyses to minimize the
likelihood that chance effects are the cause of the relationships identified. In
many cases, however, relationships will be found between the more abstract
traits and the surface traits that will not have been predicted. In these cases
appropriate warnings will be sounded about the need for further research to
confirm the relationships uncovered.
Summary
The goal of this chapter was to present a new meta-theoretic model of

motivation and personality. The chapter integrated research streams on control
theory, hierarchical models of personality, evolutionary theory, and the Five-
Factor Model of personality to develop the 3M. The 3M proposes that
elemental traits, compound traits, situational traits, and category-specific
surface traits exist in a hierarchy and act as reference points for the evaluation
of outcomes by a comparator. From the elemental traits and compound traits,
values emerge. From the situational traits and the surface traits, goals,
objectives, and expectations emerge.
A comparator monitors expectancies that result from values, goals, and
task programs and compares them to outcomes that occur as a result of a
person's activities and the external environment. If no discrepancy occurs, the
current program of behavior is continued. If a sufficiently large discrepancy
occurs between desired and actual states, emotions result that lead to cognitive
appraisal processes. As a result of the cognitive appraisal, new programs of
behavior may be executed. In order to complete tasks (i.e., run programs of
behavior), people engage in activities. In order to perform activities, the person
uses body, social, material, and information resources. As a result of the
activities, outcomes emerge. In addition, outcomes are influenced by the
external environment. These outcomes are connected to the comparator, which

completes the feedback loop in the control model.
Central to the 3M is the proposal that a hierarchy of personality traits
exists. First, a limited set of elemental traits act as reference points for
outcomes and programs of behavior across diverse situational settings. A
proposed set of eight elemental traits was derived from the Five-Factor Model
of personality (Goldberg 1992), from an evolutionary approach to personality
(Buss 1988), and from work on the need for arousal construct (Zuckerman
1979). The elemental traits emerge from the basic needs of individuals and
represent individual differences in the expression of these needs. In tum, the
effects of culture, subculture, and the elemental traits combine to result in
compound traits, which are more specific in their effects on running programs
of behavior. Even more specific are the situational traits, which represent
dispositions to behave within particular contexts of behavior. Finally, at the
most concrete level, surface traits represent dispositions to act within narrow
domains of behavior.
The next chapter reports a series of studies that empirically develop and
test the structure, the reliability, and the discriminant validity of the eight
proposed elemental traits.
PART II.
THE ELEMENTAL TRAITS
At the most abstract level of the personality hierarchy are the elemental
traits. These enduring dispositions represent the foundation of the entire
motivation-personality system. As described in Chapter 2, for theoretical
reasons eight elemental traits are proposed. Part II presents a single chapter that
describes the empirical development of the scales designed to measure the eight
traits. In addition, it begins the process of assessing the discriminant validity
of these most fundamental individual difference constructs.
Chapter 3
DEVELOPING THE MEASURES OF THE
EIGHT ELEMENTAL TRAITS
Abstract
Chapter 3 presents the empirical development of the scales to measure the

eight elemental traits: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeability, neuroticism/stability, material needs, arousal needs, and physical
needs. The chapter first provides an overview of previous efforts to identify a
set of basic personality traits. It next presents two pilot studies that were
employed to initially develop the scales. The results of five studies used to
confirm the scales are then presented. In these studies confirmatory factor
analysis was used to refine the scales and identify a short set of items for each
construct that possesses good internal reliability. The results revealed a
coherent set of eight scales possessing excellent scale properties.
Introduction
As a large encompassing model, the 3M will require many research studies

to confirm the reliability of its constructs, as well as its nomological, construct,
and predictive validity. This chapter begins the process by asking the research
question, "Can empirical evidence be obtained for the eight-factor structure of
elemental traits proposed in Chapter 27"
As described in Chapter 2, controversy exists over how many basic traits
can be found. Eysenck (1947) proposed that the fundamental personality traits
can be boiled down to three-extraversion, neuroticism (i.e., emotional stability),
and psychoticism (i.e., agreeability). Buss (1988) proposed a set of four
primary traits. Researchers working in the Five-Factor tradition (e.g., Costa and
McCrae 1985, Goldberg 1992, Saucier 1994) have proposed five basic traits.
Even the theorists who argue for five factors, however, are divided into two
camps. The first approach, which is exemplified by the work of Goldberg
(1992) and Saucier (1994), takes a lexical perspective in which the traits are
derived from adjectives used in language. This work has resulted in the Big
Five Model. The second approach, which is exemplified by the work of
McCrae and Costa (1996), proposes that the traits emerge from biological
processes. This perspective has been called the Five-Factor Model. 5 Block
sUnless specifically stated otherwise, in this book the author will employ the term
"Five-Factor Model" in a generic sense to describe the lexical and the biological
approaches to identifying traits. This approach is consistent with that taken by other
researchers, such as Wiggins (1996).
48 Developing the Measures of the Eight Elemental Traits
(1995), however, in his critique of the five-factor approach, observed that the
variable sets analyzed may have constrained the results to a five-factor solution.
In addition, other researchers have identified a different number of traits. For
example, Hogan and Hogan (1992) proposed a set of six factors. In sum,
consensus has not emerged among psychologists on the number of basic traits.
One reason for this lack of consensus is that the development of the trait
models has been empirically driven, rather than based upon theoretically
derived criteria. Indeed, one researcher has described the research as "dust
bowl empiricism" (Little 1989). Of course, one purpose of the 3M is to provide
a theoretically derived basis for the proposal of eight fundamental traits. Thus,
the theory is consistent with the views of Buss (1988), who viewed personality
traits as emerging because they are necessary for the survival of our species.
Further, consistent with a control theory approach to motivation, the elemental
traits are necessary because they act as reference points that guide performance
of a behavioral feedback system. In addition, elemental traits combine to
influence the development of the more narrowly defined compound, situational,
and surface traits.
The next section of the chapter presents the initial pilot studies that were
run to develop the scales. The section is followed by the presentation of the
confirmatory factor analytic studies. In this section the results of five studies
are presented. The chapter concludes with a discussion section that summarizes
the results of the studies and lays the groundwork for investigating the
relationships between the elemental traits and the compound traits.
The Pilot Studies
Empirical work on the 3M began in the spring of 1997 with a pilot study
employing 311 students in business and psychology classes at Oklahoma State
University. The details of the methodology are provided in Appendix C-l. The
134 item survey contained the items from the Saucier (1994) Fi ve-Factor Model
scale. His 40-item scale was derived from a much longer scale developed by
Goldberg (1992). Goldberg's (1992) scale was based on the lexical tradition
in which traits are viewed as verbal descriptors of how people portray
themselves and each other. In Saucier's (1994) scale, respondents rate the
extent to which 40 traits accurately describe them. Nine-point scales bounded
by "extremely inaccurate" to "extremely accurate" are employed.
In addition, items were generated by the author to assess the need for
activity, body needs, and material needs. In the spring of 1997, it was
hypothesized that the need for activity rather than the need for arousal was an
elemental trait. The initial set of six items designed to measure activity needs
were developed based upon the work of Buss (1988). Six items were also
Developing the Measures of the Eight Elemental Traits 49
developed to measure material resources. These were adapted from work by

Richins and Dawson (1992). Five items were included to measure body needs.
These items were based in part on the work of Bristow and Mowen (1998). In
addition, the items were modeled along the general lines of the material
resource items, with the exception that the body was the referent.
The data were analyzed in an iterative process. First, the Saucier (1994)
items were factor analyzed (maximum likelihood extraction with varimax
rotation). A six-factor solution was obtained with items tapping jealousy and
envy forming a separate factor. In addition, a confirmatory factor analysis was
performed on the five factors proposed by Saucier (1994). The initial fit
indices were extremely poor. When items were eliminated because of cross-
loadings, the model finally became unidentifiable. 6
Exploratory factor analyses were then run on an eight-factor structure.
This structure was identical to that proposed in Chapter 2, except that the need
for activity was included rather than the need for arousal as an elemental trait.
Items from the Saucier (1994) scale were included to measure the five-factor
constructs along with additional items developed by the author. After a series
of runs in which items that cross-loaded were deleted, an eight-factor solution
was obtained. However, the scale designed to measure activity was composed
of only two items with low factor loadings. In addition, through the process it
was found that items measuring the same construct but that were opposite in
sign (e.g., bold and shy in the extraversion scale) tended to load on different
factors. This occurred for most of the scales.
Based upon the results of the first pilot study, a second study was run.
This study is presented in Appendix C-2 and is labeled the Tulsa Mall Study,
because it took place in a metropolitan mall using an intercept methodology.
Respondents were asked "How often do you feel/act this way." The measures
were assessed on nine-point scales bounded by "never" and "always." In this
study, new items were added to measure the activity construct. In addition,
seven items were included to measure the need for arousal. Four of the items
were adapted from the work of Mehrabian and Russell (1974) and Zuckerman
(1979). Three of the items were developed from this author's understanding of
the construct. In addition, items were included in the survey that were adapted
from other scales designed to measure extraversion and agreeability. Unfortu-
nately, none of the items designed to measure conscientiousness were included
in the study. It was thought that a measure of task orientation would provide
a better measure of this construct. As it turns out, this decision was a mistake.
Reasons why will be discussed later in the chapter.
tvrhe inability to confirm the structure of the Five-Factor Model via CFA has frequently
occurred (Block 1995).
50 Developing the Measures o/the Eight Elemental Traits
After a series of exploratory factor analyses, a nine-factor solution was

obtained that explained 69.3 percent of the variance in the model. The ninth
factor, however, was not interpretable and contained no items with factor
loadings of .30 or above. The eight factors revealed minimal cross-loadings,
and their coefficient alphas were acceptable except for the measures of activity
(alpha =.67) and extraversion (alpha =.56). Three items loaded together on the
measure of activity, and only two items emerged for the extraversion construct.
All other measures of internal reliability were excellent (all above alpha = .78).
Separate analyses were performed on the need for arousal scale. It was found
to be unidimensional and to have acceptable internal reliability (coefficient
alpha =.78). When it was included in the model as a replacement for activity,
the factor structure remained stable with an eight-factor solution.
As described above, the items from Saucier (1994) measuring conscien-
tiousness were not included in the Tulsa Mall questionnaire. At this point in
time in the development of the 3M, it was thought that a measure of task
orientation, which will be discussed in Chapter 4, was a better indicator of the
task construct in the control theory component of the 3M. The reason for this
belief was that in the student pilot study the task orientation measure and the
conscientiousness measure were equally predictive of compulsive buying
(Faber and O'Guinn 1988). In addition, a moderately high correlation was
found between the constructs (r =.45). In the mall study, however, the results
revealed no relationship between task orientation and compulsive buying. From
a theoretical perspective, one should expect individuals with low task
orientation/conscientiousness to have more problems with compulsive buying.
Based upon this finding, it was decided that in future studies task orientation
should be investigated as a compound trait, and conscientiousness should be
kept as the elemental trait.
In sum, based upon the Student Pilot Study and the Tulsa Mall Study,
reasonably good measures of seven of the eight constructs were developed.
Thus, measures of openness, conscientiousness, arousal, agreeability,
neuroticism/stability, material needs, and physical needs were obtained.
Problems, however, existed in the measures of extraversion and activity. Items
that assessed the outgoing dimension of extraversion (e.g., bold and extra-
verted) did not load on the same factor as items designed to measure the shy
dimension of extraversion (e.g., shy, reserved). The Tulsa Mall Study data
indicated that items assessing the introverted end of the continuum seemed to
hold up better as a factor than those measuring the outgoing end of the
construct. For this reason, in the next study (which is described below)
additional items were added that were designed to measure the introversion
dimension. In addition, new items were developed to assess the need for
activity.
The Confirmatory Factor Analytic Studies
This section presents the results of confirmatory factor analyses performed

on data collected from five of the studies reported in this book: Student Study
2, the Arkansas Panel Study, the Bank Employee Study, the Consumer Credit
Counseling Service (CCCS) Study, and the Sports Motivation Study. The
purpose for reporting results of these studies is that they represent a wide cross-
section of respondents. The samples employ respondents who are young adults
(Student Study 2), older adults (Arkansas Panel), working adults (the Bank
Employee Study), adults with financial problems (the CCCS Study), and adults
from two nations (the U.S.A. and Sweden in the Sports Study). The procedures
employed and the characteristics of the respondents of each of these studies are
presented in Appendix C.
The confirmatory factor analyses reported below were performed
employing the need for arousal as an elemental trait. As described previously,
the initial analyses used the need for activity as an elemental trait. After
presenting the results of the confirmatory factor analyses, the rationale (both
empirically and theoretically based) are presented for why arousal was
identified as the elemental trait.
The Initial Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Student Study 2

The initial confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on data collected
in Student Study 2. The final items from the factor analysis of the Tulsa Mall
Study were included in the questionnaire that the students completed during the
fall of 1997. Additional items were added to measure the introversion trait.
The items in the scales proposed to represent the eight elemental traits were
analyzed via confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using the Amos structural
equation modeling program (Arbuckle 1997). Because of the high sensitivity
of CFA to any cross-loadings of items in different constructs, it was expected
that the initial model would reveal poor fit indices, which is what occurred.
Standardized residuals were then employed to eliminate items that cross-loaded
between scales. Because of the large number of comparisons made in the
matrix of 45 items (990), one would expect a number of standardized residuals
to be over 2.58 because of chance. A rule-of-thumb was developed for making
decisions as to which items to eliminate. The heuristic was that if any item had
more than three cross-loadings above 2.58 with other items or any loadings of
3.5 or more, it would be eliminated.
After a series of iterations in which items were dropped and new models
estimated, a satisfactory model resulted. As expected, the chi-square statistic
was significant (chi-square =619, df =406, p < .001). However, the remaining
fit indices were excellent (CFr = .94, TLI = .93, RMSEA = .06 with a
confidence interval of .047 to .065). Table 3.1 contains the items that
composed the final model. 7 As will be seen below, these scales held up across
the other four studies. Appendix C provides the coefficient alphas for these
scales for all studies presented in this book. Appendix B provides the items for
the scales.
Additional Tests of the Confirmed Model

Because of the possibility that the effects of chance accounted for the good
fit statistics of the model obtained in the confirmatory analysis performed on
the Student Study 2 sample, the analysis was repeated on four additional
studies: the Arkansas Panel Study, the Bank Study, the CCCS Study, and the
cross-cultural study of Sports Participation Behavior. The procedures and
information on the samples employed in these studies are contained in
Appendix C. In each case the items retained from the CFA of the Student Study
were input into the analysis.
The results of each study are found in Table 3.2. With the exception of the
Sports Participation Study, the fit statistics for each of the studies were
excellent. The mean fit statistics across the five studies were: TLI mean =.91,
CFI mean = .92, RMSEA mean = .06. While lower, the fit statistics for the
Sports Study were marginally acceptable: TLI =.88, CFI =.89, RMSEA =.06.
(The degrees of freedom for each analysis were 406, and the chi-square statistic
ranged from 619 to 915.)
Table 3.3 provides the correlation matrix and standard deviations of the
variables averaged across the five studies. The mean correlation of all
combinations ofthe variables (the 28 pairwise comparisons) in the matrix was
r = .094. This computation provides an estimate of the maximum possible
effects of method variance in the data. That is, each of the items was measured
by the same scale (a nine-point scale anchored by "never feel or act this way"
and "always feel or act this way"). It is possible that positive relationships
among the variables could be caused by the subjects responding to the scales
with a similar pattern of answers rather than by subjects providing responses
based upon their personality dispositions. When the grand mean of the
7The items for the need for activity are not included in Table 3.1 because of the
interpretation that it is not an elemental trait. Confirmatory factor analyses were run
with the need for activity replacing the need for arousal as an elemental trait. The fit
indices were virtually identical to those obtained for the need for arousal. The three
items in the need for activity scale that resulted from the CFA were: (1) keep really busy
doing things, (2) try to cram as much as possible into a day, and (3) extremely active in
my daily life.
correlations among all of the variables across the five studies is calculated, the
only constant is the method of measurement.
Table 3.1
Elemental Traits
A. Emotional Instability
1. Moody more than others 4. Emotions go way up and down
2. Temperamental 5. Testy more than others
3. Touchy
B. Extraversion
1. Prefer to be alone rather 3. Quiet when with people
than in a large group 4. Bashful when with people
2. Shy
C. Openness to experience
1. Frequently feel highly creative
2. Imaginative
3. More original than others
D. Agreeable
1. Kind to others 3. Sympathetic
2. Tender-hearted with others
E. Conscientiousness
1. Orderly 3. Organized
2. Precise 4. Efficient
F. Need for Body Resources
1. Focus on my body and how it feels
2. Devote time each day to improving my body
3. Feel that making my body look good is important
4. Work hard to keep my body healthy
G. Need for Material Resources
1. Enjoy buying expensive things
2. Enjoy owning luxurious things
3. Acquiring valuable things is important to me
4. Like to own nice things more than most people
H. Need for Arousal
1. Drawn to experiences with an element of danger
2. Like the new and different rather than the tried and true
3. Seek an adrenaline rush
4. Enjoy taking risks more than others
Table 3.2
Confirmatory Factory Analysis Fit Indices for Five Studies
Fit Student Panel Bank CCCS Sports

Index Study Study Study Study Study
TLI .93 .90 .93 .92 .88
CFI .94 .91 .94 .93 .90
RMSEA .06 .06 .05 .06 .06
X2 619 820 692 802 915

df 406 406 406 406 406
Table 3.3
Mean Correlations and Standard Deviations Across the Five Studies
Introv Mater Body Arousal Unstable Open Agree Consci

Introversion 1.720
Materialism -.027 1.770
Body .034 .183 1.780
Arousal -.111 .279 .216 1.780
Unstable -.280 .250 .038 .115 1.820
Openness -.121 .153 .142 .315 .136 1.730
Agreeability .008 -.049 .137 -.010 -.054 .139 1.410
Conscientious -.051 .064 .228 .020 -.055 .206 .249 1.440
The finding that the average correlation accounted for less than 1 percent
of the variance (.094 2 =.009) in the relationships among the variables indicates
that method variance played a minor role in accounting for the relationships
among the variables. That is, the worst case scenario assumes that there is no
general correlation across the constructs that results from an underlying
association among the constructs. When the correlation matrix in Table 3.3 is
examined, one finds that in several instances moderate correlations exist
between constructs. For example, moderate correlations were found between

the need for arousal and openness to experience (r =.315) and between the need
for arousal and materialism (r = .279). Across the seven comparisons between
arousal and the other constructs, however, the mean correlation was low
(r = .118). In sum, the author interprets the results to indicate that methods
variance is unlikely to be an impediment to interpreting the relationships found
in the studies presented in this book.
Another important issue in interpreting the scales developed to measure
the elemental traits involves their internal reliability. Appendix D contains the
internal reliabilities of all the scales employed in this book and the studies in
which they were measured. Across the five studies examined in this chapter, the
mean coefficient alphas of the constructs were: introversion = .86; material
needs = .86; body needs = .87; need for arousal = .88; emotional instability =
.91; openness to experience =.85; agreeability =.82; conscientiousness =.85.
In sum, the internal validity of the constructs was excellent.
Is the Need for Arousal an Elemental Trait?
As briefly described earlier in the chapter, in the early development of the

3M the need for arousal was conceptualized as a compound trait. Further, the
need for activity was hypothesized to be the elemental level trait. Based upon
three criteria, however, this view was changed.
Criterion 1
The first criterion for determining whether a trait exists at the compound
or elemental level is based upon the proposition that compound traits are
derived in part from elemental traits. As a result, in a linear regression analysis
the elemental traits should account for substantial variance in the compound
traits. This sets up a means for making a critical test to determine whether a
trait is at the elemental or compound level. That is, the eight elemental traits
are regressed on the compound trait and the variance accounted for is
calculated. The compound trait is then switched with the elemental trait to
which it is being compared, and the procedure is performed again. The amount
of variance accounted for in each variable is then compared, and the one with
the highest R2 is assumed to be the compound trait.
This procedure was followed for the constructs of the need for arousal and
the need for activity. Across the five studies examined in this chapter, when the
need for arousal was examined as a compound trait, the mean variance
accounted for was R2 = .218. In contrast, when the need for activity was
examined as a compound trait, the mean variance accounted for across the five
studies was R2 = .277. Thus, more variance was accounted for in the need for
activity across the five studies than the need for arousal. This result is
consistent with the need for activity existing as a compound trait.
It should be noted that the correlation between the need for arousal and the
need for activity is substantial. Across the five studies, the mean correlation
was r = .28 between the constructs. Thus, the relationship between arousal and
activity accounted for 8 percent (.28 2) of the effect found in the regression
analysis when the need for arousal was investigated as a compound trait.
Criterion 2
A second criterion for determining whether a trait is at the elemental or
compound level is to perform analyses investigating reciprocal relationships
using structural equation modeling. In the present case a model is set up in
which the need for arousal and the need for activity are identified as endoge-
nous variables. Reciprocal paths are placed between the two constructs. The
remaining elemental traits are then analyzed to determine whether it is possible
to identify one or more constructs related to activity and not to arousal.
Similarly, one or more constructs are identified that are related to arousal and
not activity. Across the five studies investigated in this chapter, the need for
material resources was consistently associated with the need for arousal and not
with the need for activity. Conversely, conscientiousness was consistently
related to the need for activity and not the need for arousal. No other consistent
patterns of differences were found in the relationship between the seven
elemental traits and the two constructs (the need for arousal and the need for
activity).
In the analysis the key research issue was to examine the reciprocal path
coefficients between activity and arousal. If one coefficient is significant and
the other is not, the likely direction of causality is indicated. The results
revealed that the path coefficient from arousal to activity was significant. In
contrast, the path from activity to arousal was not significant. A similar pattern
was found for each of the five tests. These results are consistent with the need
for arousal being the more basic trait.
Criterion 3
The third criterion for determining whether a trait is at the elemental or
compound level is theoretical. In Chapter 2, it was suggested that compound
traits are closely related to the direct performance of tasks. The need for
activity fits this criterion because of its direct relation to the activity component
of the control theory model found in the 3M. Thus, the more active a person is
on a chronic basis, the more likely he or she is to work assiduously to complete
tasks.
Another theoretical perspective on the issue is to ask whether activity or

arousal fits better as an elemental trait within the nomological net of the 3M
model. From this perspective, the chronic level of activity of a person is
proposed to result from the operation of more basic dispositions to behave.
Thus, higher levels of activity result from a need for arousal and/or the need to
enhance and protect the body. This causal flow of relationships appears more
likely than a need for activity causing people to seek stimulation or to protect
and enhance their bodies. As will be shown in Chapter 7, five of the eight
elemental traits are predictive of the need for activity- agreeability, conscien-
tiousness, physical resource needs, the need for arousal, and introversion. In
each case the direction of flow from these constructs to the need for activity fits
the proposal that the construct results from the operation of more basic
elemental traits.
Discussion
Based upon two pilot studies employing exploratory factor analysis and
five studies using confirmatory factor analysis, scales were developed to assess
the eight elemental traits proposed in Chapter 2. The constructs identified as
elemental traits are: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeability, neuroticism/unstable, material needs, arousal needs, and physical
needs. The acronym OCEAN MAP can be employed to recall the traits. The
one caveat is that the items measuring extraversion actually measure the
introversion end of the continuum (i.e., shy, bashful, etc.).
The excellent fit statistics and the high internal reliabilities suggest that the
scales represent a good initial starting point for delineating a set of basic
personality constructs for the hierarchical model. The results suggest that the
eight scales are measuring different constructs. 8 In addition, the low overall
correlation among the constructs suggests that methods variance is a minimal
problem in the measurement of the variables.
Two important issues, however, should be raised in interpreting these
results. First, the results do not mean that all of these scales are elemental in
nature. As described by Saucier and Goldberg (1996), "A complete taxonomy
of personality attributes must include both horizontal and vertical features of
SA series of analyses were conducted on the Arkansas Panel data in which the indicators
for each pair of latent constructs were combined to form one latent construct. The chi-
square statistic was then compared to the base model. In every case the chi-square
statistic was significantly higher when the latent indicators for a pair of constructs were
combined. This result indicates that the constructs possess discriminant validity among
each other.
their meanings" (p. 41). That is, in a hierarchical approach one must investigate
constructs at the same level of analysis (the horizontal dimension) as well as
traits at different levels in the hierarchy (the vertical dimension). The factor
analytic techniques employed in this study cannot determine whether the traits
investigated are at the same or different levels in the hierarchy. The CFAs
employed in this chapter can only reveal that the scales are measuring different
constructs. They cannot determine whether the constructs are at the same level
in the hierarchy. The chapters in Part III of the book that investigate the
proposed compound traits will begin the process of assessing at which level in
the hierarchy the traits exist.
A second issue concerns the small number of items contained in the scales.
As seen in Table 3.1, two of the eight scales contain three items, five scales
contain four items, and one scale contains five items. A reasonable question is
whether scales with so few items can really sample adequately from the domain
of the construct. One answer to this question was given by Burisch (1997). In
a series of carefully calibrated studies, Burisch (1997) found that scales with as
little as two to four items can outperform scales eight times as long. In other
research, Paunonen (1984) found that scales with only three items could validly
represent much longer scales. According to Burisch (1997), the key issue is to
take steps to ensure that the items are prescreened for content saturation. The
present research in which the items were derived from previous research
provides a means of obtaining such content saturation. According to Burisch
(1997), another potential problem, however, with developing short scales is that
they may suffer from a "narrow bandwidth" (p. 314). That is, they may not be
as predictive of behavior as scales composed of more items. This issue will be
addressed in later chapters of this book when we investigate the ability of the
elemental traits to predict compound, situational, and surface traits.
As an overall statement, there is nothing inherentiy wrong with developing
short scales. One important advantage is that they require less time from
respondents. The reduction in respondent fatigue may act to increase the
reliability and validity of their responses. The possibility exists, however, that
while they reveal high internal validity and can be replicated across samples,
they may not predict behavior. This issue will be investigated in later chapters,
beginning with Chapter 4, which investigates the task orientation construct.
PART III
INVESTIGATING COMPOUND TRAITS
As defined in Chapter 2, compound traits represent unidimensional

dispositions emerging from the interplay of elemental traits, from the culture in
which an individual lives, and from the learning history of the individual. Like
the elemental traits, they provide reference points for evaluating and interpret-
ing outcomes. Unlike elemental traits, however, they are narrower in
application and specifically function to guide programs of behavior of the
control model.
In the six-chapter sequence that comprises Part III, a series of traits is
hypothesized to function at the compound level: task orientation, the need for
learning, competitiveness, the need for activity, the need for play, and
effectance motivation. Chapter 4 develops a task orientation scale that is
designed to measure the level of goal orientation in the accomplishment of
tasks. The need for learning construct is presented in Chapter 5. It is designed
to measure the degree to which individuals habitually engage in the process of
cognitive appraisal. Chapter 6 presents a scale designed to measure individual
differences in the desire to compete against others when accomplishing tasks.
Indeed, competition can be conceptualized as a type of task itself. Chapter 7
investigates the need for activity that is proposed to impact the degree to which
one habitually seeks to be busy performing tasks. The need for play is investi-
gated in Chapter 8. This construct describes the extent to which individuals
seek to have fun and enjoyment in the accomplishment of tasks. Effectance
motivation is investigated in Chapter 9 and represents the degree to which a
person believes that he or she can control the outcomes of the tasks in which
they engage.
Each of the chapters in Part III will assess the extent to which the
constructs investigated meet the criteria of a compound trait. Compound traits
share four characteristics. First, they should be unidimensional. Second, the
scales designed to measure traits should be relatively short (six items or less)
and have good internal reliabilities. In the 3M, a good internal reliability will
be defined as a mean coefficient alpha of .75 or above across a set of studies.
Because the 3M investigates a personality/motivational system involving ten or
more traits, it is important to keep each scale short in order to avoid fatiguing
respondents as they complete the instrument. Third, because compound traits
emerge from the interplay of multiple elemental traits, a set of two or more
elemental traits should account for substantial portions of their variance. While
60 Part III
no fixed rule exists for identifying what constitutes a "substantial proportion of

variance," the rule of thumb employed in the 3M Model is 25 percent. Fourth,
when combined with the effects of the elemental traits in a hierarchical system
to predict situational traits ancl/or surface traits, compound traits should add a
significant amount of incremental variance to the predictive model. That is, the
combination of the elemental traits with appropriately selected compound traits
should account for more variance in situational traits than the elemental traits
can alone.
Chapter 4
TASK ORIENTATION
Abstract
The chapter presents a newly developed compound level trait designed to

measure enduring dispositions to set goals and complete tasks. Closely related
to achievement motivation, the four-item measure of task orientation is shown
to fulfill the requirements of a compound trait. The scale has excellent internal
reliability and is unidimensional. Across five studies, a combination of
elemental traits accounted for an average of 46 percent of the variance in the
construct. Finally, after partialing out the effects of the elemental traits, the
scale was shown to account for a significant amount of variance in the traits of:
competitiveness, value consciousness, sports participation, healthy diet
lifestyle, and impulsiveness.
Introduction
As described in Chapter 2, the 3M is based in part on a control theory

model of human motivation and behavior. At the core of the feedback system
are the activities that take place to implement tasks. When a program of
behavior is executed, activities and resources are coordinated in order to
accomplish the task. The 3M proposes that individual differences exist in how
goals are set, how tasks are implemented, and which activities are emphasized.
This chapter investigates one of these compound level traits-task orientation.
Defined as the enduring disposition to set task goals and to achieve high
performance levels in completing tasks, the task orientation trait directly
influences the implementation of behavior through the task and activity
components of the control model.
Because task orientation delineates the extent to which individuals set
goals and strive to complete tasks, it should be an important characteristic that
differentiates consumers in situations in which the level of performance
influences outcomes. These ideas are quite similar to those proposed by
researchers investigating the construct of achievement motivation. Work on
achievement motivation began with the research of McClelland (1961) and
Atkinson (1958). The construct has been defined as the desire of people to set
and realize goals for themselves (Clark, Varadarajan, and Pride 1994). As
described by Ward (1997), those with a high achievement motive thrive on
competition, center their thoughts on how to improve their work, are committed
to performance goals, and are energetic performers.
A number of researchers have sought to develop trait measures of
achievement motivation. Ward (1997) factor analyzed Cassidy and Lynn's
(1989) measure of achievement motivation. His results supported the seven
62 Task Orientation
factors proposed to define the construct: work ethic, acquisitiveness, domi-

nance, excellence, competitiveness, status aspirations, and mastery. In other
research, Sagie, Elizur, and Yamauchi (1996) noted that the early research
assumed that it was a unitary construct. In addition, they argued that current
measures of achievement motivation (e.g., Cassidy and Lynn 1989) lack a solid
theoretical base. They attempted to supply such a base by viewing achievement
as a multi-dimensional construct involving a process in which a challenge is
confronted before, during, and after a task.
To this author's knowledge, task orientation (or its close relative,
achievement motivation) has not been investigated as a factor that may
influence consumer behavior. One can anticipate, however, that the extent to
which individuals set task goals and seek to obtain excellence in completing
tasks may influence their behavior within consumer contexts. For example, one
would expect that high-achievement individuals should more frequently
participate in sports. That is, sports provide a realm in which competition
occurs, performance goals are set, and clear benchmarks for excellence are
identified.
As described in the opening paragraph to this chapter, the 3M Model
provides a nomological net from which achievement motivation may be
understood. Specifically, within the 3M achievement motivation is a compound
trait that results from the impact of elemental traits and the learning history of
the individual. In tum, it influences situational and surface traits. A major
difference, however, in this conceptualization and that proposed by Sagie,
Elizur, and Yamauchi (1996) and by Cassidy and Lynn (1989) is that, as a
compound trait, achievement motivation should be conceptualized as composed
of one factor. It is further suggested that the dimensions of achievement
motivation that they identified are actually situational trait representations of
contexts within which competitiveness mayor may not be exhibited.
Because of these differences in the view of whether the measure of the
disposition to achieve high levels of task performance is a unitary or a multi-
dimensional trait, a decision was made to employ a different name for the
construct. That is, rather than describe the trait as "achievement motivation,"
the appellation of "task orientation" was selected. The task orientation name
provides two benefits. First, it distinguishes the construct from achievement
motivation. Second, it links the trait directly to the control theory structure of
the 3M, which includes programs/tasks as an element of the feedback system.
As part of the development of the 3M, a compound trait level measure of
task orientation was developed. The initial scale evolved out of a set of items
investigated in the pilot study described in Appendix C-l. The five studies
reported in Chapter 3 measured the resulting scale. The remainder of the
chapter is organized along the following lines. The next section discusses how
Task Orientation 63
the items in the scale were developed and provides information on its internal
validity and unidimensionality. The third section discusses results of the meta-
analysis of the five studies in which structural equation modeling was employed
to assess the relationship between the elemental traits as exogenous variables
and task orientation as the dependent variable (i.e., the endogenous variable).
By investigating the construct across the five studies, the relationships that hold
across divergent samples of respondents can be identified. The fourth section
investigates whether task orientation accounts for variance beyond that of the
elemental traits in selected situational traits. The final section discusses these
results.
The Development of the Task Orientation Scale
The scale was developed as part of the initial pilot effort to derive the
elemental traits for the 3M model. In this study performed in the spring of
1997, 311 students in multiple sections of psychology and marketing classes
received a long questionnaire that they answered as part of a class exercise.
Two sets of items were developed to measure goal orientation and task
orientation. At this time in the development of the 3M, the author was
distinguishing between a short-term task orientation and a longer-term goal
orientation to complete tasks and set goals. A total of 12 items was developed
to assess the two constructs. In addition, five items were developed to assess
respondents' locus of control. That is, it was anticipated that individuals with
an internal locus of control for causality should have higher levels of task and
goal orientation. Items were created based upon the author's knowledge of the
constructs and their relationship to the concepts in the 3M Model. Respondents
were asked to indicate on a nine-point scale the extent to which items described
them. The end points were labeled "very inaccurate" and "very accurate."
In the analysis, the 17 items measuring locus of control, task orientation,
and goal orientation were factor analyzed (maximum likelihood extraction with
varimax rotation). The results revealed a messy solution with a great deal of
cross-loading. After a series of iterations in which items were deleted and the
analysis rerun, a final solution was obtained. The result was a single factor
composed of six items. The coefficient alpha of the construct was .84. The
items composing the factor were: long-term goal oriented; achieving success
is extremely important to me; when doing a task, I set a deadline for comple-
tion; set long-term goals for the future; approach tasks in a serious manner; my
abilities and efforts determine my success.
As can be seen by the items, the scale has elements of locus of control,
long-term goal orientation, and task orientation within its structure. In order to
further assess the unidimensionality of the scale, a series of factor analytic
64 Task Orientation
studies was conducted. As described earlier, the five studies reported in

Chapter 3 contained the task orientation items. For each of the studies, the six
items in this scale and the items in the eight elemental traits were input into a
factor analysis (maximum likelihood extraction with varimax rotation). In each
case, a clean nine-factor solution was obtained that matched precisely the a
priori identified constructs.
Predicting Task Orientation with the Elemental Traits
The introduction to Part 1lI identified four criteria for determining whether
a trait exists at the compound level. Based upon the pilot studies, task
orientation was shown to meet Criterion 1 (unidimensionality) and Criterion 2
(good internal reliability). In order to meet Criteria 3 of a compound trait, one
must find that a combination of the elemental traits accounts for substantial
variance in the construct. The five studies described in Chapter 3 included the
task orientation scale. They were analyzed via structural equation modeling
in order to further test the discriminant validity of the task orientation scale with
the eight elemental traits. In addition, the modeling provided a means of
assessing the variance accounted for in task orientation by the elemental traits.
Results
First, the items emerging from the analysis of the elemental traits
performed in Chapter 3 were input along with the task orientation items
obtained from the pilot study into a confirmatory factor analysis (CPA). Data
from Student Study 2 were employed in the CFA of the nine traits. Respon-
dents were asked "How often to do feel/act this way?" The measure was
assessed on nine-point scales bounded by "never" and "always." The results
revealed a great deal of cross loading between two of the task orientation items
and items representing the elemental traits. As a result, these items were
dropped, and the fit indices for the model were acceptable (X2 =837.1, df =524,
TLI = .91, CFI = .92, RMSEA = .06).
Task Orientation Scale

1. Long-term goal oriented.
2. When doing a task, I set a deadline for completion.
3. Set long-term goals for the future.
4. Approach tasks in a serious manner.
This identical CFA model was then run on the data from the four other
studies. The results are presented in Table 4.1. As can be seen in the table, the
fit indices for each of the studies are acceptable. Both the TLI fit index and the
Task Orientation 65
CFI fit index averaged over .90 across the studies. The RMSEA fit index
averaged under .06 across the five studies. The mean coefficient alpha across
the studies was .84.
The next set of analyses were performed to identify which of the elemental
traits are predictive of task orientation and to determine how much variance in
the compound trait is accounted for by the elemental traits. After a confirma-
tory factor analysis was run on the data from each of the five studies, paths
were connected from the elemental traits to the task orientation trait. The fit
indices are identical here to those obtained from the CFAs. As revealed in
Table 4.1, the mean variance accounted for across the studies was 45.8 percent.
Table 4.1
A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of
Task Orientation Across Five Studies
Elemental t-value t-value t-value t-value t-value

Traits Panel Sport Bank Student CCCS Meta-t p value
Openness -1.06 1.79 2.57 1.02 4.21 3.75 P < .001
Conscientious 6.61 7.75 5.33 5.85 5.89 12.60 P < .001
Introversion .00 .10 -1.26 1.31 1.26 .63 p< .85
Agreeability .72 1.50 .60 1.80 .42 2.24 p<.05
Neurotic .20 1.32 -1.53 -1.23 -1.08 -1.03 p< .30
Material .41 -1.02 1.62 2.46 1.43 2.18 p< .05
Arousal 4.34 2.38 3.60 -1.03 -.21 4.03 P < .001
Physical 1.74 1.39 .53 -1.61 1.93 1.77 p<.10
SEM Fit Results
X2 1043 1117 871 837 1019
df 524 524 524 524 524
TLI .88 .88 .92 .91 .90
CFI .90 .89 .93 .92 .91
RMSEA .063 .059 .052 .060 .058
R2 .50 .57 .37 .47 .38
Note: Meta-t was calculated by the formula found in Rosenthal (1991, p. 68-69) for a meta-
analysis using t-values. Stouffer's Z was also calculated, and the results were similar except
that the probability values were in the direction of greater significance.
66 Task Orientation
Table 4.1 also provides the t-test statistic for each path that connected the
elemental traits to the task orientation trait obtained from the structural model.
A meta-analytic technique, which I will call the "meta-t" technique, identified
by Rosenthal (1991) was employed to identify which of the elemental traits
were significantly related to task orientation. In the meta-t technique, the t-
values obtained from each study for the paths between an elemental trait and
task orientation were added to form the numerator. The denominator consisted
of taking the square root of the sum of the degrees of freedom minus 2 for each
of the studies. The results revealed that five of the traits were significantly
related to task orientation: conscientiousness (t = 12.6, P < .001), need for
arousal (t = 4.03, P < .001), openness to ideas (t = 3.75, P < .001), agreeableness
(t = 2.24, P < .05), and materialism (t = 2.18, P < .05).
Predicting Situational Traits with Task Orientation and

the Elemental Traits
The introduction to Part III identified four criteria for determining whether
a trait exists at the compound level. In order to satisfy Criterion 4 of a
compound trait, it must be shown to account for variance in another compound
trait, a situational trait, or a surface trait beyond that of the elemental traits. A
series of analyses were run in which task orientation and the elemental traits
were employed to predict other traits. For these analyses, hierarchical
regression was employed rather than structural equation modeling. In this
approach, the elemental traits were input as Modell. Task orientation was
added in Model 2, and the significance level of the partial correlation between
task orientation and the criterion trait was assessed. Investigations into five
traits are reported: competitiveness, value consciousness, sports participation,
impulsive buying, and health motivation.
Predicting Competitiveness with Task Orientation and the Elemental

Traits
As will be described more fully in Chapter 6, a measure of competitiveness
was developed as a compound trait. The relationship between task orientation,
the elemental traits, and competitiveness was analyzed in two studies: the
Arkansas Panel Study and the CCCS Study.
In the Arkansas Panel Study, the coefficient alpha of the four-item measure
of competitiveness was alpha = .90. The partial correlation of task orientation
with competitiveness after controlling for the effects of the elemental traits was
r = .225, P < .000). For competitiveness, the total variance accounted for was
45.8 percent. In the CCCS Study, the coefficient alpha of competitiveness was
.87. The partial correlation of task orientation with competitiveness was
Task Orientation 67
r = .163, P < .01. For competitiveness, the total variance accounted for was
38.0 percent. These results support the proposition that task orientation is a
compound level trait.
Predicting Value Consciousness with Task Orientation and the Elemental

Traits
In the Arkansas Panel Study, task orientation, the situational trait of value
consciousness, and the elemental traits were measured. Value consciousness
was assessed via the scale developed by Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton
(1990). The scale's coefficient alpha was .84. In the Arkansas Panel Study, the
partial correlation of task orientation with value consciousness was significant
(partial r = .16, P < .02). Overall variance accounted for by the full model was
R2 = .22. These results support task orientation as a compound trait.
Predicting Sports Participation with Task Orientation and the Elemental

Traits
Appendix C-l 0 presents the details of a study designed to investigate the
sports involvement of a broad set of consumers in the United States and
Sweden. An overall measure of sports participation was created. This scale
was developed as a surface-level trait. For this scale, respondents were asked
to indicate how frequently they practiced a sport, how frequently they played
the sport socially, and how frequently they played the sport competitively.
Other items asked how frequently they were spectators at sporting events and
how frequently they watched sports on television. The coefficient alpha of the
scale was .75.
A hierarchical model was run in which sports participation was the
dependent variable. The elemental traits were entered in Model 1 and task
orientation in Model 2. (The dependent variables had an acceptable coefficient
alpha.) The results revealed a significant effect for task orientation. A signifi-
cant partial correlation of r =.21 was found for the measure of sports participa-
tion (t = 3.26, p < .001). The overall model accounted for 22.4 percent of the
adjusted variance in the sports participation dependent variable. Confirming
the partial correlation results, the addition of task orientation to the model
increased the variance accounted for from 19.1 percent to 22.4 percent. These
results support task orientation as a compound trait.
Predicting Healthy Diet Lifestyle with Task Orientation and the Elemental
Traits
As will be discussed in more detail in Chapter 10, a measure of healthy
diet lifestyles was developed and investigated in the Arkansas Panel Study. The
eight-item measure had a coefficient alpha of .85 and assessed the respondents'
68 Task Orientation
self reports of the extent to which they limited their fat and sugar intake,
consumed fruits and vegetables, and so forth.
The elemental traits were input as Modell and task orientation as Model
2 in the hierarchical regression analysis. The results revealed that the overall
model accounted for 19.8 percent of the adjusted variance in healthy diet
lifestyle. The partial correlation of task orientation was significant (r = .16,
P < .05). It increased the variance accounted for by 1.8 percent.
Predicting Impulsiveness with Task Orientation and the Elemental Traits

Puri (1996) developed a scale to measure impulsive consumption behavior.
The two-factor model is composed of six items developed to assess prudent
behavior and six items developed to measure hedonic behavior. Hedonics were
idenfied as impulsive, careless, extravagant, etc. In contrast, prudents were
described as self-controlled, far sighted, responsible, etc. In the analysis, Model
1 contained the elemental traits and Model 2 added the task orientation variable.
The coefficient alpha for the full impulsiveness scale was .77.
Data from the CCCS sample were employed for the analysis. Model 1
accounted for an adjusted 29.6 percent of the variance in impulsiveness. When
task orientation was added in Model 2, the variance accounted for increased to
35.8 percent. The partial correlation of task orientation was highly significant
(r = -.305, p < .000). In sum, independent of the elemental traits, the task
orientation variable is a strong predictor of impulsiveness as operationalized by
Puri (1996).9
General Discussion
In the introduction to Part III of this book, four criteria were identified as
necessary for a scale to be described as a compound trait within the 3M Model.
On each of the criteria, task orientation was found to represent a compound
trait. First, the trait should be unidimensional. The results showed that across
five studies, task orientation revealed a unidimensional factor structure with
minimal cross-loadings with the eight elemental traits.
The second criterion is that the construct should be short and have good
internal reliability. The four items in the scale make it easy for respondents to
complete, and its mean coefficient alpha of .85 indicates that it has excellent
internal reliability. The third criterion is that a set of two or more elemental
9Readers will note that the variance accounted for in the hierarchical regression models
is different, and usually lower, than that resulting from the structural equation models.
This is a typical finding and can be attributed to the SEM procedure accounting for
error variance among the independent variables.
Task Orientation 69
traits should account for high levels of variance in the compound trait. The
results of the meta-analysis revealed that the elemental traits of conscientious-
ness, arousal needs, material needs, openness, and agreeability were significant
predictors of task orientation. Across the five studies analyzed in the meta-
analysis, the mean adjusted variance accounted for in task orientation by the
elemental traits was R2 = .46. Thus, the third criterion is satisfied.
The fourth criterion for a compound trait is that it should account for an
incremental level of variance in the prediction of situational traits beyond that
of the elemental traits. The results revealed that task orientation had a
significant partial correlation with value consciousness, competitiveness, sports
participation, healthy diet lifestyles, and impulsiveness.
A number of researchers (e.g., Sagie et al. 1996, Cassidy and Lynn 1989)
have proposed that achievement motivation is a multi-dimensional construct
composed of between five and seven dimensions. The 3M Model, however,
takes a different approach by developing compound traits that are unidimen-
sional in nature. In the 3M the compound traits are proposed to combine with
the elemental traits to predict situational traits and category-specific disposi-
tions. The dimensions of the need for achievement proposed by other
researchers appear to represent various situational contexts within which the
compound trait may be expressed. For example, the work ethic dimension
proposed by Cassidy and Lynn (1989) represents achievement motivation acting
within the work setting. Interestingly, the acquisitiveness factor of achievement
motivation identified by Cassidy and Lynn (1989) may represent the relation-
ship between material needs (an elemental trait) and task orientation found in
the results of the meta-analysis described earlier in this chapter. Similarly, the
competitiveness factor that they identified may represent the relationship
between competitiveness (another compound trait) and task orientation. In sum,
the dimensions proposed to represent components of achievement motivation
represent other traits with which task orientation is related.
Because of its unidimensional nature and the conceptualization of the
construct within the nomological network of the 3M, the construct investigated
in this chapter was named "task orientation." It can be anticipated, however,
that it will be highly correlated with measures of the need for achievement.
Indeed, I conducted a pilot study on 130 respondents in marketing classes at
Oklahoma State University. The task orientation scale and the achievement
motivation scale developed by Sagie et al. (1996) were included. The
correlation between the two scales was r = .35 (p < .001). Thus, the task
orientation scale does reveal convergent validity with another measure of the
same general construct. The correlation, however, was lower than expected.
Future research will be required to compare and contrast these measures.
Chapter 5
THE NEED FOR LEARNING
Abstract
A new scale called the need for learning was developed to measure
individual differences in information resource needs. A three-item construct
emerged from the scale development efforts, which possess satisfactory internal
validity (mean coefficient alpha = .75). In five studies, confirmatory factor
analytic techniques were employed to evaluate its measurement properties vis
a vis the elemental traits. The fit statistics were good, indicating that the
construct possesses discriminant validity with regard to the elemental traits.
The need for learning was shown to meet the four criteria for a compound trait:
(1) it is unidimensional; (2) it possesses adequate internal reliability; (3) a
combination of elemental traits accounts for substantial variance in the
construct (mean R2 = .31); and (4) after partialing out the effects of the
elemental traits, it accounts for additional variance in selected compound,
situational, or surface traits. The need for learning was shown to have
convergent validity with the need for cognition scale. Finally, its discriminant
validity was shown by its failure to correlate with the playfulness compound
trait.
Introduction
The theoretical structure of the 3M postulates that humans have four

fundamental resource needs: physicaVbody resources, social resources, material
resources, and information resources. A number of these proposed needs can
be linked to existing personality constructs. Among the traits identified in the
Five-Factor Model of personality, agreeability was linked to social needs and
openness to experience was linked to information needs. New scales were
developed to measure physical and material needs.
In addition to the openness to experience construct, another personality
trait that may be closely linked to information needs is the need for cognition
(Cacioppo and Petty 1982). The need for cognition was defined as an
" .. .individual's tendency to engage in and enjoy effortful cognitive endeavors"
(Cacioppo, Petty, and Kao 1984, p. 306). The need for cognition has enjoyed
widespread use in the consumer behavior literature. For example, Haugtvedt,
Petty, and Cacioppo (1992) demonstrated that the need for cognition moderates
the effects of argument quality on brand attitudes. The construct is important
because it provides an individual difference measure of the extent to which
consumers engage in higher levels of information processing. In particular, it
meshes nicely with the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion developed
by Petty and Cacioppo (1986). Thus, individuals who tend to have a high need
72 The NeedJar Learning
for cognition will chronically act as though they are in a high involvement
information processing state.
The need for cognition, or a similar trait, may have additional uses as an
individual difference variable in consumer behavior. For example, the
construct may be a precursor of a number of situational traits, such as value
consciousness (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton 1990). That is, the trait
that measures the disposition to engage in effortful cognitive processing may
influence situationally specific tendencies, such as searching for the best values.
In addition, the trait may also be associated with other compound level traits,
such as task orientation, the need for activity, and the need to compete.
Within the 3M Model, the need for cognition appears to be closely linked
to the elemental trait of the ::>penness to experience. Another possibility is that
the need for cognition may exist at the compound trait level. As such, it would
meet the four criteria for compound traits discussed in the last chapter on the
task orientation construct. A problem, however, with using the need for
cognition as either an elemental trait or as a compound trait is its length. The
original scale contains 34 items, and a shortened version developed by
Cacioppo, Petty, and Kao (1984) contains 18 items. The high number of items
in the scale makes it inappropriate for use as a construct in the hierarchical
models employed in the 3M. In addition, scales of this length are incompatible
with a structural equation modeling approach using multiple indicators.
Inevitably the items will cross-load with items from other scales, thereby
reducing fit indices to unacceptable levels.
Based upon these considerations, in this chapter a new trait is developed,
which is called "the need for learning." The goal is to develop a scale that is
closely related to the need for cognition and consistent with the resource needs
construct proposed in the 3M. The chapter begins by discussing the initial
development of the individual difference measure. It then presents a study
comparing it to the need for cognition. The third section examines whether the
trait exists at the elemental level or the compound level in the hierarchy. The
fourth section presents the results of tests to determine whether it meets the four
criteria for a compound trait. The last section discusses the results of the
studies and the potential future role of the need for learning construct in
consumer research.
The Development of the Need for Learning Scale
The initial development of the need for learning scale began with the large
pilot study (see Appendix C-1 for the details of the study) that took place in the
spring of 1997. The initial set of nine items for the scale was derived from the
need for cognition scale (Petty and Cacioppo 1984) and from concepts related
The Need/or Learning 73
to the need for information component of the 3M Model. After conducting

exploratory factor analytic work, a set of four items emerged. These items
along with two additional new items were included in the Tulsa Mall Study (for
details see Appendix C-2). When these data were analyzed, the six-item scale
revealed a coefficient alpha of .82. A factor analysis was conducted (maximum
likelihood with Oblimin rotation) in which items for the openness to experience
and need for learning scales were evaluated. A clean two-factor solution was
obtained that revealed no evidence of cross-loadings between factors. Thus,
preliminary evidence of discriminant validity with openness to experience was
obtained.
In the next phase of scale development, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)
procedures were employed to examine the construct in. relationship to the
elemental traits. The initial CFA was performed on the Arkansas Household
Panel data. When the six-item scale was employed, the fit indices were found
to be relatively poor with cross-loadings between three of the items in the scale
with various items of the elemental traits. When these three items were
eliminated, an acceptable fit was obtained (y} = 888, df = 459, TLI = .89,
CFI = .91, RMSEA = .061). The coefficient alpha of the three-item scale was
.81.
The three-item scale was next investigated in confirmatory factor analyses
performed on four additional studies (Student Study 2, the CCCS Study, the
Bank Study, and the Sports Study). The fit indices and coefficient alphas were
satisfactory in all except the Sports Study. In this study, the coefficient alpha
of the construct was .65. The fit statistics were: TLI =.87, CFI =.88, RMSEA
= .062). However, when the scale is assessed across the five studies, its
properties are satisfactory: mean alpha =.76, mean TLI =.90, mean CFI =.92,
mean RMSEA = .057.
The three-item scale is presented below. Respondents answered the items
on a nine-point scale. They were asked to indicate "How often do you feel/act
this way?" The scale is bounded by "Never" and by "Always."
The Need for Learning Scale

1. Enjoy learning new things more than others.
2. Enjoy working on new ideas.
3. Information is my most important resource.
74 The Need for Learning
Comparison of the Need for Learning Scale with the

Need for Cognition Scale
Data were collected on both the need for learning and the need for
cognition scales in the Spring 1998 StUdy. (See Appendix C-6 for details.) The
18-item short version of the need for cognition (Cacioppo et al. 1984) was
employed in the study. The coefficient alpha of this scale was .84. The
investigation of the scale began with a factor analysis (maximum likelihood
extraction with Oblimin rotation). The results revealed a very messy four-
factor solution with numerous cross-loadings among the items. The four factors
accounted for 54.3 percent of cumulative variance. Factor 1 accounted for 31.0
percent of the cumulative variance and was clearly dominant. Factors 3 and 4
were composed of single items. In order to reduce the length of the scale and
potentially improve its properties, the items with item-to-total correlations of
less than .50 were eliminated. After several iterations, a six-item scale was
obtained with a satisfactory coefficient alpha (alpha =.81). When analyzed via
exploratory factor analysis (maximum likelihood extraction with Oblimin
extraction), a one-factor solution was obtained.
Items in the Reduced Need for Cognition Scale

1. Learning new ways to think doesn't excite me very much.
2. I only think as hard as I have to.
3. I feel relief rather than satisfaction after completing a task that required
a lot of mental effort.
4. I don't like the responsibility of handling a situation that requires a lot
of thinking.
5. Thinking is not my idea of fun.
6. I would rather do something that requires little thought than something
that is sure to challenge my thinking abilities.
The Spring 1998 data set included items for the eight elemental traits of
the 3M and the need for learning scale. The coefficient alpha for the need for
learning was .70. All alphas for the 3M elemental traits were above .80.
Correlations were calculated among the need for learning, the original
NCOG scale, the reduced NCOG scale, and the openness to experience scale.
The correlation between the reduced NCOG scale and the original NCOG scale
was r = .92. The correlation between the original NCOG scale and the need for
learning was r = -.48 (p < .001). This correlation was substantially smaller,
however, for the reduced NCOG scale: r = -.39, P < .001). The correlation
between the reduced NCOG scale and openness to experience was r = -.28
The Needfor Learning 75
(p < .001). Finally, the correlation between the need for learning and openness
to experience was r = .47 (p < .001).
Two regression analyses were then run in which the reduced NCOG scale
and the need for learning scale were predicted with the elemental traits. The
results revealed that the analysis accounted for 12.3 percent of the variance in
the reduced NCOG scale and 25.8 percent of the variance in the need for
learning scale. Significant predictors of the reduced NCOG scale were
openness to experience (P = -.32, p < .000) and conscientiousness (P = -.16,
p < .02). Significant predictors of need for learning were openness to
experience (P = .43, p < .000) and conscientiousness (P = .15, p < .02).
In sum, the reduced need for cognition scale and the need for learning are
related constructs. They are moderately correlated, and the elemental traits of
openness to experience and conscientiousness are predictive of them. These
results support the convergent validity of the need for learning construct.
Is the Need for Learning an Elemental or a Compound Trait?
Because of the close relationship of the need for learning to the theoreti-
cally derived concept that humans have a basic motivation to obtain informa-
tion, it is important to empirically determine whether the construct exists at the
elemental or compound level. In particular, because of its substantial
correlation with the openness to experience construct, it is important to identify
which of the two is the elemental trait. The definition of a compound trait is
that it results from a combination of elemental traits and the learning history of
the individual. As a result, a combination ofthe elemental traits should account
for large amounts of variance in the compound trait. A simple two-step
procedure can be employed to test for this effect. First, the eight elemental
traits were regressed on the need for learning variable. Next, the openness to
experience trait and the need for learning traits were switched in the regression
model. Thus, the seven elemental traits and need for learning were regressed
on openness to experience. The variance accounted for in openness to
experience and in the need for learning can then be compared. Because
compound traits result in part from the effects of elemental traits, the construct
for which the model accounts for the most variance is the compound trait.
The two-step procedure was followed for six of the studies reported in this
book: Student Study 2, the Arkansas Panel Study, the CCCS Study, the Bank
Study, the Sports Study, and the Spring 1998 Study. Across the six studies the
mean variance accounted for in the need for learning construct was R2 = .31.
In contrast, the mean variance accounted for in openness to experience was
R2 = .27. These results can be interpreted to indicate that the need for learning
shows the properties of a compound level trait to a greater extent than does the
76 The Needfor Learning
openness to experience construct. It should be noted, however, that the

difference in variance accounted for is small between the two scales.
Does the Need for Learning Meet the Four Criteria

for a Compound Trait?
As described earlier in the book, there are four criteria for a compound
trait. First, it should be unidimensional, and the three-item scale meets this
criteria. IO Second, the scale should be short and yet possess acceptable internal
reliability. The mean coefficient alpha of the need for learning across the eight
studies in which it was measured was .75. Third, a combination of the eight
compound traits should account for substantial variance in the construct. As
described in the preceding section, the average variance accounted for was
R2 =.31. Thus, the need for learning meets the first three criteria for a
compound trait.
Which Elemental Traits Predict the Need for Learning?

Related to criterion 3 is the question of which elemental traits are
predictive of the need for learning. This question was evaluated through a
meta-analysis of the results of the five studies on which the confirmatory factor
analyses were performed. The analysis consisted of taking the confirmatory
factor analysis models employed to assess the measurement properties of the
need for learning trait and replacing the covariance links to the trait with paths.
The t-values of path coefficients were employed in the meta-analysis. (See
Rosenthal 1991, p. 93.) Table 5.1 provides these results. Five of the eight
elemental traits were significantly related to the need for learning. As expected,
the elemental trait most related to the trait was openness to experience, which
was a significant predictor in all five of the studies (all probability values at
p < .000). Conscientiousness was the next most closely associated, and it was
a significant predictor in all five studies with probability values of p < .02 in all
cases. Arousal needs were significant predictors of the need for learning in four
of the five studies. Neuroticism (i.e., emotional instability) was found to be
negatively related to the construct (meta-t = -3.04, p < .001, two-tailed).
However, in only two of the six studies did the effect reach conventional levels
of significance. Finally, while material needs did not reach conventional levels
of significance in any of the studies, its meta-t value was t = 2.00. This is
significant at the p < .05 level (two-tailed).
Hlpactor analyses were performed on data from three studies. The items for the need for
learning and the elemental traits were included. Using maximum likelihood extractions
and varimax rotations, the results revealed the expected clean, nine-factor solutions.
The Need for Learning 77
Table 5.1
A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of the Need for Learning
Predictor Number of Significance Mean

Variable studies Meta-t two-tailed ~
Openness 5 11.44 P < .000 .43
Conscientious 5 7.55 P < .000 .27
Introversion 5 -0.40 p> .80 -.01
Agreeability 5 1.29 p> .60 -.04
Neurotic/unstable 5 -3.04 P < .005 -.08
Material needs 5 2.00 P < .05 .07
Arousal needs 5 6.84 P < .000 .23
Physical needs 5 -.34 p> .80 -.01
The average variance accounted for in the need for learning using the
mUltiple indicator SEM approach was R2 = .49. This compares to a mean R2 of
.31 for the regression analysis approach. Clearly, controlling for error variance
in SEM increases the ability to predict the need for learning with the elemental
traits.
Investigating the Fourth Criterion

The fourth criteria for a compound trait is that when it is combined with
the elemental traits in a hierarchical model to predict selected compound,
situational, or surface traits, it should add significant incremental variance in
the model. In order to test this property of the need for learning construct, a
series of hierarchical regression models was run to evaluate its contribution to
explaining variance in the following situational constructs: value conscious-
ness, compulsive buying, playfulness, task orientation, and the need for
activity. I I It was expected that the construct would increase the variance
explained (beyond that of the elemental traits) in each of the constructs except
IIDescriptions of the measurement properties of these scales are found in the following
chapters: value consciousness, Chapter 12; compulsive buying, Chapter 11; playfulness,
Chapter 8; task orientation, Chapter 4; and need for activity, Chapter 7.
playfulness. That is, one can have the playful trait and either have or not have
the disposition to seek information.
In two studies (Arkansas Panel Study and the Spring 1998 Study) data
were collected on the eight elemental traits, the need for learning, and value
consciousness. It was anticipated that someone who is value conscious should
have a disposition to engage in more effortful information processes. For each
study, a hierarchical model was run with the elemental traits entered first. The
partial correlation between the need for learning and the dependent variable
would reveal whether it accounted for variance beyond that of the elemental
traits. In the Arkansas Study, the partial correlation between the need for
learning and value consciousness was r = .25 (p < .000). In the Spring 1998
Study, the effect was also significant: partial r = .17, P < .17. Thus, good
evidence exists that the need for learning adds an incremental amount of
variance in the prediction of value consciousness. The overall variance
accounted for in value consciousness was R2 = .25 in the Arkansas Study and
R2 = .10 in the Spring 1998 Study. (More will be said about value conscious-
ness as a situational trait in Chapter 12.)
Next, the situational trait of compulsive buying was investigated. In three
studies the elemental traits, the need for learning, and compulsive buying were
measured. In Student Study 2, the partial r was -.25 (p < .002); in the Arkansas
Panel Study the partial r was -.11 (p < .11); in the Consumer Credit Counseling
Study, the partial was r =-.02 (p < .80). The meta-analysis indicated that the
overall effect was significant across the three studies (Stouffer's Z = 4.01,
P < .001). Overall variance accounted for in compulsive buying for each study
was Student Study 2, R2 = .35; Arkansas Study, R2 = .12, CCCS Study,
R2 = .26.
In the next analysis, playfulness was examined in three studies. The
average partial correlation across the studies was r =-.04. The partial r did not
approach significance in any of the studies (all p > .37). Stouffer's Z did not
approach significance either (Z = 1.04, P > .30). Thus, as predicted, no
relationship was found between playfulness and the need for learning. These
results support the discriminant validity of the construct.
The same procedure was also employed to investigate the relationship of
the need for learning to the compound trait of the need for activity. The six
studies employed were the same as those used in the analysis of whether the
need for learning is a compound trait. In five of the six studies, the partial
correlation of the need for learning with the need for activity was significant.
(The only exception was the Sports Study.) Across the six studies the mean
partial correlation was r = .16, Stouffer's Z = 6.52, P < .001.
Finally, the relationship of the need for learning with task orientation was
investigated in three studies (Student Study 2, the CCCS Study, the Arkansas
The Needfor Learning 79
Panel Study, and the Sports Study). The partial correlation was significant in
each of the studies except for the Sports Study. The mean partial r was .25,
p < .001.
General Discussion
From an overall perspective, the results provided good evidence that the
need for learning scale has acceptable internal validity (mean alpha = .75) and
is unidimensional. The confirmatory factor analytic work indicates that it
has discriminant validity with openness to experience. As intended in its
development, it is related (r =-.48) to the need for cognition (Petty et al. 1982).
The results also revealed that the need for learning trait appears to exist at
the compound level. Across five studies, a regression analysis revealed that a
combination of elemental traits accounted for 31 percent of its variance. (Using
SEM, the variance accounted for increased to 49 percent.) The meta-analysis
revealed that five of the elemental traits were significant predictors: openness
to experience, conscientiousness, need for arousal, material needs, and
neuroticism! instability (negatively related). The negative relationship between
the construct and neuroticism provides evidence that methods variance did not
account for the significant relationships. That is, method variance will tend to
cause positive correlations rather than negative correlations.
The need for learning was found to account for an incremental level of
variance beyond the elemental traits for the following constructs: value
consciousness, compulsive buying, the need for activity, and task orientation.
As expected, there was no significant relationship with playfulness after
controlling for the effects of the elemental traits. This result suggests that
methods variance was not responsible for the previous significant relationships.
It also supports the discriminant validity of the construct.
The need for learning met the four requirements for a compound trait.
First, it possesses good internal reliability while being short in length (three
items). Second, it is unidimensional. Third, a combination of five elemental
traits accounted for substantial portions of its variance (31 percent). Finally,
after controlling for the effects of the elemental traits, it accounted for a
significant additional portion of variance in four other traits.
The research also investigated the need for cognition trait (Cacioppo et al.
1984). The results of factor analytic work revealed that the short-form version
is multi-dimensional. However, when items that cross-load and/or possess low
item-to-total correlations are eliminated, a single-factor, six-item scale was
obtained with coefficient alpha =.80. This reduced NCOG scale correlated at
the r = .92 level with the longer version. The correlation of this short version
with the need for learning was r =-.39. In contrast, the correlation of the longer
version of NCOG with the need for learning was r = -.48.
In sum, the results support the need for learning as a possible alternative
to the need for cognition. Of course, many future studies are needed to
compare its properties to the need for cognition. In particular, its ability to act
as a moderating variable, which has been found for the need for cognition,
needs to be assessed. Furthermore, additional refinement of the scale is
required in order to improve its internal reliability.
One other possibility should be mentioned: the reduced version of the
NCOG scale should be investigated as a possible replacement for the openness
to experience construct as an elemental trait. The finding that the elemental
traits accounted for only 12.3 percent of its variance makes the need for
cognition a candidate for an elemental trait. That is, the elemental traits
accounted for more variance in both the need for learning and the openness to
experience traits than the NCOG scale.
Chapter 6
COMPETITIVENESS
Abstract
This chapter proposes that the need to compete impacts consumption

behavior as well as work behavior. After describing the development of a need
to compete scale, the chapter presents empirical work demonstrating that the
construct meets the four requirements for a compound trait. First, it is
unidimensional. Second, the scale has excellent internal reliability (alphas
averaged over .90). Third, a series of five studies indicated that a combination
of elemental traits accounted for an average of 39 percent of its variance.
Significant predictors were: the need for arousal, material needs, body needs,
emotional instability, conscientiousness, and disagreeability. Finally, after
partialing out the effects of the elemental traits in a hierarchical regression
model, competitiveness was shown to account for additional variance in other
traits, including bargaining proneness, impulsive buying, sports interest, task
orientation, and the ATSCI scale. The results are discussed in terms of the
important role that competitiveness may play in consumer behavior.
Introduction
The trait of competitiveness has been defined as " ... the enjoyment of
interpersonal competition and the desire to win and be better than others"
(Spence and Helmreich 1983, p. 41). As conceptualized within the 3M, the need
to compete is an important evolutionary-based personality construct. That is,
in a world of scarce resources, humans required a competitive spirit in order to
gather, develop, and control sufficient material, social, information, and body
resources for survival.
Competition is ubiquitous. One finds it in obvious places, such as in
warfare and its "modem" reincarnation in sports. Competition is keen among
corporations, beauty contestants, and body builders. Besting others emerges in
such domains as dating, poker, and wealth accumulation. Indeed, our species
appears to follow the maxim, "If it moves, let's race it." Thus, we find people
racing cars, trucks, bicycles, boats, sleds, and planes. Another maxim is: "if it
has legs, let's bet on it." Thus, wagers are placed on the fastest horse, dog,
turtle, pigeon, rat, camel, and even frog. The desire to compete can also lead
to some questionable behaviors. On the one hand, people contend to see who
can consume the most hot dogs or pies, while on the other hand they vie to see
who can have the thinnest figure. (After all, as Gloria Vanderbilt is reputed to
have said, "You can never be too rich or too thin.") The desire to compete can
lead to even more bizarre behaviors. For example, people have been known to
race dimes over an approximate 27-foot course. As reported by the humorist
82 Competitiveness
Dave Barry, three radio personalities in Austin, Texas, swallowed dimes. The
first to have the coin emerge from his intestinal track won the contest. In order
to track their progress, they brought a portable x-ray machine into the radio
studio (Barry 1998).
As is disgustingly apparent, competitiveness is exhibited across a wide
variety of situations. Individuals can be competitive on the job, in their leisure
activities, and in how they purchase products. Because of this cross-situational
characteristic, it is conceptualized in the 3M as a compound trait.
There is a small literature on competitiveness. In a book on the topic,
Kahn (1992) suggested that little research has been performed on the construct
because it is so universal that it is taken for granted. Investigating the effects
of competitiveness on the job, Brown, Cron, and Slocum (1998) assessed the
construct's impact on salesperson goal setting and performance. They found
that the degree of trait competitiveness interacted with a measure of organiza-
tional climate. Goals were set higher, and performance was highest under
conditions in which salespersons possessed high levels of trait competitiveness
and the organizational climate emphasized competitiveness as well. In their
summary of the literature, Brown et al. (1998) found that a consistent positive
relationship has been obtained between competitiveness and work performance
(Brown and Peterson 1994). The exceptions have been for researchers using
a competitiveness scale developed by Helmreich and Spence (1978). In this
work, the effects of competitiveness appear to be moderated by other variables,
such as mastery and work orientation. In unpublished work, Mowen and Licata
(1999) found that a measure of competitiveness was positively associated with
the self-rated performance level of service workers, as well as with a measure
of their job resourcefulness. (A situational trait, job resourcefulness assesses
the enduring disposition of a person to be able to succeed on the job under
conditions of scarce resources.)
In the literature review for this chapter, no evidence could be found that
researchers have empirically investigated competitiveness in nonwork domains.
As described above, however, competitiveness may influence the likelihood
that consumers will engage in various types of sports, engage in socially
conspicuous purchasing, and perhaps participate in various achievement-
oriented activities, such as beauty contests and duplicate bridge. One purpose
of the present chapter, then, is to assess whether the construct accounts for
variance beyond that of the elemental traits in four situational traits: sports
interest, impulsive buying, task orientation, and attention to social comparison
information (Lenox and Wolfe 1984). As will be recalled from Chapters 4 and
5, if competitiveness can account for additional variance in situational level
traits, it meets criterion 4 for a compound trait.
Competiveness 83
The chapter also seeks to identify whether the need to compete fulfills the
first three criteria for a compound trait. Thus, the construct will be evaluated
to determine whether it is unidimensional, has good internal reliability, and can
be predicted by the elemental traits. The next section investigates the first two
criteria by assessing the scale properties of the competitiveness construct.
The Development of the Need to Compete Scale
Work on developing a scale to measure competitiveness began with a

student pilot study conducted in the spring of 1997. At that point in time, I was
unaware of the work of Helmreich and Spence (1978) and of Brown et al.
(1998). As a result, items were developed based upon my intuition and
knowledge of the properties of compound traits. Six items were identified to
measure the construct. The coefficient alpha was quite low (alpha = .63). The
two items with the highest item-to-total correlation were retained. Four
additional items were developed, and these were included in the second pilot
study-the Tulsa Mall Study conducted in the summer of 1997. The results of
the analysis indicated that five of the six items revealed item-to-total correla-
tions above .49. This five-item scale had a coefficient alpha of .82. However,
when examined via exploratory factor analysis, it revealed a two-factor
solution. Because compound traits are defined as being unidimensional, two
ofthe items were dropped. This three-item scale had a coefficient alpha of .79.
One additional item was added to this scale and tested in the Student Study
1, conducted in the Fall of 1997. The coefficient alpha of the four-item scale
was .92. An exploratory factor analysis indicated that it was unidimensional.
In each of the studies the items were measured on the same scale as that
employed to measure the elemental traits. Thus, respondents were asked to
indicate "How often do you feel or act this way?" A nine-point scale was
employed bounded by "Never" and "Always."
The Need to Compete Scale

1. Enjoy competition more than others.
2. Feel that it is important to outperform others.
3. Enjoy testing my abilities against others.
4. Feel that winning is extremely important.
In order to assess its convergent validity, the four-item scale described

above was included in the Spring 1998 Student Study along with the scale
developed by Helmreich and Spence (1978), which is the scale employed by
Brown et al. (1998). The correlation between the scales was r = .89. Coeffi-
cient alpha for the Helrnreich and Spence scale was .86. The coefficient alpha
84 Competitiveness
for the need for competition scale was .89. An exploratory factor analysis
(maximum likelihood extraction with varimax rotation) was run on the eight
items that composed both scales. A one-factor solution was obtained that
accounted for 69 percent of the cumulated variance. When the two scales are
combined and coefficient alpha calculated, the result is alpha = .94. All item-
to-total correlations were above .67. In sum, the convergent validity of the need
for competition scale appears to be extremely high. Indeed, it appears to be
measuring the same construct as the Helmreich and Spence (1978) competitive-
ness scale.
In order to assess the measurement properties of the need for competition
scale, the five studies employed in Chapters 4 and 5 were employed. (The five
studies are: CCCS, Student Study 2, the Bank Study, the Arkansas Panel Study,
and the Sports Study.) For each data set a confirmatory factor analysis was run
with the elemental traits and the need for competition investigated together.
Across the five studies the mean chi-square was 942 with degrees of freedom
equal to 524. The mean fit indices were: mean TLI = .90, mean CFI = .91, and
mean RMSEA = .059. Minimal cross-loadings of individual items were found.
These results indicate that the measurement properties of the need for
competition scale in relation to the elemental traits are excellent. The mean
coefficient alpha of the trait across the five studies was .89.
In sum, the need for competition scale meets the first two criteria for a
compound trait. Criterion 1 is met because the scale is unidimensional.
Criterion 2 is met because the scale is short (four items) and has excellent
internal reliability. The next section investigates Criterion 3. That is, can a
combination of elemental traits account for substantial variance in the scale?
Predicting Competitiveness with the Elemental Traits
In order to assess the relationship between the elemental traits and the need
to compete, five multiple latent indicator structural equation models were run
in which the elemental traits were employed as exogenous variables and the
need for competition was included as the endogenous variable. This approach
is essentially a regression analysis, except that one can account for error
variance via the SEM approach.12
The mean variance accounted for in competitiveness across the five studies
was R2 = .39. The least amount of variance accounted for was in Student Study
2 (R2 =.24). The most variance accounted for was in the Arkansas Panel Study
12The fit indices are identical for this analysis with those obtained from the confirmatory
factor analysis reported in the last section.
Competiveness 85
(R2 =.50). These data indicate that a combination of elemental traits accounts
for a substantial proportion of the variance in the scale.
A meta-t analysis (Rosenthal 1991) was conducted on the data from the
five studies in order to determine which of the elemental traits were predictive
of the need for competition. In their order of magnitude, the significant
predictors were the need for arousal (meta-t = 10,57, P < 0001), materialism
(meta-t =5.72, p < 0001), need for body resources (meta-t =4.69, P < 0001),
emotional instability (meta-t = 4.40, P < 0001), conscientiousness (meta-t =
3.70, P < 0002), and agreeability (meta-t = -1.92, P < .03). Table 6.1 presents
the t-scores for the elemental traits for each of the studies.
Table 6.1
Predicting Competitiveness with Elemental Traits
Study
Elemental Student Arkansas

Traits CCCS Study 2 Panel Bank Sports Meta-t
Unstable 3.11 1.44 2.66 1.30 1.37 4.40
Introversion -.10 .15 -1.63 -.42 -1.21 -1.43
Openness .41 -.41 1.03 .78 1.48 1.46
Arousal 5.81 3.02 5.00 4.91 5.04 10.57
Body 2.37 1.74 1.71 2.86 1.87 4.69
Conscient. 1.51 1.25 3.67 -.03 1.92 3.70
Material 3.98 1.62 2.05 2.85 2.37 5.72
Agree .25 -2.72 -2.39 1.24 -.70 - 1.92

R2 .49 .24 .50 .32 .40 Mean =.39
Notes: Except for the last row and the last column, numbers within the matrix are t-values.
The meta-t (Rosenthal 1991) is treated as a Z score. Values greater than 1.65 are signifi-
cant at the p < .05 level. Values greater than 2.33 are significant at the p < .01 level.
86 Competitiveness
Overall, these results indicate that the need for competition satisfies
Criterion 3 for a compound trait. That is, a combination of elemental traits
accounted for a substantial proportion of variance in the construct.
Does Competitiveness Account for Variance

Beyond the Elemental Traits?
The fourth criterion for a compound trait states that it must account for
variance beyond that of the elemental traits in selected compound, situational,
or surface traits. In the analyses, the items for each of the elemental traits and
for competitiveness were summed to create indices. Hierarchical regressions
were run in which the elemental traits were entered in the first model and
competitiveness was entered in Model 2. The partial correlation between
competitiveness and the criterion variable was then examined to determine
whether it was significant. This analysis was run on a series of constructs,
including bargaining proneness, impulsiveness, sports interest, task orientation,
and the attention to social comparison scale.
Bargaining Proneness and Competitiveness

The relationship between competitiveness and a measure of bargaining
proneness was investigated in three studies: Student Study 2, the Arkansas
Panel Study, and the Spring 1998 Student Study. (See Chapter 12 for a
discussion of the bargaining proneness scale.) In each study the partial
correlation was significant and ranged between r = .22 and r = .25. All
significance levels were at p < .002 or more.
Impulsiveness and Competitiveness

The relationship between competitiveness and a measure of impulsive
buying behavior (Puri 1996) was investigated in two studies: Student Study 2
and the Consumer Credit Counseling Study. In Student Study 2, the partial
correlation after accounting for the effects of the elemental traits was r = .24,
P < .002. In the CCCS Study, however, the partial correlation was r = .03,
p < .64. A meta-t was run on the t-scores from the two studies, and the results
revealed a significant effect: meta-t = 2.55, P < .005. Thus, despite the non-
significant relationship in the CCCS Study, the combination of the studies
supported the ability of competitiveness to account for additional variance in
the measure of impulsive buying beyond that of the elemental traits. It is
possible, however, that the relationship between the variables differs between
the two samples of respondents. That is, student respondents and individuals
with known financial problems due to overspending may differ fundamentally
Competiveness 87
in ways that account for the different pattern of results. Thus, some unknown
variable may moderate the effects found in the two studies.
Sports Interest and Competitiveness

Chapter 13 presents the details of the investigation of the situational trait
of sports interest and its effects on various surface traits such as sports
participation. One should expect that competitiveness would be a strong
predictor of sports interest. The three-item scale developed to measure sports
interest had a coefficient alpha of .95. The items were "participating as a player
in a sport is fun for me," "playing sports is extremely appealing to me," playing
sports is really exciting for me." (Responses were recorded on seven-point
Likert scales.) The items were summed to form an index of sports interest,
which was used as the criterion variable in the hierarchical regression analysis.
After taking out the effects of the elemental traits, the results revealed that the
partial correlation between competitiveness and sports interest was r = .36,
P < .000. The full model (elemental traits and competitiveness) accounted for
29 percent of the overall adjusted variance in sports interest.
Task Orientation and Competitiveness

As described in Chapter 4, Ward (1997) proposed that competitiveness is
a facet of achievement motivation. Thus, one should expect to find a significant
relationship between task orientation, which is closely related to achievement
motivation, and competitiveness. This relationship was examined in the five
studies employed in the chapter to assess the measurement properties of
competitiveness. In each study the partial correlation between competitiveness
and task orientation was significant at p < .005. The mean partial correlation
across the five studies was r = .22.
Competitiveness and ATSCI

The attention to social comparison information scale (Lennox and Wolfe
1984) was derived from Snyder's self-monitoring scale (Snyder 1974). It was
developed to assess the extent to which a person is sensitive to the reactions of
other people and is concerned about their perceptions. One should expect that
a relationship should exist between someone who is competitive and someone
who is high in what has been called self-monitoring.
Respondents in Student Study 2 completed the ATSCI scale. The
coefficient alpha of the scale was .85. The bivariate correlation between the
ATSCI and competitiveness was r = .25, P < .001. After accounting for the
effects of the elemental traits, the partial correlation was r = .18, P < .03.
Overall, 19 percent of the adjusted variance in the ATSCI scale was accounted
for by the full model. In addition to competitiveness, significant predictors of
88 Competitiveness
ATSCI were materialism (P = .35, p < .000), openness to ideas (P = -.24,

p < .003), and agreeability (P = .16, p < .04).
Nonsignificant Relationships
The hierarchical regression analysis was also run on a number of
additional constructs for which competitiveness did not account for additional
variance beyond that of the elemental traits. Specifically, for the following
traits, the partial correlation between competitiveness and the criterion variable
was not significant: value consciousness, frugality (see Chapter 14), playfulness
(see Chapter 8), and the need for activity (see Chapter 7).
Discussion
The results supported the proposal that competitiveness is a compound

trait. Meeting the first two criteria for a compound trait, the construct was
found to be unidimensional and to have excellent internal reliability (mean
alpha = .89). Meeting the third criterion, the results of five studies indicated
that a combination of elemental traits accounted for substantial variance in the
construct. The mean variance accounted for in the five studies was R2 = .39.
A meta-analysis was conducted on data from the five studies. The meta-t
revealed that the elemental traits predictive of competitiveness were: the need
for arousal, materialism, the need for body resources, emotional instability, and
disagreeability.
The results also revealed that the competitiveness construct meets the
fourth criterion for a compound trait. Consistent with the criterion, competi-
tiveness was found to account for variance above that of the elemental traits for
five constructs. The hierarchical regression models revealed a significant
partial correlation for the following traits: bargaining proneness, task orienta-
tion, impUlsiveness, sports interest, and attention to social comparison
information (Lennox and Wolfe 1984).
The analyses provide good evidence of the construct validity of the scale.
The relationship of competitiveness with task orientation, sports orientation,
and buying impulsiveness supports its nomological validity. That is, someone
who is competitive should have a higher level of achievement motivation (Ward
1997). Therefore, the significant partial correlation between competitiveness
and task orientation supports this theoretical relationship. In addition, one
should expect individuals who are competitive to reveal interest in sports. The
significant partial correlation between competitiveness and the measure of
sports interest supports this theoretical relationship. It was anticipated that
competitiveness should be related to measures of buying interest. The
Competiveness 89
expectation was confirmed by the significant meta-t effect between

competitiveness and impulsive buying.
The nomological validity of competitiveness is also supported by its
relationship to the elemental traits. In particular, the finding that the need for
arousal, materialism, and need for body resources are predictive of competitive-
ness supports the nomological net of the construct. First, the results suggest
that one reason for being competitive may be to increase the arousal level of the
individual. Second, based upon evolutionary psychology ideas, one should
expect that in order to obtain material and body resources an individual may
have to compete against others. The finding that both materialism and body
resource needs are predictive of competitiveness is consistent with these ideas.
It was somewhat surprising, however, to find that neither the openness to
experience nor the introversion constructs were predictive of competitiveness.
In the 3M, each of the constructs is expected to be related to resources (i.e.,
information and social resources, respectively). Additional analyses were run
on alternative measures of information and social resources. Student Study 2,
conducted in the fall of 1998, contained measures of the need for learning (see
Chapter 5) and the need for cognition. No effects were found between
competitiveness and either of these measures of information needs. An
alternative measure of the need for social resources was developed in a study
conducted in the fall of 1998. An eight-item scale was developed to more
directly measure the need for social resources (alpha = .83). It included items
such as "other people are my most important resources," and "devote time each
day to building relationships." No effects were found for competitiveness with
this measure of the need for social resources.
In sum, no evidence was found of a relationship between competitiveness
and the need for social resources or a need for information. These findings
suggest that future research should investigate the nature of resources. Perhaps
because humans are social creatures, the creation of groups is a natural
phenomena consistent with evolutionary forces. Thus, while social resources
are mandatory for survival, people do not compete for the friendship of others.
Thus, developing friendships is not a contest. On the other hand, there may be
fierce competition for mates. It would be interesting to rephrase the items
designed to measure social resources to focus on pairing individuals for
reproduction purposes. It could be anticipated that competitiveness may be
relevant to this variable. One can only speculate on the lack of relationship
between information resources and competitiveness. One possibility is that
because information resources are essentially unlimited, individuals do not have
to compete for them. As a result, competitiveness and the need for information
are unrelated.
90 Competitiveness
The results for the measure of attention to social comparison information

were extremely interesting. The pattern of relationships between the elemental
traits and competitiveness with the construct depicts the high ATSCI individual
in a somewhat unflattering light. The A TSCI measure was found to be
positively correlated with: materialism, low openness to ideas, agreeability, and
competitiveness.
In sum, the analyses conducted in this chapter reveal that the construct of
competitiveness has clear relevance to consumer behavior. The results revealed
that competitiveness is predictive of bargaining behavior, sports interest,
impulsive buying, and task orientation. These results support the predictive
validity of the construct. The findings that the construct is closely related to the
measure developed by Helmreich and Spence (1978) supports its convergent
validity. Finally, the findings that it was unrelated to measures of frugality,
playfulness, and the need for activity support its discriminant validity. Future
research should be conducted to determine whether the construct may be
predictive of other situational and surface traits, such as enduring dispositions
to participate in nons ports contests like duplicate bridge and beauty pageants.
Chapter 7
THE NEED FOR ACTIVITY
Abstract
A scale designed to measure the need for activity was developed. Within
the 3M Model, the construct is conceptualized as a compound trait representing
the extent to which an individual is chronically active doing things. Across five
studies, the trait was found to meet three of the four criteria for a compound
trait. Meeting criteria one and two, the three-item scale is unidimensional and
has good internal reliability. Consistent with criterion 3, a combination of
elemental traits accounts for substantial variance in the construct. Based upon
criterion 4, however, the construct was found to have difficulties. Across ten
different traits, the need for activity revealed no evidence of accounting for
variance in addition to that of the elemental traits. Only for measures of task
orientation and job resourcefulness were the results consistent with criterion 4.
Future research will be required to assess whether the need for activity will
prove useful as a construct in hierarchical models designed to predict situational
and surface traits within a consumer behavior context.
Introduction
This chapter introduces the need for activity-a construct new to the field
of consumer behavior. Buss (1988) proposed that variations in activity
represent a primary trait among people. He defined activity" ... as the amount of
energy expended in bodily movements" (p. 50). He specifically excluded from
the definition of the activity construct energy used in cognitive pursuits such as
thinking, concentrating, and remembering. Buss (1988) linked the need for
activity to his evolutionary approach to psychological traits. Individual differ-
ences in chronic levels of activity are found in mammals, particularly primates.
Further, he suggested that hormonal differences across individuals may be
responsible for the dramatic differences in the extent to which individuals
reveal energy and movement. As described in Chapter 3, the need for activity
was originally conceptualized as an elemental trait in the 3M Model. The
results of the analyses performed to identify the elemental traits, however,
suggested that the need for arousal, rather than the need for activity, was the
more basic trait.
This chapter investigates the need for activity as a compound trait and is
organized along the following lines. First, the approach to developing the scale
is described. Next, the four-step procedure for determining whether the need
for activity represents a compound trait is followed. The chapter concludes
with a discussion of the results.
92 The Need for Activity
Developing the Need for Activity Scale
As described in Chapter 3, the need for activity was investigated in two

pilot studies. The initial set of six items designed to measure the construct were
developed as a result of a careful reading of Buss (1988). Based upon the
results of the two pilot studies, items were deleted and added in order to
develop a construct that could be separated from the eight elemental traits and
possessed good internal reliability. A six-item scale was obtained that had face
validity and good internal reliability. The items in the scale were energetic in
comparison to others, keep really busy doing things, try to cram as much as
possible into a day, have a hard time keeping still, extremely active in my daily
life, have a hard time sitting around. Respondents were asked "How often do
you feel/act this way." The measure was assessed on nine-point scales bounded
by "never" and always."
In the next step in the scale development process, these items were
included in the five studies investigated in Chapter 3. The internal reliability
of the construct was excellent across the studies with a mean reliability of alpha
= .84. In addition, when exploratory factor analysis was employed, the items
of the need for activity and the eight elemental traits separated into different
factors with no cross loadings. Clean nine-factor solutions were obtained.
Problems in the scale began to emerge, however, when confirmatory factor
analysis was employed on the data from the five studies. Several of the items
were found to cross-load with items from the elemental trait scales. In order to
obtain satisfactory fit indices, three items had to be deleted. A three-item scale
resulted. The mean coefficient alpha across the five studies of the revised scale
was .85. The mean chi-square was 905 with 491 degrees of freedom. The
mean of the fit indices was: TLI = .90, CFI = .92, and RMSEA = .058.
The Need for Activity Scale

1. Keep really busy doing things.
2. Try to cram as much as possible into a day.
3. Extremely active in my daily life.
Testing the Need for Activity Scale
As described in previous chapters, in order for a trait to exist at the

compound level, four criteria must be met. First, it should be unidimensional.
This was demonstrated by the exploratory factor analyses and the confirmatory
factor analyses. Second, the scale should be short and show good reliability.
The three-item scale with a mean coefficient alpha of .85 across five studies
indicates that criterion 2 is met. The next sub-section assesses criterion 3-a
The Needfor Activity 93
combination of the elemental traits accounts for substantial variance in the

measure.
Predicting the Need for Activity with the Elemental Traits

Structural equation modeling was employed to investigate the ability of the
elemental traits to account for substantial variance in the need for activity. The
confirmatory factor analysis models employed to assess the properties of the
scale were used to investigate the third criterion for a compound trait by
connecting the paths between the elemental traits and the need for activity. J3
Table 7.1 provides the results of the analysis.
As shown in the table, five of the elemental traits were significant
predictors of the need for activity. In their order of t-values, they are body
resources, conscientiousness, the need for arousal, agreeability, extraversion,
and openness to experience. The mean variance accounted for across the five
studies in the need for activity was R2 = AD. The finding that the need for body
resources was the most closely related construct to the need for activity
supports the nomological validity of the scale. That is, Buss (1988) proposed
that the need for activity describes the enduring tendency of individuals to
engage in physical activity.
The results reveal that the need for activity meets criterion 3 for a
compound trait. A combination of the elemental traits accounted for substantial
variance in the construct.
Predicting Situational Traits with the Need for Activity and the Elemental
Traits
The last criterion of a compound trait assesses whether it accounts for
variance in situational traits in excess of that of the elemental traits. Criterion
4 is an alternative means of assessing discriminant validity. That is, after
controlling for the effects of the elemental traits, does the compound trait
account for additional variance in the situational or surface trait? If the
compound trait was identical to a single elemental trait ( or a combination of
elemental traits), the analysis would show that the compound trait contributes
no additional explanatory power. This is a more severe test than the traditional
method of using pairwise relationships to assess discriminant validity.
The same hierarchical regression approach as used in previous chapters
was employed to investigate criterion 4. The situational trait is input as the
dependent variable. The elemental traits are input as Modell, and the
13The fit indices are identical when a single construct is converted from a variable in a
confirmatory factor analysis to a dependent variable in a structural equation model as
long as the remaining variables are unchanged.
94 The Need for Activity
compound trait is added in Model 2 in the hierarchical regression analysis. The

significance level of the partial correlation between the compound trait and the
situational trait is then assessed. If the partial correlation is significant, it
supports the hypothesis that the construct is a compound trait
Table 7.1
A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of Need for
Activity Across Five Studies
Elemental t-value t-value t-value t-value t-value

Traits Panel Sport Bank Student CCCS Meta-t p value
Openness 1.33 2.26 1.61 -1.37 .46 1.91 p< .05
Conscientious 3.15 2.90 3.61 3.74 3.87 7.68 p < .001
Introversion -1.64 -1.41 -0.94 -1.95 -1.38 -3.25 p < .001
Agreeability 1.71 3.36 l.l9 3.21 3.00 5.54 P < .001
Neurotic .87 -.01 -1.17 .67 -1.64 -0.57 P < .30
Material .24 .81 0.19 .09 .50 .81 P < .30
Arousal 2.84 2.13 3.19 2.14 3.75 6.24 p < .001
Physical 3.84 6.17 0.93 3.98 3.98 8.40 p < .001
SEM Fit Results
X2 935 1094 845 760 894
df 491 491 491 491 491
TIl .89 .87 .92 .92 .92
CFI .90 .89 .93 .93 .93
RMSEA .065 .061 .054 .057 .055
R2 .42 .51 .25 .43 .39
Note: Meta-t was calculated by the formula found in Rosenthal (1991, p. 68-69) for a meta-
analysis using t-values. Stouffer's Z was also calculated; the results were similar except that
the probability values revealed higher levels of significance.
For the need for activity, this chapter reports investigations into three
situational traits: value consciousness, sports participation, and health
motivation. In addition, it investigates whether the need for activity accounts
for additional variance in the compound trait of task orientation-a compound
trait.
The Need for Activity 95
Investigating Value Consciousness. Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton

(1990) developed a scale designed to measure the extent to which consumers
reveal value consciousness in their buying behavior. This construct represents
a situational level trait because it is an enduring tendency to save money while
obtaining quality goods within the situational context of purchasing products.
(Chapter 12 will investigate the trait in more depth.) It was anticipated that
individuals who are more energetic and active in their daily life may also
display a value-conscious disposition. That is, it takes effort and work to
compare prices, investigate product quality, and so forth.
The value consciousness trait was investigated in the Arkansas Panel Study
and in the Student Study 2 discussed in Chapter 3. In each case the hierarchical
regression model revealed that the need for activity accounted for no variance
beyond that of the eight elemental traits. Indeed, the partial correlations did not
approach conventional levels of significance in either study (p > .15).
Investigating Health Motivation. As will be discussed further in Chapter
10, health motivation (Moorman and Matulich 1993) measures the extent to
which consumers are concerned about protecting their health from various
possible dangers. A measure of health motivation was included in a second
questionnaire sent to the members of the Arkansas Household Panel approxi-
mately three months after respondents completed the first questionnaire. The
coefficient alpha of the scale was satisfactory (alpha =.74). Consistent with the
findings for value consciousness, the partial correlation of the need for activity
did not approach significance after controlling for the effects of the eight
elemental traits (p > .55).
Investigating Sports Interest and Sports Participation. As will be described
in more detail in Chapter 13, consumers reveal a high level of interest in sports
in the culture found in the United States. It was anticipated that because
playing sports involves vigorous bodily movement, the need for activity should
be predictive of such behavior. Measures of sports interest and sports participa-
tion scales were developed, and these are described in Chapter 13. These
measures included scales designed to measure the level of involvement in sports
activities, interest in playing sports, and interest in watching sporting events as
a fan. Each of these constructs was included as a dependent variable in the
hierarchical regression. In each instance, the results revealed that the partial
correlation of the need for activity was not significant (p > .1 0).
Investigating Task Orientation. Chapter 4 described the development of
a scale designed to measure the extent to which people develop goals and
approach tasks in a serious manner. While task orientation is at the compound
level, just as the need for activity is, it was anticipated that the variables may
be related. That is, someone who is goal and task oriented may also be
extremely active.
96 The Needfor Activity
Hierarchical models with task orientation as the dependent variable were

investigated in four studies: the Sports Study, the Student Study, the CCCS
Study, and the Arkansas Panel Study. The same procedure as described above
was employed to assess the relationship. In this case, the hierarchical model
revealed a significant partial correlation in each ofthe studies. Across the four
studies, the average partial correlation was r = .25, P < .Ol.
The need for activity was also investigated in relation to a variety of other
traits, including impulsive buying (Puri 1996), the need for learning, bargaining
proneness, the ATSCI scale (Lennox and Wolfe 1984), competitiveness, and
playfulness (see Chapter 7). In none of these studies was the partial correlation
between the need for activity and the criterion variable significant after
accounting for the effects of the elemental traits.
Discussion
The need for activity clearly met three of the four criteria for a compound
trait. The scale is short, unidimensional, and reveals good internal reliability.
Furthermore, a combination of the elemental traits accounts for substantial
variance in the scale (mean R2 = .40). On criterion 4, however, mixed results
were obtained. On all but one of the traits investigated, the need for activity
revealed no ability to account for variance in addition to that of the elemental
traits. Good evidence was obtained, however, indicating that the trait accounts
for additional variance in the task orientation construct beyond that of the
elemental traits.
It should also be added that Mowen and Licata (1999) assessed the ability
of need for activity and the elemental traits to account for variance in a new
measure called "job resourcefulness." This situational trait measures the
enduring tendency of an employee to be able to succeed within a context of
scarce resources in a firm. After accounting for the effects of the elemental
traits, the need for activity accounted for an additional 5.2 percent of the
variance in the measure of job resourcefulness (partial r = .305, P < .000).
In sum, the need for activity accounted for little or no additional variance
in the consumer behavior related situational traits investigated in this study.
Evidence was developed, however, indicating that the trait may have utility in
explaining variance task orientation and job resourcefulness. Additional work
is required to further test the construct's ability to account for additional
variance in situational and surface traits beyond that of the elemental traits in
consumer behavior settings.
Chapter 8
THE NEED FOR PLAY
Abstract
This chapter reports the development of a scale to measure the need for
play. Based upon a series of studies, the three-item scale was found to meet the
four criteria for a compound trait. First, it was unidimensional. Second, it had
good internal reliability (mean coefficient alpha = .82.) Third, a combination
of elemental traits accounted for 42.0 percent of the variance in the construct.
Significant predictors of the construct were: need for arousal, agreeability,
need for body resources, openness to ideas, extraversion, and emotional
stability. Fourth, the need for play was found to account for variance beyond
that of the elemental traits in measures of sports fan involvement, healthy diet
lifestyle (negative relation), impulsive buying behavior, and bargaining
proneness. The results are discussed in terms of the need to perform additional
work to define the domain of playfulness, specify additional items to include
in the scale, and identify other situational and surface traits that may be related
to the disposition to be lighthearted and playful.
Introduction
In their classic article on the experiential aspects of consumption,

Holbrook and Hirschman (1982) proposed that consumers spend much of their
time in hedonic pursuits of " ... fun, amusement, fantasy, arousal, sensory
stimulation, and enjoyment" (p. 308). They noted that consumer researchers
have devoted little attention to developing an understanding of the factors
associated with fun and playful activities. Yet, many of the tasks in which
consumers engage are not performed for the purpose of work. Rather, they are
performed out of a play mentality and devoid of any immediate purpose
(Huizinga 1970, Lancy 1980). As defined by Stephenson (1967), "Play is
disinterested, self-sufficient, and an interlude from work. It brings no material
gain" (pp. 192-193).
This chapter investigates the possibility that playfulness may be a trait that
represents individual differences in the tendency of consumers to be
lighthearted and seek fun. From the perspective of the 3M Model, this enduring
disposition is proposed to be a compound trait. As a result, it should meet the
four criteria for a compound trait. That is, it should be unidimensional and have
good internal reliability. A combination of elemental traits should account for
substantial variance in the construct. Finally, the construct should account for
variance in situational and surface traits beyond that of the elemental traits.
The next section of the chapter investigates selected background literature
on the play construct. In addition, it develops hypotheses as to which elemental
98 The Needfor Play
traits may be predictive of playfulness. The third section presents the details
of the development of the need for play scale. In the process, this section
investigates criteria 1 and 2 employed to test whether the trait can be classified
as compound in nature. Section four assesses whether a combination of the
elemental traits accounts for substantial variance in playfulness. Section five
investigates whether playfulness accounts for variance in situational and surface
traits beyond that of the elemental traits. Finally, a discussion section
summarizes the results, identifies problems in the research, and proposes future
directions for investigations of the construct.
Theory and Research on Play
When one attempts to find information on play in the psychological or

consumer behavior literatures, citations are extremely sparse. For example,
major textbooks on personality and motivation fail to include the concept in
their indices. Interestingly, however, when one goes back 100 years, psychol-
ogy textbooks did include references to play in the index. For example, James
(1890) listed playas one of the basic instincts of humans, along with shyness,
fear, curiosity, and acquisitiveness. 14 Over 50 years ago, Murray (1938)
identified playas one of the basic needs of humans.
Rather that discuss play, current textbooks focus on the topic of hedonism
(obtaining pleasure through the senses). Discussions of hedonism usually
approach the topic from a Freudian perspective. Within the psychoanalytic
tradition, hedonism is bound within the pleasure-pain principle. Thus, at the
heart of all behavior is the functioning of the id, the pursuit of pleasure, and the
reduction of tension through the release of energy.
Closely related to the pleasure-pain principle of Freud is the theorizing by
members of the utilitarian school of thought that has dominated the approach
to human behavior by economists since Jeremy Bentham stated, "Pleasure and
pain are our sovereign masters (p. 199, Allport 1937). Indeed, as Allport (1937)
noted, since the time of the Greek philosophers, people have viewed motivation
from the simplistic view that humans desire pleasure and seek to avoid pain.
He goes on to say, however, that a theory of motivation cannot be built solely
on hedonism. Allport (1937) argued that hedonism fails as a theory of
motivation because it is vague, insufficiently supported by the evidence, and
inconsistent with our introspections.
14J ames (1890) suggested that these instincts arise early in life. It is interesting to note
that they bear strong resemblance to several of the elemental traits such as introversion
(shyness), openness to experience (curiosity), and materialism (acquisitiveness).
The Needfor Play 99
Researchers have also approached play from a physiological orientation

in which the behavior is linked to biochemical processes. For example,
Lindsley (1957) linked curiosity and playfulness of animals to the function of
the reticulo-cortical system. This bundle of nerve fibers gives preference to the
passage of novel stimuli and blocks responses to repeated stimuli. More
recently, Pert (1997) proposed that play serves important functions for both
animals and humans. The discoverer of opiate receptors in the brain, Pert
(1997) suggested that play may function to release hormones in the body which
act to influence emotions and feelings. Pert said, "When we are playing, we are
stretching our emotional expressive ranges, loosening up our biochemical flow
of information, getting unstuck, and healing our feelings" (p. 277).
These ideas link a need for play to a fourth approach to understanding its
roots. Play can also be approached from the evolutionary perspective taken in
the 3M Model. That is, playing serves an adaptive purpose. Not only does it
function to assist in the development of necessary skills (e.g., the stereotypic
behaviors of young boys playing at mock battles and of girls playing house), but
also may function to relieve stress (Pert 1997). The linkage of play to the
evolutionary perspective and to the 3M Model suggests that a scale can be
developed to measure individual differences in the need for play.
Researchers have performed a limited amount of empirical research on
playas a trait. Based upon the theorizing of Murray (1938), Jackson (1967)
developed an instrument called the PRF, which is composed of 22 different
scales. One of the scales within this for-profit instrument is a set of items
designed to measure the need for play. 15 Zuckerman (1979) reported research
in which Jackson's need for play scale was correlated with the sensation
seeking scale. The results revealed significant correlations between the
constructs (r = .41 for males, r = .33 for females). As reported by Zuckerman
(1979), Jackson (1967) described play in the following terms: "does many
things just for fun; spends a good deal of time participating in games, sports,
social activities and other amusements; enjoys jokes and funny stories;
maintains a light-hearted and easy-going attitude toward life" (p. 152).
The theorizing of Jackson (1967) and the research of Zuckerman (1979)
were used to develop hypotheses concerning the relationship between play and
other constructs investigated in this book. First, because of the close relation-
ship between the need for arousal scale developed for the 3M Model and
Zuckerman's sensation seeking scale, a positive relationship should be found
between playfulness and the need for arousal. Second, because playful
15Because of its for-profit nature and because of it was developed over 30 years ago, no
efforts were made to compare the need for play developed in this chapter with the scale
developed by Jackson (1967).
100 The Needfor Play
individuals should be engaged in games and sports, one should find that
measures of sports interest should be related to the construct. Based upon these
ideas, two hypothesis are developed.
HI: Playfulness will be positively associated with the need for
arousal.
H2: Playfulness will be positively associated with sports interest.
To my knowledge, researchers have not performed other empirical
research that investigates the relationship between the trait of the need for play
and other individual difference variables. Based on the description of Jackson
(1967), additional hypotheses can be developed. Because play is intrinsically
motivated and involves positive emotions, one can anticipate that elemental
traits that have positive emotional tone, such as agreeableness and extraversion,
are associated with play. In addition, because play involves being open to
feelings and ideas, it can be anticipated that the construct will be related to the
openness to experiences trait. Based upon these ideas, three additional
hypotheses were developed.
H3: Agreeableness will be positively associated with the need for
play.
H4: Extraversion will be positively associated with the need for
play.
H5: Openness to experiences will be positively associated with the
need for play.
Developing the Need for Play Scale
The development of a need for play scale began in Pilot Study 2, which
employed a mall intercept methodology. In this study two items included in the
instrument are closely related to Jackson's (1967) concept of play: "More
playful than others," and "More fun loving than others." The correlation
between the items was r = .58. Respondents were asked "How often to you
feel/act this way." The measure was assessed on nine-point scales bounded by
"never" and "always." In addition, when preliminary measures of the elemental
traits were employed to predict an index composed of the two items, the
regression analysis revealed that the model accounted for 38 percent of the
variance in the construct.
Based upon these encouraging results, three additional items were added
to create a five-item measure of the need for play. The new items were "love
whimsical things," "lighthearted," and "mischievous." The scale was then
investigated in three studies (Student Study II, the Arkansas Panel Study, and
the Sports Interest Study). When investigated via exploratory factor analysis,
the scale was found to be unidimensional. In addition, minimal cross-loadings
The Need for Play 101
were found between the scale and the eight elemental traits. The average
coefficient alpha of the scale was .83.
Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was next employed to assess the
overall measurement properties of the need for play scale in conjunction with
the eight elemental traits. Separate CFAs were conducted on each of the three
studies described in the last paragraph. These results revealed that two of the
items consistently high cross-loaded with items contained in the elemental trait
scales. Thus, "love whimsical things" and "mischievous" were eliminated. The
fit indices for the models were improved. The means of the fit indices across
the three studies were: chi-square = 916 (df = 491), TLI = .90, CFI = .91,
RMSEA = .06. The mean coefficient alpha of the three-item scale was .82.
These results indicate that the need for play scale meets criteria 1 and 2 for
a compound trait. That is, the scale is unidimensional and has acceptable
internal validity.
Need for Play Scale:

1. More playful than others.
2. More fun loving than others.
3. Lighthearted.
Predicting the Need for Play with the Elemental Traits
The next set of analyses sought to assess the ability of the need for play to
meet criterion 3 for a compound trait. That is, a combination of elemental traits
should account for high levels of variance in the construct. To investigate
criterion 3, the confirmatory factor analyses reported in the last section were
employed as the starting point for the procedure. The covariance linkages
between the elemental traits and the need for play were replaced by paths in
each of the three studies, thereby testing the ability of the elemental traits to
predict the need for play.
Table 8.1 presents the results of the analyses. Six of the eight elemental
traits were found to have significant relationships with the need for play. In the
order of the size of the relationship, the significant predictors were the need for
arousal, agreeability, body resource needs, extraversion, openness to experi-
ence, and instability. Based upon the meta-t analysis, all effects were
significant at the p < .001 level except for emotional instability, which was at
the p < .05 level. The mean variance accounted for in playfulness was 42
percent.
These results indicate that the need for play fulfills criterion 3 for a
compound trait. That is, a combination of elemental traits accounted for
substantial variance in the construct. In addition, the results support
Hypotheses 1, 3,4, and 5. First, as predicted in Hypothesis 1, the need for

arousal is strongly associated with playfulness. In addition, those higher in the
need for play are agreeable, which supports H3. Supporting H4, the significant
relationship between playfulness to extraversion also supports the concept that
the trait of playfulness is associated with positive affect. The finding that
openness to experience and play are related supports H5, and indicates that
playfulness may also involve working with information in new and unusual
ways. Unexpectedly, the relationship between playfulness and sports interest
(H2) was not found.
Table 8.1
A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of Need for Play Across Three Studies
Elemental t-value t-value t-value

Traits Panel Student Sport Meta-t pvalue
Openness 0.49 2.36 2.35 3.27 P < .001
Conscientious 0.67 -3.28 1.05 -0.90 p< .60
Introversion -3.75 -1.23 -0.77 -3.30 P < .001
Agreeability 3.83 5.16 2.95 6.85 P < .001
Neurotic -0.17 -1.02 -1.80 -1.72 p< .05
Material .63 1.59 -1.l6 .61 p<.80
Arousal 3.49 4.23 5.45 7.57 P < .001
Physical 1.86 3.79 3.13 5.05 P < .001
CFA Fit Results
"l 885 763 1,100
df 491 491 491
TLI .90 .92 .87
CFI .91 .93 .89
RMSEA .061 .057 .062

R2 .34 .54 .38
The Needfor Play 103
Two unanticipated significant effects were also obtained. The strong

relationship of the need for play with body resources suggests that playfulness
may also involve physical aspects and the body. Finally, the weak but
significant negative relationship with emotional instability suggests that those
who are playful are more emotionally stable than average. These results
support the positive relationship between play and emotional well-being
suggested by Pert (1997).
Predicting Other Traits with the Need for Play
In order to meet criterion 4 for a compound trait, the construct must

account for variance in other traits after the effects of the elemental traits are
accounted for. The test for criterion 4 involves creating indices for the
elemental traits, the compound trait, and the additional traits to be predicted.
A series of hierarchical regression models is then run in which the elemental
traits are input in modell, and the compound trait is input in model 2. The
partial correlation between the compound trait and the criterion variable is then
examined. If the partial correlation is significant, it indicates that the compound
trait fulfills the criterion. This procedure was performed on a series of
compound, situational, and surface traits. The results are described below.
Playfulness and Sports Interest

Hypothesis 2 predicted that the need for play should be related to an
interest in sports. As will be described in detail in Chapter 12, several scales
were developed to investigate various elements of sports involvement. One
scale assessed the extent to which respondents participated in sports and
watched sporting events as fans. In addition, attitudinal measures of sports
participation involvement and fan participation involvement were developed.
The hierarchical regression procedure was run on three of these constructs: a
measure of sports participation (coefficient alpha = .75), a measure of sports
interest (coefficient alpha = .95), and a measure of fan participation attitude
(coefficient alpha = .91).
The results revealed that only for the fan participation attitude variable did
the partial correlation with the need for play reach conventional levels of signi-
ficance (partial r = .17, p < .003). Overall, the hierarchical model accounted for
14 percent of the variance in fan interest. The need for play accounted for 2.2
percent of the overall variance in the fan interest criterion variable. For the
sports participation criterion variable, the results did not reach conventional
levels of significance (partial r = .12, P < .20). Similarly, for the sports
participation attitude variable, the results did not reach conventional levels of
significance (partial r = .09, p < .10). Possible reasons for these findings are
explored in the discussion section.
Playfulness and Healthy Diet Lifestyle

In Chapter 10, a full hierarchical model will be employed to investigate the
elemental, compound, and situational traits predictive of the surface trait of
healthy diet lifestyle. The trait was measured in the Arkansas Panel Study. The
eight-item scale revealed a coefficient alpha of .85 and included measures such
as "watch the amount of sugar I consume," "have 5+ servings of fruits and
vegetables," and "watch the amount of fat I consume."
When employed as the criterion variable in the hierarchical model, the
results revealed a significant partial correlation (r = -.18, P < .01) between
healthy diet lifestyle and playfulness. Overall, the model accounted for 20.1
percent of the variance in the criterion variable. After accounting for the
effects of the elemental traits, playfulness accounted for an additional 2.1
percent of the variance in the healthy diet dependent measure.
The same procedure was followed for other health-related constructs. The
partial correlation was not significant between playfulness and health
motivation (Moorman and Matulich 1993) or health locus of control (Wallston,
Kaplan, and Maider 1976).
Playfulness and Bargaining Proneness

In Chapter 12, the construct of bargaining proneness will be investigated
as a surface trait. This individual difference variable delineates the disposition
to seek out and enjoy situations in which the person bargains over the price of
a good or service. In three studies (Student Study I, Student Study 2, and the
Arkansas Panel Study) the scales developed to measure bargaining proneness
and the need for play were included in the same survey. For each study, the
hierarchical regression model was employed in order to determine whether
playfulness accounted for variance in bargaining proneness beyond that of the
elemental traits.
The items in the bargaining proneness scale are found in Chapter 12.
Coefficient alpha of the five-item scale is excellent (mean coefficient alpha =
.93). The results revealed that in one of the three studies (Student Study 2), the
partial correlation reached conventional levels of significance (partial r = .22,
P < .005). In the other two studies, the partial correlation coefficient was not
significant, although its sign was in the appropriate direction. A meta-t analysis
was conducted, and across the three studies the effect was significant (meta-t
= 2.04, P < .03). These results reveal that higher levels of playfulness are
associated with higher levels of bargaining proneness. In Student Study 2,
playfulness increased the adjusted variance accounted for m bargaining

proneness from 16.0 percent to 19.6 percent.
Playfulness and Impulsive Buying Behavior

Puri (1996) developed a multi-item scale to assess the extent to which indi-
viduals reveal impulsiveness in their buying behavior. This twelve-item scale
was included in the Student Study 2 and had a coefficient alpha of .73. It was
anticipated that individuals who are impulsive buyers may also be playful. The
hierarchical regression revealed a significant partial correlation between
playfulness and impulsive buying after accounting for the effects of the eight
elemental traits (partial r = .15, p < .05). The need for play, however,
accounted for only 1 percent of the total variance in the model. Overall, the
hierarchical model accounted for 54.8 percent of the variance in the impUlsive-
ness scale. Chapter 11 will investigate the impulsive buying scale in relation-
ship to compulsive buying and financial problems.
Constructs Not Associated with the Need for Play

Analyses were conducted to determine whether the need for play is
associated with other constructs investigated in the research stream of the
author. The hierarchical regression model was employed, and the partial
correlation between playfulness and the following constructs was found not to
reach conventional levels of significance: the need for activity, product
innovativeness (Raju 1980), consumer assertiveness (Richins 1983), task
orientation, attention to social comparison information (Lennox and Wolfe
1984), the need for learning, and value consciousness (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer,
and Burton 1990). Finally, a very weak relationship was found between
playfulness and competitiveness. A meta-analysis was conducted on the partial
correlation between playfulness and competitiveness. Across three studies
(Arkansas Panel and Students Studies 1 and 2), a near significant meta-t (1.58,
p < .06) was found.
Discussion
As noted in the introduction to the chapter, playfulness is an important

aspect of the behavior of humans and other mammals. There are strong reasons
to believe that play serves an adaptive function. Play helps to train the young
in very serious activities while avoiding the life-and-death consequences of the
"real-life" pursuit of the activity (e.g., warfare). For adults, play may serve to
reduce stress by taking attention away from difficult decisions and by causing
tension reducing hormonal changes (Pert 1997).
The results provided strong support for the proposition that the need for
play meets the four criteria for a compound trait. Consistent with criterion 1,
the scale was found to have good internal reliability (mean coefficient alpha =
.82). Fulfilling criterion 2, the scale was found to be unidimensional. Based
upon structural equation modeling procedures, the scale was shown to possess
good measurement qualitites in relationship to the elemental traits. Meeting
criterion 3, a combination of elemental traits was found to account for 42.0
percent of the variance in the construct across three studies. Supporting
hypotheses 1, 3, 4, and 5, the following elemental traits were found to
predictive of the need for play: the need for arousal, agreeability, openness to
ideas, and extraversion.
The results also revealed a strong relationship between the elemental trait
of the need for body resources and playfulness. These results suggest that
playfulness may involve the use of the body and physical exertion. Finally, a
weak relationship was found between emotional stability and play. These
results suggest that playfulness has a small relationship with the tendency to be
emotionally stable, which is consistent with Pert's (1997) view that play is
beneficial to one's emotional state.
In order to assess whether the need for play fulfills criterion 4 for a
compound trait, a series of hierarchical regression analyses was run. The
results indicated that the need for play accounted for variance in several other
traits after the effects of the elemental traits are removed. A significant effect
was found for the situational trait of sports fan involvement. These results
suggest that individuals who are highly involved as fans of sports teams and
enjoy watching sports contests are motivated in part by the need to be
lighthearted and playful. In addition, a significant partial correlation for play
was found in equations predicting the situational trait of impulsiveness (Puri
1996), the surface trait of healthy diet lifestyle (negative relation), and the
surface trait of bargaining proneness.
The failure to support H2, which proposed a relationship between playful-
ness and sports interest, is interesting. These findings suggest that sports
participation is a serious, nonfrivolous, activity. Lightheartedness and
playfulness appear to not be factors associated with sports interest. However,
future research is necessary to confirm this finding. In particular, it may be
necessary to develop a surface trait measure that assesses directly the desire to
participate in sports for fun versus the desire to participate in sports for serious
purposes.
The research presented in this chapter represents only an initial, early step
in the investigation of the need for play. In particular, two lines of inquiry are
required. First, additional work is required to identify the domain of the
construct. Additional items need to be tested that sample from the domain of
the construct. The second line of inquiry involves additional programmatic

research into the relationship between playfulness and situational/surface traits.
Jackson (1967) proposed that play is associated with participating in games,
social activities, and other amusements. These relationships need to be
explored.
This chapter began with references to the experiential approach to
consumer behavior proposed by Holbrook and Hirschman (1982). The
experiential approach investigates the affective components of consumer
behavior, such as motivations to have fun, amusement, fantasy, and arousal.
The present research clearly linked the construct of play to the need for arousal.
Future research should investigate the construct and its relationship to fun,
amusement, and fantasy. For example, do people high in playfulness tend to
more frequently read books that involve fantasy (e.g., romance novels) or more
frequently participant in fantasy games, such as dungeons and dragons?
Research on play may also have application to the world of work. The
results of the hierarchical regressions revealed that the need for play and task
orientation (a measure of achievement motivation) are independent constructs.
Because play is associated with positive mood states, it may be that playfulness
is important in certain work situations. For example, Southwest Airlines
encourages its employees to have a sense of humor and to play with customers.
In their book on Southwest Airlines, Freiberg and Freiberg (1996) describe the
importance of play and humor to the culture of the most profitable airline in the
United States over the past 20 years. They summarized the role of play by
saying, "At Southwest, not only is it okay to have fun at work, but the company
spurs it on. Southwest had realized the benefits of such on-the-job nonsense
and truly values humor" (p. 212). The Freibergs argue that the ability to play
while working extremely hard is one reason why Southwest has the most
productive employees in the airline industry. They proposed that a playful
attitude is a criterion for being hired into the company and defined the approach
in the following manner:
Let your mind be open to uncensored, nonconformist, silly, and

outrageous behavior and responses to life's daily occurrences. It
doesn't mean you have to do outrageous things-but you can always
consider them (p. 213).
In sum, the research presented in this chapter is consistent with the

proposal that the need for play deserves additional attention as a construct that
may influence consumer behavior. Future research should investigate its role
in consumer enculturation and its role in influencing consumers to participate
in a variety of nonwork activities. Play may also have an important role in
reducing the stress that consumers experience. In addition, it may also have
application to identifying the factors that influence the productivity of
employees.
CHAPTER 9
GENERAL SELF-EFFICACY AND THE
DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF THE SIX COMPOUND TRAITS
Abstract
A three-item measure of general self-efficacy was developed. Based upon

the analysis of data collected from three studies, the construct was found to
meet the four criteria for a compound trait. Meeting criteria 1 and 2, the
measure was found to be unidimensional and to have acceptable internal
reliability. Meeting criterion 3, a combination of elemental traits accounted for
an average of 35 percent of the variance in the construct. Meeting criterion 4,
the measure of self-efficacy was found to account for incremental variance in
a series of traits after the effects of the elemental traits were removed
statistically via hierarchical regression analysis. Additional analyses indicated
that while closely related to a measure of self-esteem (mean correlation = .69),
the constructs do possess discriminant validity. Finally answering a separate
research question, confirmatory factor analysis was employed to assess whether
the six compound traits investigated in Chapters 4 through 9 possess discrim-
inant validity from a measurement perspective. Results of a confirmatory factor
analysis strongly supported the discriminant validity of the six traits (task
orientation, the need for learning, competitiveness, the need for activity, the
need for play, and effectance motivation).
Introduction
In his development of self-efficacy theory, Bandura (1977) proposed that

perceptions of self-efficacy influence whether a coping behavior is initiated,
how much effort is exerted on a task, and the persistence of the behavior in the
face of adversity. Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as the " ... beliefs in
one's capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to
manage prospective situations" (p. 2). He further proposed that self-efficacy
expectations vary along three dimensions. First, the nature of the task
influences the degree of self-efficacy. As the difficulty of the task increases,
perceived self-efficacy decreases. Second, the degree to which the person is
resistant to disconfirming experiences (the strength of self-efficacy) varies.
Finally, self-efficacy differs based upon its generality. That is, how pervasive
is the disposition in terms of its ability to impact behavior cross-situationally.
As described by Smith (1989), self-efficacy represents one aspect of personal
control that plays a major role in the success of individuals completing tasks.
As described by Sherer et al. (1982), self-efficacy has generally been
measured as a task-specific construct. Indeed, Bandura (1997) stated, " ... self-
efficacy beliefs should be measured in terms of particularized judgments of
110 General Self-Efficacy
capability that may vary across realms of activity, different levels of task
demands within a given activity domain, and under different situational
circumstances" (p. 6). In a recent review, Pajares (1998) argued that it is
important to measure self-efficacy as situation specific. In the consumer
research and marketing literatures, researchers have approached self-efficacy
from this situation-specific perspective. Block and Punam (1997) measured the
construct by asking subjects to " ... rate the extent to which they felt they could
actually perform the recommendations .... " (p. 38) in a program to reduce their
likelihood of getting a sexually transmitted disease. Similarly, Brown, Cron,
and Slocum (1998) measured self-efficacy among salespersons by asking them
to rate their level of confidence in achieving a specified goal level.
It is possible, however, to conceptualize self-efficacy as a cross-situational
trait. Bandura (1977) described how the early learning history of the person
may cause generalized, cross-situational expectations of success. Sherer et al.
(1982) developed a 23-item scale designed to measure generalized self-efficacy.
They obtained a two-factor measure with acceptable internal reliability. As
predicted, they found that the scale was correlated with measures of locus of
control, personal control, and self-esteem. Indeed, the highest correlation
obtained (r = .51) was with a measure of self-esteem.
From the perspective of the 3M Model, the question of whether to measure
self-efficacy at the cross-situational or the situation-specific level is handled by
the hierarchical nature of the Model. When the construct is measured at the
general level, it is categorized as a compound trait. As a result, a combination
of elemental traits can be expected to account for high levels of variance in the
construct. When measured at the situation-specific level, self-efficacy becomes
a situational or a surface trait. That is, it assesses enduring expectancies for
success within a particular domain. For example, the study by Brown et al.
(1998) assessed self-efficacy within the domain-specific context of reaching a
sales goal. This surface trait measure is narrower than a situational trait, which
would assess self-efficacy within the context of work, or sports, or games, etc.
In sum, these ideas suggest that self-efficacy can be measured at three different
levels-as a compound, situational, or surface trait. It would be particularly
important to measure self-efficacy at the situational or surface level if the
researcher were interested in predicting behavior change, such as that required
to reach a goal or to avoid a sexually transmitted disease. On the other hand,
if the researcher is interested in assessing general dispositions to behave, the
compound trait measure of self-efficacy may be appropriate.
This chapter approaches self-efficacy from a compound trait perspective.
Within the 3M, general self-efficacy is conceptualized as impacting the
likelihood that a person will complete tasks that are undertaken. In addition, it
may influence the likelihood that individuals will attempt difficult tasks. That
General Self-Efficacy 111
is, those who recognize that they lack self-efficacy may be reluctant to take on
tasks because they know that they will not complete them.
In addition to investigating general self-efficacy, this chapter has a second
goal. As the final chapter in Part III on the compound traits, it asks the research
question of whether the six constructs investigated have discriminant validity
from each other.
The chapter is composed of six sections. The next section presents the
development of a new scale to measure general self-efficacy. In this section,
the scale will be assessed for whether it meets the first two criteria for a
compound trait. That is, is the construct unidimensional and does it possess
good internal validity. In addition, the section will analyze the discriminant
validity of self-efficacy with a measure of self-esteem. The third section
investigates criterion 3 by assessing the ability of the elemental traits to account
for substantial variance in the construct. Criterion 4 is assessed in the fourth
section by analyzing whether the construct accounts for variance in other traits
after the effects of the elemental traits have been removed. The fifth section
investigates general self-efficacy and self-esteem in relation to the other
compound traits investigated in Part III of the book. The goal of the analysis
is to test for the discriminant validity of these compound traits. This is
accomplished by performing a confirmatory factor analysis on all seven traits.
The last section discusses the results and proposes an agenda for the investiga-
tion of self-efficacy in consumer research.
Developing the Self-Efficacy Scale
Because of the close relationship between self-efficacy and measures of

self-esteem, it was decided to investigate the two constructs simultaneously.
The six-item measure of self-esteem was obtained from Oliver and Bearden
(1985). In tum, they employed items from work by Bowen and Richek (1967).
Oliver and Bearden (1985) reported a coefficient alpha of .82 for the scale.
Items for the self-efficacy measure were selected from a number of
sources, including Sherer et al. (1982) and Smith (1989). Because of the close
relationship of self-efficacy to an internal locus of control, items were also
included that tapped this dimension of the construct. The six items in the scale
were: "I feel in control of what is happening to me"; "I find that once I make
up my mind, I can accomplish my goals"; "I set goals, but frequently lack the
will to accomplish them"; "I have a great deal of will power"; "I feel that I
have little influence over what happens to me"; "What happens to me is my
own doing." Respondents were asked to indicate "How often do you feel/act
this way?" A nine-point scale anchored by "never" and "always" was
112 GeneraISe~-Etncacy
employed. This response format is identical to that used to measure the

elemental traits and the other compound traits.
Data were collected on the self-esteem scale and the proposed self-efficacy
scale in three studies-the Arkansas Panel Study, the Consumer Credit Coun-
eling Study, and the Fall 1997 Study 2. (See Appendix C-3 for the details of
the methodologies of these studies.) The investigation of the measurement
properties of the self-efficacy scale began with exploratory factor analysis in
which the items from the scale were input into the factor analysis (maximum
likelihood extraction with varimax rotation) along with the items from the self-
esteem scale (Oliver and Bearden 1985).
Data from the Arkansas Household Panel Study were analyzed first. The
results revealed a two-factor solution that accounted for 55.9 percent of the
cumulative variance. An inspection of the rotated factor matrix, however,
revealed extreme cross-loadings between the two factors. The three items that
cross-loaded to the greatest extent were eliminated, and the exploratory factor
analysis was rerun. The analysis revealed a single factor using an eigenvalue
cut-off of one. Item-to-total correlations were then computed on the scale.
Three of the items were found to have loadings less than .50. After eliminating
these items, the factor analysis was performed again on the six remaining items.
A single-factor solution was obtained that accounted for 71.0 percent of
cumulative variance. The coefficient alpha of the scale was .90.
In order to check the results of the exploratory factor analysis, in the next
analysis the six items were input into a confirmatory factor analysis. Three of
the items were from the self-esteem scale and three from the self-efficacy scale.
Two models were run. In the first, the items were loaded on their respective
constructs. The results revealed an excellent fit to the data (X2 = 10.8, df = 8,
p> .20, TLI = .99, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .04). In the next analysis, all six items
were loaded on a single factor as latent indicators. The results revealed a
poorer fit to the data (X2 = 53.4, df = 9, p <.000, TLI = .91, CFI = .95, RMSEA
= .15). Next, a chi-square difference test was performed on the two models,
and the effect was highly significant (X2diff = 42.6, df = 1, P < .0001).
The results of the confirmatory factor analysis of the Arkansas Household
data revealed that the items measuring self-esteem and self-efficacy do separate
into different constructs. The correlation between the constructs was r = .82.
This very high correlation between the two constructs may have been
responsible for the inability of the exploratory factor analysis to separate them
into different variables. The same analysis was performed on the constructs in
the data from the Consumer Credit Counseling Study and the Winter 1998
Study. In each case, the two-factor model was significantly better than the one-
factor model. The correlation between the constructs was also very high in
each study: r = .86 in the CCCS Study and r = .78 in the Winter 1998 data set.
GeneralSelf-Etftcacy 113
The data from the three studies were analyzed in order to assess the
internal reliability of the composite six-item scale. The coefficient alphas were:
Arkansas Panel data, alpha =.89; CCCS data, alpha =.88; Winter 1998 Study
data, alpha of the scale = .85. Interestingly, for each study all item-to-total
correlations were above .50. The coefficient alphas for the three-item self-
efficacy scale were: Arkansas Panel data, alpha =.76; CCCS data, alpha =.71;
Winter 1998 Study data, alpha = .70. The coefficient alphas for the three-item
self-esteem scale were: Arkansas Panel data, alpha = .90; CCCS data, alpha =
.90; Winter 1998 Study data, alpha = .85.
The General Self-Efficacy Scale

1. I feel in control of what is happening to me.
2. I find that once I make up my mind, I can accomplish my goals.
3. I have a great deal of will power.
The Self-Esteem Scale

1. I feel a great deal of self-respect.
2. In almost every way, I'm very glad to be the person I am.
3. I feel very positive about myself.
As a summary statement, the measure of general self-efficacy fulfills the

first two criteria for a compound trait. That is, the measure is unidimensional
and has adequate internal reliability. The results also revealed that the
measures of self-esteem and self-efficacy appear to be very closely related, but
distinct, constructs. The confirmatory factor analysis procedure clearly
indicated that a two-construct model was superior to a single-construct model.
Yet, the coefficient alpha of the composite scale was excellent (average alpha
=.87). The coefficient alpha of the three-item measure of self-esteem was also
excellent (average alpha = .88). The coefficient alpha of the three-item measure
of self-efficacy, however, was marginally acceptable (average alpha = .72).
The next section investigates criterion 3. That is, can a combination of
elemental traits account for substantial variance in the measure of general self-
efficacy?
Predicting General Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem with

the Elemental Traits
Structural equation modeling was employed to investigate the ability of the

elemental traits to predict general self-efficacy and the measure of self-esteem.
Predicting Self-Efficacy
The data from the CCCS, Fall 1997 Study 2, and Arkansas Panel Study
were employed in the analyses. Table 9.1 summarizes the results of analyses.
The results reveal that the variance accounted for ranged from a low of 31
percent to a high of 44 percent in the three studies. The mean variance
accounted for was 35 percent.
Table 9.1
A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of General
Self-Efficacy Across Three Studies

Traits Panel CCCS Fall 98 Meta-t p value
Openness -0.53 4.14 -0.21 1.95 P < .03
Conscientious 3.26 3.30 2.78 5.37 P < .0001
Introversion -2.97 -0.17 -2.43 -3.20 P < .001
Agreeability .49 -0.10 2.85 l.86 p< .04
Neurotic -3.05 -4.14 -l.84 -3.01 P < .002
Material .80 -0.31 0.36 .49 p> .80
Arousal 2.01 1.27 l.96 3.01 P < .002
Physical 0.36 3.08 2.71 3.53 P < .001
CFA Fit Results
X2 826 754 829
df 459 459 459
TLI .89 .93 .90
CFI .91 .94 .91
RMSEA .06 .049 .062
R2 .31 .44 .31
The meta-analysis revealed that seven of the eight elemental traits were
significant predictors of the construct. Based upon the size of the effect found
in the meta-t analysis, the significant predictors were: conscientiousness, need
for body resources, extraversion, emotional stability, the need for arousal,
openness to experience, and agreeability. Only the need for material resources
trait was not a significant predictor of general self-efficacy.
GeneralSelf-Elncacy 115
Predicting Self-Esteem
In order to further test the discriminant validity of the measure of self-
efficacy with the measure of self-esteem, the above analysis was replicated with
the measure of self-esteem as the endogenous construct. Table 9.2 provides
these results.
Table 9.2
A Meta-Analysis of the Predictors of
Self-Esteem Across Three Studies

Traits Panel CCCS Fall 98 Meta-t p value
Openness 0.42 4.12 0.97 1.84 p<.04
Conscientious .75 2.67 2.25 3.26 p< .001
Introversion -4.06 -1.82 -2.34 -4.72 p < .0001
Agreeability 1.15 0.72 1.95 2.19 p< .02
Neurotic -3.74 -4.51 -3.07 -6.51 P < .0001
Material 1.83 -0.69 0.28 .82 p>.70
Arousal .80 1.44 1.70 2.26 p<.02
Physical 1.89 3.29 1.21 3.67 p < .001
CFA Fit Results
X2 804 782 829
df 459 459 459
TLI .91 .93 .90
CFI .92 .94 .91
RMSEA .058 .051 .062
R2 .30 .37 .22
Overall, the results closely parallel those obtained for the measure of
general self-efficacy. The variance accounted for in the measure of self-esteem
by the elemental traits ranged from 22 percent to 37 percent. The mean level
of variance across the three studies was 30 percent. Again, seven of the
elemental traits were predictive of the construct. In their order of level of
significance the constructs were: emotional stability, extraversion, need for
body resources, conscientiousness, need for arousal, agreeability, and openness
116 GeneraISe~-E1ncacy
to experience. Only the need for material resources trait was not a significant
predictor of self-esteem. Thus, while the order of contribution to predicting
self-esteem of the elemental traits differed from that found for self-efficacy, the
overall set of findings is strikingly similar.
Employing a Hierarchical Model to Predict Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem

In order to further examine the discriminant validity between self-efficacy
and self-esteem, data from the three studies were analyzed employing a
hierarchical model. A four-step approach was employed. In step 1, a
hierarchical regression analysis was run in which self-esteem was input as the
criterion variable, self-efficacy was input as Model 1, and the elemental traits
were input as Model 2. In step 2, a second hierarchical regression analysis was
in run in which self-efficacy was input as the criterion variable, self-esteem was
input as Modell, and the elemental traits were input as Model 2. In step 3, a
meta-analysis was conducted to determine which of the elemental traits were
significant predictors of self-esteem after partialing out the effects of self-
efficacy. A similar meta-analysis was conducted to determine which of the
elemental traits were significant predictors of self-efficacy after partialing out
the effects of self-esteem. In step 4, the results were compared for self-esteem
and self-efficacy. The logic of the analysis is that if the constructs fully
mediate the effects of the elemental traits on each of them, then they represent
the same construct and have no discriminant validity.
First, looking at self-esteem, one finds that across the three studies the
mean variance accounted for by Modell (which consisted of self-efficacy) was
R2 = .48. When the elemental traits were added in Model 2, the variance
accounted for increased to R2 = .53. The increase in variance accounted for by
Model 2 was significant in all three studies. The meta-t analysis indicated that
after accounting for the effects of self-efficacy, five of the elemental traits were
significantly related to self-esteem. In their order of size of effect, the
significant traits were: emotional stability (meta-t = 5.13, P < .0001); agree-
ability (meta-t = 2.76, P < .01); introversion (meta-t =2.75, P < .01); need for
body resources (meta-t = 2.53, P < .01); and openness to experience (meta-t =
2.01, P < .05).
Next, self-efficacy was inserted as the criterion variable in the hierarchical
regression analysis and self-esteem was input as the predictor variable in Model
1. The mean variance accounted for in self-efficacy was R2 = .48. (As
expected, the squared correlation was identical to when self-esteem was the
criterion variable.) When the elemental traits were added in Model 2, the
variance accounted for increased to R2 = .50 (p < .01). Thus, while the two
analyses revealed that adding the elemental traits significantly increased the
variance accounted for in both self-esteem and self-efficacy, the increase was
GeneralSelf-Etftcacy 117
not as great as when self-efficacy was the criterion variable. The meta-t
analysis indicated that four elemental traits were significant predictors of self-
efficacy after accounting for the effects of self-esteem: conscientiousness
(meta-t = 4.52, P < .0001), the need for arousal (meta-t = 2.46, P < .01),
emotional stability (meta-t =1.93, P < .05), and need for body resources (meta-t
= 1.90, P < .05).
In sum, the results support the results of the confirmatory factor analysis
by providing evidence that self-esteem and self-efficacy are different constructs.
In particular, self-esteem is more strongly related to emotional stability,
openness to experience, agreeability, and introversion than is self-efficacy. In
contrast, self-efficacy is more strongly related to conscientiousness and the
need for arousal than is self-esteem.
Predicting Other Traits with General Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem
In order to meet criterion 4 for a compound trait, the measure of general

self-efficacy must account for a significant amount of variance in other
constructs after the effects of the elemental traits are removed. The Arkansas
Panel Study, the CCCS Study, and the Fall 1997 Study 2 contained measures
of a number of constructs that should be related to self-efficacy. First, because
individuals high in self-efficacy should reveal increased levels of willpower, it
was predicted that the construct would be inversely related to measures of
impulsiveness. Second, because high self-efficacious individuals tend to exert
more effort on tasks, it was predicted that the construct should be positively
related to task orientation. Third, it was anticipated that individuals high in
self-efficacy would exhibit lower levels of playfulness. Hypothesis 4 stated that
because of the difficulty that many individuals experience in persevering in
high levels of heath motivation, it was anticipated that self-efficacy would be
positively related to a measure of health motivation (Moorman and Matulich
1993). Finally, an exploratory analysis was conducted to test whether general
self-efficacy would account for variance in the "attention to social comparison
information scale" (Lenox and Wolfe 1984) as well as several additional
constructs (need for learning, need for activity, and competitiveness).
In order to further assess the discriminant validity of general self-efficacy
with self-esteem, a parallel set of analyses were conducted. That is, hierarchi-
cal regression models were run with the same constructs employed as the
criterion variable and with self-esteem replacing self-efficacy in Model 2.
Predicting Impulsiveness with General Self-Efficacy

The CCCS data set contained a measure of impulsive buying behavior
developed by Puri (1996). In the analysis, this measure was input into a
hierarchical regression analysis as the criterion variable. The elemental traits

were inserted as Modell. General self-efficacy was input as Model 2. The
results revealed a significant partial correlation for self-efficacy (r = -.26,
P < .0001.) These results support Hypothesis l.
When this analysis was run with self-esteem, the results paralleled those
found above. The partial correlation for self-esteem with impUlsiveness was
significant (r = -.31, P < .001).
Predicting Task Orientation with General Self-Efficacy

Each of the three studies employed in this chapter contained the measure
of task orientation developed in Chapter 4. This construct was input as the
criterion variable in the hierarchical regression model. The results revealed a
significant effect in each of the studies. The mean partial correlation was
r = .27. These results support Hypothesis 2.
for self-efficacy. The effect was significant in all three studies, and the mean
partial correlation was r = .23.
Predicting the Need for Play with General Self-Efficacy

The Arkansas Panel data contained the measure of the need for play along
with self-efficacy. As predicted in Hypothesis 3, the hierarchical regression
model revealed a significant negative relationship between the constructs after
the effects of the elemental traits were accounted for (partial r = -.14, P < .05).
When this analysis was run with self-esteem, the results failed to replicate
those for self-efficacy. The partial correlation between self-esteem and the
need for play did not approach conventional levels of significance (r = -.05,
p < .50).
Predicting Health Motivation with General Self-Efficacy

Hypothesis 4 stated that self-efficacy would be predictive of health motiva-
tion (Moorman and Matulich (1993). The results of the hierarchical regression
supported the hypothesis. The partial correlation between self-efficacy and
health motivation was r = .24 (p < .0001).
found for self-efficacy. The partial correlation was significant between self-
esteem and health motivation (r = .19, P < .005).
Predicting Attention to Social Comparison Information with General Self-

Efficacy
In an exploratory analysis, attention to social comparison information
(Lenox and Wolfe 1984) was input as the criterion variable in the hierarchical
GeneralSelf-E1rzcacy 119
regression analysis. The results revealed a significant positive relationship

between this construct and self-efficacy after the effects of the elemental traits
were removed (partial r =.22, p < .002). Thus, individuals high in attention to
social comparison information are also high in self-efficacy.
When this analysis was run with self-esteem, the results failed to parallel
those found for self-efficacy. While the direction of the partial correlation was
appropriate, the effect did not reach conventional levels of significance (r =.11,
P < .15).
The Relationship of General Self-Efficacy with Additional Traits

Hierarchical regression analyses were also employed in an exploratory
manner in order to test the relationship between general self-efficacy and
additional traits. The need for learning was investigated in each of the three
studies. (See Chapter 5 for the development of the need for learning scale.) A
significant effect was obtained between the constructs in two of the three
studies. A meta-t analysis was conducted, and it indicated that the relationship
was significant (meta-t = 3.32, p < .001). In the two studies in which the
relationship was significant, the partial correlations were: r = .17 (CCCS
Study) and r = .22 (Winter 98 Study). In the Arkansas Panel Study the partial
correlation was r = -.02. When this analysis was performed with self-esteem
replacing self-efficacy, the results paralleled those for self-efficacy. That is, the
effect was significant in two studies, and the meta-t analysis was significant
(meta-t =2.86, P < .01).
The competitiveness construct investigated in Chapter 6 was also
investigated in each of the three studies. The hierarchical regression analysis
revealed no significant relationship between self-efficacy and competitiveness
in any of the studies. The same pattern of results was found for self-esteem.
The need for activity construct developed in Chapter 7 was measured in
each of the three studies. The hierarchical regression analysis revealed a
significant effect in two of the three studies. The meta-t analysis revealed a
significant overall effect (meta-t =3.36, p < .001). The mean partial correlation
across the three studies was r =.13. When the analysis was run on self-esteem,
the results revealed that in none of the studies was the effect significant.
However, in each case the results were in the same direction as that found for
self-efficacy. When the meta-t analysis was performed, the results revealed a
weak but significant effect (meta-t = 1.97, P < .05). The mean partial
correlation was r = .08.
Assessing the Discriminant Validity of the Compound Traits
In Part III of this book, six compound traits have been investigated: task
orientation, the need for learning, competitiveness, the need for activity, the
need for play, and general self-efficacy. In addition, the relationship between
self-esteem and general self-efficacy was also investigated. The results have
revealed that each trait fulfills the criteria of a compound trait. One question,
however, concerns whether these are seven different traits, or whether one or
more overlap to such an extent that they fail to possess discriminant validity.
A first step in assessing the discriminant validity of these constructs
involves employing confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Only one of the
studies simultaneously investigated all seven traits-the Arkansas Household
Panel Study. As a result, the CFA was performed on those data. The results of
the analysis revealed a model with acceptable fit indices (X2 =405.7, df = 209,
P < .000, TLI = .93, CFI = .94, RMSEA = .065). An inspection of the
modification indices revealed that one item in the competitiveness construct
was cross-loading with items in other constructs. (The item was: "Feel that it
is important to outperform others.") When this item was eliminated, the fit
indices improved somewhat (X2 = 317.3, df = 188, P <.000, TLI = .95, CFI =
.96, RMSEA = .055). These results indicate that at the measurement level, the
seven compound traits investigated in this book possess discriminant validity.
General Discussion
The major goal of the present chapter was to develop a measure of general
self-efficacy that meets the four criteria developed for a compound trait. Based
upon research by Sherer et al. (1982), it was anticipated that effectance
motivation would be closely related to self-esteem. Items measuring self-
esteem employed by Oliver and Bearden (1985) were included in the three data
collection efforts reported in the chapter. In addition, these items were included
in the scale development of self-efficacy in order to test the discriminant
validity of the two constructs. In the development of the measure of general
self-efficacy, exploratory factor analyses and confirmatory factor analysis
procedures were employed. These analyses resulted in the development of
three-item scales measuring each of the constructs. The fit indices of the CFIs
performed on the data from the three studies were excellent, which supported
the discriminant validity of the constructs. Supporting the nomological and
predictive validity of the measure of self-efficacy, the two constructs were
found to be closely related. The average bivariate correlation between the
indices of the constructs was r = .69. (The mean correlation between the
GeneraISelf-E1ncacy 121
constructs obtained from analyses employing structural equation modeling was

r= .82).
Does General Self-Efficacy Meet the Four Criteria for a Compound Trait?
The results of the analysis of three studies indicates that the measure of
self-efficacy met the four criteria for a compound trait. Fulfilling criteria 1 and
2, a three-item, unidimensional measure of the construct was developed that
possesses acceptable internal reliability (mean alpha = .72).
Fulfilling criterion 3 for a compound trait, a combination of elemental
traits was found to account for a substantial proportion of variance in the
measure of self-efficacy. Based upon structural equation modeling performed
on the three studies, the elemental traits accounted for a mean level of 35
percent of the variance in self-efficacy. A meta-t analysis of the results of a
series of hierarchical regression models revealed that seven of the elemental
traits have significant relationships with the construct. In the order of the
magnitude of the relationships, the significant predictors are conscientiousness,
need for body resources, extraversion, need for arousal, emotional stability,
openness to experience, and agreeability. The only elemental trait not
predictive of general self-efficacy was the need for material resources. In sum,
individuals revealing higher levels of self-efficacy were more conscientious,
had a higher need for body resources, were more extraverted, possessed a
higher need for arousal, were more emotionally stable, had a greater openness
to experience, and were more agreeable.
The fourth criterion for a compound trait was investigated by running a
series of hierarchical regression models in which the effects of the elemental
traits were first removed and the partial correlation examined between self-
efficacy and a number of traits. Supporting the first hypothesis, self-efficacy
was found to be negatively related to impulsive buying behavior (Puri 1996).
Supporting H2, the construct was positively related to task orientation.
Supporting H3, self-efficacy was negatively related to the need for play.
Supporting H4, the construct was found to predict health motivation (Moorman
and Matulich 1993). Exploratory analyses were also conducted on a number
of additional criterion variables. General self-efficacy was found to account for
incremental variance in the following constructs: attention to social comparison
information (Lenox and Wolfe 1984), the need for learning, and the need for
activity. No significant relationship was found between general self-efficacy
and the measure of competitiveness developed in Chapter 6.
In sum, the results of the hierarchical regression analyses reveal that
general self-efficacy does account for variance in other traits after eliminating
the effects of the elemental traits. Therefore, the construct meets criterion 4 for
a compound trait.
Assessing the Discriminant Validity of Self-Efficacy and Self-Esteem

As described above, the measure of general self-efficacy was found to be
closely related to a measure of self-esteem. While these results support the
nomological and predictive validity of the construct, the extremely high
correlations (mean r = .82) between the constructs call into question the
discriminant validity of the measure. Two sets of analyses, however, supported
the discriminant validity of the constructs. The first approach employed
structural equation modeling. Here, chi-square difference tests revealed that the
items were tapping different constructs in each of the three studies.
The second approach employed to assess the discriminant validity of self-
esteem and self-efficacy involved using hierarchical regression procedures.
Analyses were run in which self-efficacy was employed as the criterion
variable, self-esteem as the mediating variable, and the elemental traits as the
predicting variables. A second set of analyses were then run in which self-
efficacy and self-esteem were switched in the hierarchical regression analyses.
The theory behind the analyses was that if the two constructs are identical, the
mediating construct would fully mediate the effects of the elemental traits on
the criterion construct. The results revealed that for both constructs adding the
elemental traits accounted for a significant increase in variance in the criterion
variable. When self-efficacy was the criterion variable, four elemental traits
were found to have significant relationships after the effects of self-esteem were
accounted for: conscientiousness, the need for arousal, emotional stability, and
the need for body resources. In contrast, when self-esteem was employed as the
criterion variable, a somewhat different pattern of effects occurred. Here, five
of the elemental traits were predictive after eliminating the effects of self-
efficacy: emotional stability, agreeability, introversion, the need for body
resources, and openness to experience. In sum, the hierarchical regression
analyses strongly support the discriminant validity of the constructs.
Assessing the Discriminant Validity of the Seven Compound Traits

Chapters 3 through 9 investigated six compound traits: task orientation, the
need for learning, competitiveness, the need for activity, the need for play, and
effectance motivation. An important question concerns whether, at the
measurement level, the constructs possess discriminant validity. In addition,
a question arises as to whether they can be distinguished from self-esteem. The
data obtained from the Arkansas Panel Study contained measures of the seven
constructs. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was run on the constructs,
and the results revealed excellent fit statistics. These results provide initial
evidence that at the measurement level the constructs are measuring different
constructs. Table 9.3 provides the intercorrelations among the constructs that
were obtained from the CFA.
GeneraISelf-E1ftcacy 123
Table 9.3
Correlations Among Seven Compound Traits
Self-esteem Self-efficacy .82

Self-esteem Need for learning .27
Self-esteem Need for activity .25
Self-esteem Task orientation .34
Self-esteem Competitiveness .39
Self-esteem Need for play .19
Self-efficacy Need for learning .30
Self-efficacy Need for activity .28
Self-efficacy Task orientation .48
Self-efficacy Competiti veness .19
Self-efficacy Need for play .10
Need for learning Need for activity .57
Need for learning Task orientation .64
Need for learning Competitiveness .19
Need for learning Need for play .28
Need for activity Task orientation .58
Need for activity Need for play .28
Need for activity Competitiveness .38
Task orientation Competiti veness .53
Task orientation Need for play .25
Competitiveness Need for play .34
Note: Correlations were obtained from the confirmatory factor analysis of the data from
the Arkansas Panel Study.
Future Research on General Self-Efficacy

The work on general self-efficacy presented in this chapter represents a
very early start in the investigation of the construct. Future research should
concentrate in three areas. First, work needs to be performed to identify
additional items in order to improve the coefficient alpha of the measure.
Second, data need to be collected in which the convergent validity of the
measure is assessed by comparing it to existing measures of self-efficacy.
Third, studies need to be conducted in which measures of self-efficacy at the
situational level and at the surface level are taken. One should find that the
compound trait measure of the construct should be highly related to the
measures of self-efficacy in specific contexts. These results would support the
nomological validity of the measure.
PART IV
FROM SITUATIONAL TO SURFACE TRAITS
Situation traits represent enduring dispositions to behave within a general

situational context. As a result, situational traits result from the effects of the
elemental and compound traits as well as from the effects of the press of
situational forces. Surface traits are the most concrete, enduring dispositions
in the hierarchical model found in the 3M. They emerge from the interplay of
the elemental, compound, and situational traits as well as from dispositions to
act within category-specific contexts. Because of their close proximity to
behavior in the control theory model, surface traits can be expected to account
for high levels of variance in behavior.
Due to their hierarchical relationships, situational traits tend to be highly
predictive of surface traits. As a result, the five chapters in Part IV investigate
the situational and surface traits in pairs. Chapter 10 simultaneously investi-
gates the situational trait of health motivation and the surface trait of healthy
diet lifestyles. As a situational trait, health motivation can be expected to
impact a variety of surface traits, such as healthy diet lifestyles, exercise
behaviors, and stress reduction behaviors. Chapter 11 investigates the
situational trait of impulsive buying and the surface trait of compulsive buying.
Chapter 12 investigates the situational trait of sports interest and the surface
trait of sports participation. Chapter 13 employs value consciousness as the
situational trait and bargaining behavior as the surface trait. Finally, Chapter
14 employs a measure of frugality as the situational trait and a measure of
modest-living lifestyle as the surface trait.
Each chapter employs structural equation modeling to investigate the full
hierarchical model. Based upon the control theory component of the 3M, it was
anticipated that compound and/or elemental traits along with the situational
traits may be predictive of the surface traits. If the hierarchical models are
successful, over 30 percent of the variance in the surface traits should be
accounted for.
Chapter 10
FROM HEALTH MOTIVATION TO HEALTHY DIET LIFESTYLE
Abstract
In the study the 3M Model was employed to predict a surface level

measure of healthy diet behaviors. In addition to using the eight elemental
traits in the 3M, the hierarchical model employed the compound level trait of
self-efficacy and the situational level traits of health motivation (Moorman and
Matulich 1993) and health innovativeness. The structural equation analysis of
the hierarchical model revealed that the combination ofelemental, compound,
and situational level traits accounted for 45.2 percent of the variance in the
measure of healthy diet behaviors. Traits with significant positive direct paths
to healthy diet behaviors were: health innovativeness, health motivation, and
need for body resources. The need for arousal had a significant negative path
coefficient with healthy diet behaviors. Results are discussed in terms of their
implications for developing communications to influence people to consume
healthier diets.
Introduction
The concept that living a healthy lifestyle can increase the length and
quality of life has received national attention. A headline in American
Demographics (Mergenhagen 1997) read: "People Behaving Badly: With every
cigarette we smoke, every fat-filled snack we consume, and every lap we don't
take around the track, we risk our health" (p. 37). The federal government has
begun to take a more active interest in prevention. For example, researchers at
the Center for Disease Control have developed a Behavioral Risk Factor
Surveillance System (BRFSS) measure of healthiness. On measures that
assessed the extent of smoking, seat belt use, binge drinking, physical activity,
and the consumption of fruits and vegetables, Hawaii, California, and Colorado
were rated as having the healthiest populations and Alabama, Indiana, and
Louisiana were rated as relatively low on the scale (Mergenhagen 1997). As
described by Moorman and Matulich (1993), health maintenance and
prevention is a consumer issue, and it is also a huge and growing business in the
United States. Increasingly, food companies, and even drug companies, are
marketing their products directly to consumers using traditional approaches
such as advertising and direct mail.
Moorman and Matulich (1993) observed that research on preventive health
behaviors is sparse. These authors investigated the impact of health motivation
and health ability on preventive health behaviors. They found that level of
health motivation moderates the effects of various measures of ability (e.g.,
health knowledge and health behavioral control) on preventive health behaviors
128 From Health Motivation to Healthy Diet Lifestyle
(e.g., diet and alcohol use). Much of the research, however, on preventive
health behaviors has focused on investigating its relationship with various
demographic variables. Very little work has been performed to investigate the
personality factors associated with performing various preventive health
behaviors such as consuming a well-balanced diet (Nelson 1998). Psychologi-
cal constructs that researchers have addressed include the effects of health locus
of control (Lau 1982), self-monitoring (Gould 1990), and health motivation
(Moorman and Matulich 1993) on preventive health behaviors.
The present research asks the question of whether the 3M approach can
account for high levels of variance in the healthiness of consumer's food
consumption. If the 3M can successfully predict a set of healthy diet behaviors,
what are the potential implications? From a public-policy perspective, by
understanding the underlying traits associated with healthy diet behaviors, it
may be possible to develop communications strategies to influence consumers
to change their eating habits. From a marketing management perspective, it
may be possible to position brands by creating brand personalities consistent
with the traits associated with healthy diet lifestyles.
In the 3M Model, in order to develop a hierarchical model predictive of a
surface trait such as healthy-diet lifestyle, the researcher must employ judgment
in selecting relevant situational and compound traits to employ. Thus, in
predicting healthy diet lifestyles, it was anticipated that compound and
situational traits related to health and to overcoming temptations would be
appropriate. The next section discusses this process beginning with the
identification of the situational traits. Hypotheses are developed, and the
methodology and results are then presented. In the results section, a new
procedure is proposed for identifying profiles of healthy diet segments of
consumers. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the results.
Developing the Hierarchical Model
Situational Traits
Healthy diet behaviors (e.g., eating fruits and vegetables, cutting back on
snacks and treats, and eating a well-balanced diet) represents a surface level
trait that takes place within the general situational setting of living a healthy
lifestyle. As a result, measures of enduring dispositions to lead healthy lives
were expected to be predictive of the narrower characteristic of consuming a
healthy diet. Other surface level traits that would represent enduring disposi-
tions to lead healthy lives include: exercise behavior, stress reduction
behaviors, the avoidance of smoking, and avoiding excessive alcohol
consumption.
From Health Motivation to Healthy Diet Lifestyle 129
Based upon a literature review and the judgments of the researcher, three
situational traits were selected for investigation. First, the measure of health
motivation developed by Moorman and Matulich (1993) was employed. This
eight-item scale measures the extent to which individuals are concerned about
protecting their health. It was expected that as the motivation to avoid health
hazards increases, one should find a corresponding increase in healthy diet
behaviors.
The second situational level trait employed was a measure of health care
product innovativeness. This scale was based upon a measure of category-
specific innovativeness developed by Goldsmith and Hofaker (1991). In this
scale, short phrases are provided (e.g., In general, I am among the first in my
circle offriend to try a ... "; "I will not buy a new ... until it is proven.") to which
words denoting the product category are added. For example, one item in the
scale read: "In general, I am among the first in my circle of friends to try a new
health care product when it appears." It was expected that as the general
tendency to purchase innovative health care products increases, one should find
a corresponding increase in healthy diet behaviors.
The third situational level trait investigated was health locus of control
(Wallston, Kaplan, and Maides 1976). As described by Wallston et al. (1976),
this scale provides an " ... area-specific measure of expectancies regarding locus
of control developed for prediction of health-related behavior" (p. 580). The
scale has been employed to predict a variety of health-related behaviors by
researchers such as Moorman and Matulich (1993).
Compound Traits and Healthy Diet Lifestyles

From the perspective of the hierarchical model, many more compound
traits than elemental traits are likely to exist. As a result, judgment must be
employed in identifying which compound traits to investigate in a hierarchical
model. In the context of health behaviors, two compound traits were selected
for investigation-the need for activity and effectance motivation. First, because
living a healthy lifestyle requires physical effort by an individual, it was
expected that the need for activity should be associated with this general class
of behaviors. As a result, it should be predictive of health motivation and
health innovativeness. The three-item scale of need for activity was described
in Chapter 7 of this book.
The second compound chosen for investigation was effectance motivation
(perceived control of one's life). The three-item scale employed to measure
self-efficacy was discussed in Chapter 9 of this book. Because consuming a
healthy diet requires willpower, it was expected that self-efficacy would be
predictive of the three situational traits to be investigated.
The Dependent Variable: Consuming a Health Diet

For the dependent variable, a context specific measure of healthy diet
behaviors was developed. The measure was conceptualized and based upon the
work of Moorman and Matulich (1993), the approach taken by the Center for
Disease Control in their Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS),
and work performed by Pender, Walker, Sechrist, and Stromborg (1990).
Initially, an eight-item scale asked respondents to rate the extent to which they
engaged in various behaviors indicative of a healthy diet, such as "cut back on
snacks and treats," "decrease your red meat consumption," and "have 5+
servings of fruits and vegetables a day." The entire scale is found in Table
10.1. As can be seen by its items, the healthy diet scale measures behavior at
a more specific level than health care product innovativeness or health
motivation (the surface traits) because the items denote concrete behaviors
(e.g., "take extra vitamin E to prevent disease," and "watch the amount of fat
I consume").
Hypotheses
The hypotheses were developed based upon the expected relationship of
the situational trait.s with healthy diet practices and the expected relationships
between the compound traits and the situational traits.
HI. Health innovativeness will be positively associated with
healthy diet practices.
H2. Health motivation will be positively associated with healthy
diet practices.
H3. Health locus of control will be positively associated with
healthy diet practices.
H4. Effectance motivation will be positively associated with health
innovativeness.
HS. Effectance motivation will be associated with health locus of
control.
H6. Effectance motivation will be associated with health
motivation.
H7. Need for activity will be associated with health innovativeness.
H8. Need for activity will be associated with health locus of
control.
H9. Need for activity will be associated with health motivation.
It was also anticipated that the need for body resources may be predictive
of the situational traits of health motivation, health locus of control, and health
innovativeness. Thus, it was expected that direct paths should connect body
resources to these situational level traits because of the close association
between body needs and health needs.
Table 10.1
Situational and Surface Trait Scales Employed in the Research
A. Health Innovativeness (Coefficient alpha = .84)
I. In general, I am among the first in my circle of friends to try a new health care
product when it appears.
2. If I heard that a new health care product was available in the store, I would be
interested enough to go see it.
3. Compared to my friends, I use a lot of health care products.
4. In general, I am among the last in my circle of friends to know about the latest
health care product. R
5. I buy new health care products before most others do.
B. Health Locus of Control (Coefficient alpha = .64)
1. Anyone can learn a few basic health principles that can go a long way in
preventing illnesses.
2. ''Taking care of yourself' has little or no relation to whether you get sick.
3. In the long run, people who take care of themselves stay healthy and get well
quickly.
4. There is little one can do to prevent illness.
5. Whether people get well is a matter of chance.
6. When it comes to health, there is no such thing as bad luck.
7. People who never get sick are just plain lucky.
8. Good health is largely a matter of good fortune.
9. Staying well has little or nothing to do with chance.
10. Recovery from illness has nothing to do with chance.
C. Health Motivation (Coefficient alpha = .74)
I. I try to prevent health problems before I feel any symptoms.
2. I am concerned about health hazards and try to take action to prevent them.
3. I try to protect myself against health hazards I hear about.
4. I don't worry about health hazards until they become a problem for me or
someone close to me.
5. There are so many things that can hurt you these days, I'm not going to worry
about them.
6. I often worry about the health hazards I hear about, but don't do anything about
them.
7. I don't take any action against health hazards I hear about until I know I have a
problem.
8. I'd rather enjoy life than try to make sure I'm not exposing myself to a health
hazard.
D. Healthy diet behaviors (Coefficient alpha = .85)
I. Take vitamin E to prevent disease
2. Read product label for health-related information
3. Take active steps to eat a well-balanced diet*
4. Watch the amount of fat I consume*
5. Watch the amount of sugar I consume*
6. Have 5+ servings of fruits and vegetables a day
7. Decrease my red meat consumption
8. Cut back on snacks and treats
Notes: R indicates that the item is reverse scored; * indicates final items.
HIO. Need for body resources will be associated with health

motivation.
Hll. Need for body resources will be associated with health
innovativeness.
H12. Need for body resources will be associated with health locus of
control.
Because previous researchers had not investigated the relationship between
compound level traits or elemental level traits and health locus of control, no
other predictions were made for this construct.
Methodology
Respondents were members of the Arkansas Household Research Panel.

The research was conducted in two phases. During the fall of 1997, 600
members of the Arkansas Research Panel received a "Consumer Motivation"
questionnaire. This questionnaire operation ali zed the eight elemental traits and
the compound trait of need for activity. During the spring of 1998, a second
wave of questionnaires was sent to the same set of respondents. In this survey
measures of effectance motivation, health locus of control, health product
innovativeness, and the dependent variable healthy diet lifestyle were obtained.
Individuals in the panel had an option as to which of several surveys to
complete. As a result, not all respondents answered each questionnaire. In the
first wave, responses were obtained from 311 individuals. In the second wave
responses were obtained from 295 individuals. The final sample consisted of
226 respondents who completed both questionnaires and who answered
sufficient questions for their surveys to be usable. Additional details of the
survey are given in Appendix C.
Results
In the first phase of the analysis, the coefficient alphas of the scales to
measure the constructs were assessed. Table 10.1 provides the items for the
situational level traits and for the dependent variable of healthy diet behaviors
along with their coefficient alphas. The lowest coefficient alpha was for health
locus of control (alpha = .64). The next two lowest alphas were for self-
efficacy (alpha = .74) and health motivation (alpha = .74). All other alphas
ranged between .80 for agreeability and .92 for need for activity and emotional
stability.
In the next phase of the analysis, confirmatory factor analysis was
employed to develop the measurement model for the study. With one
exception, the items for all of the constructs were entered into a confirmatory
factor analysis. The one exception was the measure of health locus of control.
Here, a single latent indicator consisting of the mean of the summed scale items
was employed with its variance and regression coefficient fixed. 16 In the initial
run the model's fit indices were extremely poor. This was anticipated because
of the low coefficient alpha for the health motivation scale. Based upon the
modification indices, items were eliminated from the compound, situational,
and surface traits. The health motivation scale was reduced to a three-item
measure, and the final health innovativeness scale had four items. In addition,
one item from the self-efficacy scale had to be eliminated. Finally, the healthy
diet dependent variable was reduced from eight items to three items. Table 10.1
provides the items that were retained. The final model possessed acceptable fit
indices (X2 = 11436, df = 899, TLI = .90, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .052).
Data were analyzed via structural equation modeling. In the first analysis,
a partial mediation model was employed in which paths were connected
between all traits at different levels. For example, a path connected each
elemental trait with the healthy diet dependent variable, with the three
situational traits, and with the two compound traits under investigation. This
model provides a direct means of assessing the hypotheses and of identifying
other unexpected relationships. In the second analysis a fully mediated model
was run. A chi-square difference test was performed in order to test whether
a hierarchical model or a partially mediated model best fits the data.
The fit indices for the partial mediation model were acceptable (X2 =
1445.9, df = 908, TLI = .90, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .051). Assessing the
hypotheses, the results revealed that 8 of the 12 predictions were supported.
Hypotheses 1 and 2 were supported. It was found that health innovativeness
(t = 3.92, P < .0001) and health motivation (t =4.82, P < .001) were significant
predictors of healthy diet lifestyle. Health locus of control, however, was not
found to predict healthy diet practices (t = 1.05, p> .15). Thus, H3 was not
supported.
Hypotheses 3-6 stated that self-efficacy would be predictive of the three
situational level traits. The results provided support for self-efficacy being
positively associated with health innovativeness (H4, t = 1.85, P < .05, I-tailed)
16The reason for employing a single latent indicator for the health motivation construct
was that in the confirmatory factor analysis, the eight-item scale was found to have very
poor measurement properties (e.g., items cross-loading with those of other scales, and
items had low multiple correlation coefficients). Exploratory factor analyses and item-
to-total correlation analysis were employed to identify acceptable subsets of items in the
health locus of control scale. Neither of the approaches provided a scale with
acceptable measurement properties for SEM.
and health motivation (H5, t = 3.42, P < .001). However, it was not related to
health locus of control (H6, t = .27, p> .70).
Hypotheses 7-9 predicted that the need for activity would be predictive of
the three situational traits. The results revealed no significant effects for
activity on these constructs (all t values < 1.5). In addition, the need for activity
was not found to be predictive of healthy diet lifestyles (t = .48, p> .50).
Hypotheses 10 through 12 predicted that the need for body resources
would be associated with health motivation, health innovativeness, and health
locus of control. The results revealed support for the relationship with health
motivation (HlO, t = 4.44, P < .001) and health innovativeness (H11, t = 3.30,
P < .001), but not for health locus of control (H11, t = 1.27, P > .10).
Overall, the results revealed no support for including the need for activity
or health locus of control in the model. As a result, the partial mediation model
was rerun with these constructs eliminated. The fit indices for the new model
were again acceptable (X2 = 1225.5, df = 754, TLI = .90, CFI = .91, RMSEA
= .053). The squared multiple correlations of the constructs were: healthy diet,
R2 = .48; health innovativeness, R2 = .24; health motivation, R2 = .34; self-
efficacy, R2 = .30.
A full mediation model was next run on the data. (Health locus and the
need for activity were not included in the analysis.) The fit indices were again
satisfactory (X2 = 1267.3, df = 777, TLI = .90, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .053).
The chi-square difference test with the partial mediation model was significant
(chi-square difference = 41.8, df = 23, P < .01). Thus, a partial mediation
model was supported. Indeed, this effect was anticipated based upon Hypothe-
ses 10-12, which proposed that the need for body resources would have a direct
path to health motivation, health innovativeness, and health locus of control.
A final exploratory model was run. The model was developed by
assessing the modification indices. This model was identical to the full
mediation model, except that paths were placed between the need for body
resources and three constructs: health motivation, health innovativeness, and
healthy diet lifestyle. In addition, a path was placed between the need for
arousal and healthy diet lifestyle. Again, the fit indices were acceptable
(X2 = 1253.2, df = 775, TLI = .90, CFI = .91, RMSEA = .052). The chi-square
difference test was performed in which this model was compared to the partial
mediation model. The results revealed that the two models were not
significantly different (chi-square difference = 27.7, df = 21, p> .10).
The variances accounted for by this final model were close to those of the
partial mediation model. The squared multiple correlations of the constructs
were: healthy diet, R2 = .45; health innovativeness, R2 = .20, health motivation,
R2 = .29; self-efficacy, R2 =.31. Figure 10.1 provides the final path diagram
for the model.
Figure 10.1
The Path Diagram for Healthy Diet Lifestyle
Arousal
Introversion
Openness 0
Unstable
Conscientious
Material 0 Health
Agreeableness 0
Body
Resources
The structural equation modeling also identified which compound and

elemental traits were predictive of health motivation and health innovativeness,
as well as which elemental traits were predictive of self-efficacy. The results
revealed that the following elemental traits were predictive of self-efficacy:
introversion (t =-3.65, p < .001), emotional stability (t =2.15, P < .05), the need
for arousal (t = 2.36, P < .05), and conscientiousness (t = 3.11, p < .01). They
accounted for 31 percent of the variance in the construct. Two constructs
accounted for 20 percent of the variance of health motivation: self-efficacy
(t = 4.37, P < .001) and need for body resources (t = 5.04, P < .001). Similarly,
the same two constructs accounted for 20 percent of the variance of health
innovativeness: self-efficacy (t = 3.06, p < .001)' and need for body resources
(t =4.64, p < .001).
Identifying Healthy Diet Lifestyle Segments

As proposed in the introductory section to this chapter, a methodology may
exist for identifying different segments of healthy diet consumers based upon
the network of traits linked to the surface disposition. Based upon the path
diagram found in Figure 10.1, the following traits were found to be related to
healthy diet behaviors either through partial or full mediation: health
motivation, health innovativeness, self-efficacy, body resources, conscientious-
ness, emotional instability, introversion, and need for arousal. These
constructs were input as variables in a hierarchical cluster analysis (Ward's
Method, squared Euclidian distance). Three-, four-, and five-cluster solutions
were investigated.
In order to select which cluster solution to investigate, three indicators
were employed. First, the aglomeration schedule was investigated. However,
it gave little clue as to which cluster solution was superior. Next, discriminant
analyses were run on each of the solutions. The analysis was significant for
each set of clusters. The classification results for the three-cluster solution
were: original group cases =93.4 percent correct and cross-validated grouped
cases = 91.6 percent correct. The classification results for the four-cluster
solution were: original group cases = 89.4 percent correct and cross-validated
grouped cases = 82.7 percent correct. Finally, the classification results for the
five-cluster solution were: original group cases = 90.7 percent correct and
cross-validated grouped cases = 85.0 percent. The classification results for
each cluster solution were excellent with the three- and five-cluster solutions
slightly superior.
In the third approach, one-way analysis of variance was employed to
determine which of the clusters were significantly different from each other on
each of the variables entered into the cluster analysis. Using the Duncan's post
hoc test, the mean ratings for the constructs were compared across clusters. In
particular, the goal was to the find the cluster solution that maximally separated
the means for the healthy diet dependent measure. The results revealed that all
three clusters were significantly different for the three-cluster solution.
Similarly, for the four-cluster, the means of all four clusters were significantly
different. Indeed, clusters 2 and 4 were identical to clusters 2 and 3 in the
three-cluster solution. Cluster 2 from the three-cluster solution split into two
separate clusters in the four-cluster solution. Finally, in the five-cluster
solution, only four of the clusters were significantly different on the healthy diet
dependent variable.
Based upon the analysis of variance procedure, the four-cluster solution
was superior because the means for each cluster of the healthy diet dependent
variable was significantly different from each other based upon the Duncan's
multiple-range post hoc test. When combined with excellent ability to classify
respondents correctly in the discriminant analysis, this solution was selected for
further analysis.
Table 10.2 provides the means for the clusters for each of the constructs
entered into the cluster analysis. Looking at the table, one finds that individuals
in cluster 2 revealed a pattern in which their means were consistently the lowest
among the clusters. A label for this group might be "couch potatoes" because
they were lowest in healthy diet disposition, health motivation, health
innovation, body needs, and conscientiousness. Indeed, if the need for activity
is investigated, cluster 2 was significantly lower on this variable as well.
Conversely, cluster 4 was significantly higher than the other clusters on most
constructs, including healthy diet disposition, health motivation, health
innovation, self-efficacy, body needs, and conscientiousness. Speaking face-
tiously, members of this cluster are a cross between Euell Gibbons and Jack
LaLainne. They might be called the "EuLainnes."
Clusters 1 and 3 provide a different pattern of traits. Cluster 1 has the
second lowest mean on healthy diet disposition and health motivation. They are
lowest in self-efficacy and highest in introversion and emotional instability.
However, they have the second highest mean score on need for body resources.
These individuals might be described as the "moody dieters."
Finally, cluster 3 revealed a pattern of traits in which its members were
second highest in healthy diet disposition, health motivation, and self-efficacy.
This group, however, was lowest in need for arousal and lower in health
innovativeness. A descriptor for the group might be "cautious dieters."
Table 10.2
Healthy Diet Trait Clusters
Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3

N=77 N=25 N=66 Cluster 4
Moody Couch Cautious N=58
Trait Dieters Potatoes Dieters EuLainnes
Healthy Diet Disposition 5.72b 3.05a 6.96c 7.87d
Health Motivation 6.34b 5.05a 6.56b 7.65c
Health Innovativeness 3.38b 1.97a 3.13b 3.99c
Self-efficacy 6.02a 6.54b 7.15c 7.95d
Introversion 4.67b 3.83a 4.06ab 4.67a
Body Needs 5.16c 3.55a 4.29b 6.71d
Arousal Needs 4.43b 3.00a 2.97a 4.63b
Emotional Instability 4.81b 2.57a 2.95a 2.71a
Conscientiousness 6.18b 4.82a 6.03b 7.27c

Note: Means with different letters are significantly different at p < .05.
Discussion
A combination of elemental, compound, and situational traits in a

hierarchical model accounted for 45 percent of the variance in a measure of
healthy diet behaviors. The results revealed that the following constructs had
direct paths to healthy diet behaviors: health motivation, innovative health
product interest, the need for body resources, and the need for arousal (negative
sign).
One important advantage of a hierarchical approach to personality is that
it identifies the basic elemental and compound traits that account for situational
traits and surface level traits. By going underneath the surface and situational
context, the hierarchical model provides a means for identifying the more basic
compound and elemental traits that act as references for behavior. Thus, in this
study health innovation and health motivation were predicted by self-efficacy
and by the need for body resources. In turn, 31 percent of the variance in self-
efficacy was accounted for by the need for arousal, introversion, emotional
stability, and conscientiousness.
Overall six of the twelve hypotheses were supported. Health innovative-
ness (HI) and health motivation (H2) were both strongly related to healthy diet
dispositions. Self-efficacy was a significant predictor of health motivation (H4)
and health innovativeness (H6). The need for body resources was positively
associated with health motivation (HIO) and health innovativeness (HI1). The
six unsupported hypotheses all involved the constructs of health locus of
control and the need for activity. In the structural equation model, none ofthe
predicted paths involving these constructs were significant. Thus, while the
pairwise correlations fit the predictions, when inserted into the structural
equation model, the relationships were accounted for by other constructs. 17
The hierarchical regression model also allows the researcher to identify
unexpected relationships among the variables. In the present study several
unpredicted findings occurred. First, the results revealed that in addition to its
relationship with health motivation and health innovativeness, the need for body
resources was also significantly related to healthy diet behaviors. In addition,
the need for arousal was found to be negatively related to health diet behaviors.
When interpreted from the control theory perspective of the 3M, these results
reveal that the schema for healthy diet behaviors directly activates two of the
eight elemental traits of the personality system.
The Potential Applied Value of the Hierarchical Approach

Does the present research have practical applications? The cluster analysis
provides a strong indication that the approach may allow marketing managers
and/or pUblic-policy makers to target different segments of consumers with
messages. For example, from a public-policy perspective, the results suggest
a potential means of communicating with consumers to encourage them to
improve their dietary habits. The "couch potato" segment is a logical choice for
targeting in order to change their dietary practices that involve a relative lack
of desire to watch the amount of fat and sugar consumed and to eat a well-
balanced diet. Representing 11 percent of the sample, the most notable
characteristic of this group is a low focus on the body (mean = 3.55 on a nine-
point scale). One hypothesis is that for such individuals, a very strong fear
appeal may be necessary in order to increase the importance placed on body
resources. One optimistic aspect of this group is that their self-efficacy scores
17The correlations were: H3-health locus of control and healthy diet, r =.27, P < .01;
H7-activity and health innovativeness, r = .26, P < .01; H8-activity and health
motivation, r = .25, P < .01; H9-activity and health locus of control, r = .11, P < .06,
one-tailed; H12-need for body resources and health locus of control, r =.14, P < .05).
are not the lowest. As a result, they may have sufficient willpower to take
active steps to improve their diets if sufficiently motivated. A pessimistic
aspect of this group, however, is that they are low in the need for arousal and
conscientiousness. As a result, they may not exert the conscientious effort
required to change their dietary practices.
The moody dieters were the largest cluster and represented 34 percent of
the sample of respondents. They also had the second lowest healthy diet
disposition. This group was marked by relatively higher levels of emotional
instability, introversion, and need for arousal. Concomitantly, they also reveal
the lowest self-efficacy. As will be seen in Chapter 11, the moody dieters'
profile shares these characteristics with compulsive buyers. Because of its size,
this group may be an important segment to target by groups attempting to
improve the health of consumers. The group does have the second highest body
orientation and conscientious scores. As a result, positive appeals to improve
one's body may be effective. In contrast, the higher scores for emotional
instability and introversion are associated with impulsive behaviors (see
Chapter 11). It may be possible to use themes such as remove the temptation
along with positive images of improved health to influence this target group.
Another applied application can be derived from the relationship between
health product innovation and a healthy diet lifestyle. This association suggests
that consumers must be encouraged to try new food products in order to get
them to consume a healthier diet. This relationship makes perfect sense when
one considers that the traditional diet in the United States is high in fat and
calories. In order to decrease total calorie and fat intake, consumers need to try
foods that are new to their diets.
The relationship between health motivation, perceived control, and healthy
diet also has practical implications. This association suggests that communica-
tions should emphasize the idea that gaining control of one's diet is an
important aspect of exerting control over one's life. Alternatively, a cereal
producer could suggest in advertisements that eating "brand x" is a simple,
good tasting means of gaining control over your diet.
It was somewhat surprising that the elemental traits of need for arousal and
need for body resources had a direct effect on the measure of healthy diet
lifestyle. It was expected that these traits would be mediated by the compound
and situational traits. From a communications perspective the relationship with
the need for body resources suggests that themes involving protecting and
enhancing the body will be effective in motivating consumers to eat a healthier
diet. Similarly, the relationship of healthy diet with the need for arousal
suggests that communications should stress the idea that eating a healthy diet
can reduce risk in one's life.
From HeaLth Motivation to HeaLthy Diet LifestyLe 141
The second practical use of the research is for the promotion of food
products. Just as nonprofit or governmental agencies may be able to use the
findings to encourage healthy diets, agribusiness and restaurant chains can use
the relationships found to promote their products. Thus advertisements that
employ themes of the fun of food innovation, of gaining control of one's life,
of protecting and enhancing the body may be very effective techniques. Of
course, future research is required to test these ideas.
It is important to conduct future research using samples of individuals that
span the age spectrum. The present study employed older adults with an
average age of 55 years. The same patterns of relationships may not occur for
younger people.
Future research must also be directed toward answering the practical
question of whether the hierarchical model can be employed to assist in
managerial decision making. First, additional work is required to determine
whether the personality traits can be employed to develop communications that
will influence the preventive health behaviors of individuals. As will be
discussed in Chapter 17, research in schema congruity theory (Fiske and Taylor
(1984) and in control theory (Carver and Scheier 1990) provide possible
mechanisms through which personality traits may influence the response to
communications. Second, the relationships also suggest new approaches to
counseling individuals who need to change their eating habits and health
behaviors. For example, emotional instability was found to be negatively
related to effectance motivation, which influences the healthy diet trait via
health motivation. Through individual counseling, it may be possible to
provide coping strategies that will allow individuals to increase their emotional
stability and perhaps improve their diets.
Chapter 11
FROM IMPULSIVENESS TO COMPULSIVE CONSUMPTION
Abstract
Two studies are reported that investigate the ability of the 3M to answer
three research questions related to compulsive buying among consumers. The
first research question asked: what is the relationship of compulsive buying to
competitiveness? The results revealed a weak negative relationship between
competitiveness and compulsi ve buying when the effects of the elemental traits
are accounted for. A second research question asked: what is the relationship
between impulsiveness and compulsive buying? Impulsiveness was found to
be a strong predictor of compulsive buying. Exploratory research was
conducted to answer the third research question of whether the 3M's hierarch-
ical model can account for more variance in compulsive buying than the
Rokeach Value Inventory (Rokeach 1979) and the LOV Scale (Kahle 1983).
Neither the Rokeach Value Inventory nor the LOV Scale accounted for
significant variance in compulsive buying. Overall, the results revealed that
impulsiveness and three of the elemental traits had significant relationships
with compulsive buying: emotional stability (negative), material needs, and
conscientiousness (negative). Elemental traits predictive of impulsiveness
were: emotional stability (negative), materialism, conscientiousness (negative),
extraversion, and openness to experience (negative). Across the two studies,
the mean level of variance accounted for in compulsive buying was 34 percent.
Cluster analysis revealed four segments of consumers with divergent patterns
of traits associated with compulsive buying. The implications of the results for
communications and counseling to reduce compulsive buying are discussed.
Introduction
Consumer research on compulsive buying began with work by Faber and

O'Guinn (1988, 1989) and O'Guinn and Faber (1989). These authors devel-
oped a scale to measure the tendency of consumers to engage in chronic buying
episodes in which the consumer loses control of his or her buying and is unable
to halt the behavior. More recently other researchers have taken an active
interest in the phenomenon. For example, Edwards (1992, p. 54) defined
compulsive behavior as" ... a chronic, abnormal form of shopping and spending
characterized, in the extreme, by an overpowering, uncontrollable, and
repetitive urge to buy, with disregard for the consequences." As recently
described by Mowen and Spears (1999), compulsive buying may be a major
contributor to the record number of personal bankruptcies filed in the United
States in the 1990s.
144 From Impulsiveness to Compulsive Consumption
Research on compulsive buying reveals a number of consistent findings.

As discussed by Faber, Christenson, Zwaan, and Mitchell (1995), compulsive
consumption behaviors are associated with low levels of self-esteem, high
levels of depression, and high levels of anxiety. Mowen and Spears (1999),
proposed that the trait of emotional stability identified by Five-Factor Model
theorists (Wiggins 1996) relates to the pattern of findings described by Faber
et al. (1995). Specifically, individuals low in stability tend to have low self-
esteem, high levels of anxiety, and high levels of depression (Costa and McCrae
1985). The research of Mowen and Spears (1999) supported the expected
negative relationship between emotional stability and compulsive buying.
In other research, DeSarbo and Edwards (1996) identified a number of
constructs predictive of compulsive buying. They found that materialism,
excitement seeking, and isolation are characteristic of compulsive consumers.
These individual difference variables are strikingly similar to three of the
elemental traits identified in the 3M. The materialism construct investigated by
DeSarbo and Edwards (1996) is the same construct as the trait of materialism
in the 3M. Excitement seeking is closely related to the need for arousal.
Finally, isolation is closely related to the introversion trait found in the 3M.
Mowen and Spears (1999) investigated the hypotheses that materialism,
the need for arousal, and introversion are precursors to compulsive buying.
They used scales that were nearly identical to those in the 3M Model to predict
compulsive buying. Compulsive buying was measured by the scale developed
by Faber and O'Guinn (1989). Noting that compulsive buying is a serious
problem among college students, they reported two studies that investigated the
construct among undergraduates at a major public university. Their results
revealed that measures of conscientiousness (negative relationship), agree-
ability, emotional stability (negative relationship), and materialism were
predictive of compulsive buying. The variance accounted for in compulsive
buying was 19 percent in Study 1 and 29 percent in Study II. Contrary to their
hypothesis, they did not find a significant relationship between the need for
arousal and compulsive buying. In addition, they did not find support for the
relationship between introversion and compulsive buying.
The research reported in this chapter seeks to answer three research
questions. The first question goes beyond previous research to ask: what is the
relationship between consumer competitiveness and compulsive buying? That
is, to what extent is compulsive buying driven by a need to "keep up with the
Joneses?" The second research question asked: what is the relationship among
compulsive buying, a measure of impulsiveness (Puri 1996), competitiveness,
and the eight elemental traits of the 3M?
The last research question asked whether the elemental traits of the 3M
Model can account for more variance in compulsive buying than the Rokeach
From Impulsiveness to Compulsive Consumption 145
(1979) Value Inventory and the LOV Scale (Kahle 1983). The Rokeach Value
Inventory and the LOV Scale are employed as comparison measures in order
to provide a reference point for assessing the predictive validity of the 3M. The
research also sought to determine whether different segments of consumers can
be identified based upon the relationships between the elemental traits,
impulsiveness, and compulsive buying.
Does Keeping Up with the Joneses Result in Compulsive Buying?
Two studies investigated the relationship between the competitiveness

construct, compulsive buying, and the elemental traits. As described in Chapter
6, competitiveness is a compound-level construct that describes the enduring
disposition of people to seek to win in contests, outperform others, and test their
abilities against others. In the naive psychology of lay people, one often hears
the phrase "keeping up with the Joneses" to describe behavior in which
individuals buy in order to maintain a standard of living comparable to their
neighbors. Implicit in the phrase is the idea that purchase behavior is simply
another arena for competitiveness to emerge. These ideas were described by
Thorstein Veblin (1912) in his discussion of conspicuous consumption.
McCracken described conspicuous consumption as representing a " ... war of
status competition in which goods serve chiefly in status-marking and status-
claiming capacities" (p. 6).
If competitiveness is an important component of conspicuous buying and
if conspicuous consumption is a major factor influencing consumer buying, one
should expect that consumers who are particularly prone to buy for status
reasons should reveal high levels of competitiveness. In addition, one should
expect such individuals to reveal a pattern of compulsive buying. Said in
another way, individuals who are extremely competitive may select the buying
arena as a domain in which to compete. This may result in a tendency to reveal
compUlsive buying behaviors.
In two of the studies reported in this book, the elemental traits, compulsive
buying, and competitiveness were measured in the same survey: the Consumer
Credit Counseling (CCCS) Study and the Fall 1997 Student Study 2. For each
study the same path model described in Chapter 6 was used in which the
elemental traits were employed to predict competitiveness. In addition, a single
latent indicator of the measure of compUlsive buying developed by Faber and
O'Guinn (1988) was employed as the dependent measure. One item was
eliminated because it loaded poorly on the overall scale. The item stated:
"Made only the minimum payments on my credit cards."
In the structural equation model analysis of both data sets, the elemental
traits were inserted as exogenous variables using a multiple latent indicator
approach. Competitiveness was inserted as a mediating variable, and

compulsive consumption was the dependent variable. The summed items of the
compulsive buying scale were input as a single latent indicator with the
variance and the square root of the coefficient alpha fixed. The coefficient
alpha of the compulsive buying scale was .73 in the Student data set and .77 in
the CCCS data.
For the Fall 1997 Student Study, the fit indices of the model were
acceptable (X2 == 892.2, df == 555, CFI == .91, TLI == .90, RMSEA == .061). The
model accounted for 24.1 percent of the variance in competitiveness and 32.8
percent of the variance in compulsive buying. Significant elemental trait
predictors of compulsive buying were: emotional instability (t == 3.41, P < .01),
materialism (t == 4.70, P < .00l), and conscientiousness (t == -1.61, P < .05, one-
tailed). The path between competitiveness and compulsive buying was
significant but negative (t == -2.41, P > .05).
The same approach was employed with the CCCS data. The fit indices of
the model were acceptable (X2 == 1007.9, df == 555, CFI == .92, TLI == .91,
RMSEA == .055). The model accounted for 48.6 percent of the variance in
competitiveness and 26.3 percent of the variance in compulsive buying.
Significant elemental trait predictors of compulsive buying were: emotional
instability (t == 3.79, P < .01), materialism (t == 5.84, P < .001), and agreeability
(t == 2.36, P < .05). The path between competitiveness and compulsive buying
was not significant (t == -1.03, P > .25).
A Meta-Analysis of the Studies

The meta-t procedure (Rosenthal 1991) was employed to assess whether
across the two studies competitiveness was significantly related to compulsive
buying when the effects of the elemental traits were accounted for. The results
of the analysis revealed a significant meta-t of -2.42 (p < .01). (The meta-t is
treated as a z score.) In sum, a significant negative relationship was found
between competitiveness and compulsive buying.
Impulsiveness, Competitiveness, and Compulsive Buying
The surveys employed in the Fall 1997 Student Study 2 and the CCCS
Study also contained a measure of impulsiveness developed by Puri (1996). An
important research question concerns whether consumers who reveal the trait
of impulsiveness may also have a tendency to buy compulsively. Along with
the measure of compulsive buying, impUlsiveness was inserted into the
structural equation model as a single latent indicator with variance and the
square root of coefficient alpha fixed. Data were analyzed as a partial mediation
model. Thus, paths were connected from the elemental traits to
competitiveness, impUlsiveness, and compulsive buying. Finally, a single path

connected impUlsiveness to compUlsive buying. Thus, in this model impUlsive-
ness is modeled as a situational trait.
Looking first at the results of the CCCS analysis, the fit indices of the
model were acceptable (X2 = 1052.2, df = 578, CFl = .92, TLI = .91, RMSEA
= .055). The squared multiple correlations were: competitiveness = .49,
impulsiveness = .30, and compulsive buying =.31. Significant predictors of
competitiveness were: emotional stability (t = -3.09, P < .01), the need for
arousal (t = 5.82, P < .001), and materialism (t = 4.00, P < .001). Significant
predictors of impulsiveness were: emotional stability (t = -2.86, P < .01),
extraversion (t = 2.20, P < .05), openness to experience (t = -2.30, p < .05),
conscientiousness (t = -4.82, P < .001), and materialism (t= 4.14, p < .001).
Finally, significant predictors of compulsive buying were: impUlsiveness
(t = 5.22, P < .001), emotional stability (t = -2.80, P < .01), conscientiousness
(t = 2.23, P < .05), and materialism (t = 5.22, P < .001). The path model for this
study is found in Figure 11.1.
The results of the Fall 1997 Student Study 1 generally paralleled those of
the CCCS Study. The fit indices were marginally acceptable in the study
(X2 = 1019.6, df = 578, CFl = .89, TLI = .88, RMSEA = .067). The squared
mUltiple correlations were: compulsive buying = .37, competitiveness = .24, and
impulsiveness = .40. Significant predictors of competitiveness were: the need
for arousal (t = 3.07, p < .001) and agreeability (t = -2.75, p < .001). Significant
predictors of impulsiveness were: emotional stability (t = -2.66, P < .05),
conscientiousness (t = -5.07, P < .001), materialism (t = 4.12, P < .001), and
competitiveness (t = -2.43, P < .05). Finally, significant predictors of
compulsive buying were: impUlsiveness (t =4.17, P < .001), emotional stability
(t = -2.45, P < .05), and materialism (t = 3.08, P < .01).
A final analysis of the data from the two studies was run in which the
elemental traits were connected directly to compulsive buying, and
impulsiveness and competitiveness were eliminated from the model. For the
CCCS data, the fit indices were acceptable (X2 = 782.9, df = 430, CFl = .93, TLI
= .92, RMSEA = .055). The model accounted for 26 percent of the variance in
the measure of compulsive buying. Significant predictor variables were
emotional stability (t = -3.69, P < .001), materialism (t = 5.87, P < .001), and
agreeability (t =2.34, P < .05). For the 1997 Student Study the fit indices were
also acceptable (X2 = 681.1, df = 430, CFr = .93, TLI = .91, RMSEA = .059).
The squared multiple correlation of the compUlsive buying dependent measure
was R2 = .309. Significant predictors of compulsive buying were: emotional
stability (t = -3.15, P < .01), materialism (t = 4.43, P < .001), and agreeability
(t = 1.93, P < .06).
Figure 11.1
Path Diagram for Compulsive Buying
Emotional
Stability
Introversion
Openness
Arousal
Body
Resources
.15
Conscientious
Material
Resources
Agreeability 0
Predicting Compulsive Buying with the Rokeach Value Inventory and

the LOV Scale
In the two pilot studies employed to develop the 3M Model, items from the
Rokeach Value Inventory (Rokeach 1979) and from the LOV Scale (Kahle
1983) were included. While the elemental trait scales of the 3M Model were
still in an exploratory stage of development in these studies, the results provide
a limited ability to compare them against two established inventories.
Investigating the Rokeach Value Inventory

Data were collected on the elemental traits (i.e., an early version of the
scales) and the Rokeach Value Inventory in the Spring 1997 Student Study.
Subjects were students enrolled in introductory marketing and introductory
psychology classes at a southwestern university. A sample of 304 completed
the survey as part of a class exercise. Compulsive consumption was assessed
via an existing scale developed by Faber and O'Guinn (1989). In addition, the
Rokeach Value Scale (Rokeach 1979) was included in the data collection effort.
In the first step of the analysis, the coefficient alphas of the scales were
calculated. For the compulsive buying scale, alpha = .79. The coefficient
alphas for each of the elemental traits (except for extraversion) were above .70.
A standard multiple regression analysis was run employing the "entry"
method. The overall model was significant and accounted for 22.1 percent of
the variance in compUlsive buying. Significant predictor variables were:
material resource needs (~ = .25, P < .000), conscientiousness (~ = -.22,
P < .000), emotional stability (~= -.21, P < .001), and need for body resources
(~= -.18, P < .001).
The analysis of the Rokeach Value scale began with a factor analysis of
the overall set of instrumental and terminal values. (A maximum likelihood
extraction procedure with varimax rotation was employed.) Five interpretable
factors were obtained, which accounted for 58.9 percent of the variance. The
five factors and the names given to them were: capability (coefficient alpha =
.87; ambitions, capable, courageous, independent, intelligent, logical),
controlled (coefficient alpha = .71; controlled, obedient), imagination
(coefficient alpha = .72, imagination, beauty), cheerful (coefficient alpha = .87,
cheerful, forgiving, helpful, honest, polite, salvation), and loving (coefficient
=.86; loving, friendship, happy, mature love, and pleasure). (Items that did not
load on any factor or that cross-loaded were dropped from the analysis.) Scales
were created for each of the five factors by adding the items together. The five
scales were then input into a regression equation in which compulsive buying
was the dependent variable. The model was not significant (F =1.56, P > .17).
Only one ofthe factors was significant (loving, p < .05). However, the amount
of adjusted variance accounted for was less than 1 percent for the overall
model. When the items were input as individual indicators, the results were
essentially the same.
Investigating the LOV Scale

Items for the LOV Scale (Kahle 1983), an early version of the elemental
traits, and compulsive buying were included in the Summer 1997 Tulsa Mall
Study (see Appendix C-2). Data were collected by a professional marketing
research firm in two malls in a large southwestern city over a three-week
period. Subjects were paid $1 for participating in a consumer motivation study.
In the first analysis coefficient alphas were calculated for each of the
scales. All alphas for the 3M constructs exceeded .78 except for the extraver-
sion scale, which had a coefficient alpha of .65. Finally, the coefficient alpha
for the measure of compulsive consumption was .80.
The eight elemental traits were employed to predict compulsive buying in
a regression analysis. The model was highly significant and accounted for 27.3
percent in compulsive buying. Significant predictor variables were material
resource needs (~ =.27, P < .000) and stability (~ =-.28, P < .000). In the next
analysis the nine items from the LOV Scale (Kahle 1983) were employed as
predictor variables in a regression equation. The results were not significant
(R2 = .004, P > .70).
Identifying Segments of Compulsive Buyers
The procedure employed in Chapter 10 to identify healthy diet segments

of consumers was used to identify segments of compulsive buyers. For this
analysis the CCCS sample was employed because the sample size was larger
than the 1997 Student Study 2 (CCCS, n = 272; 1997 Student Study, n = 165)
and because the sample was composed of adults who were diverse in terms of
education, income, and age.
The procedure began with a cluster analysis of the data employing the
Wards procedure with squared Euclidian distance. Three-, four-, and five-
cluster solutions were requested. Variables input into the analysis were
compulsive buying, impulsiveness, need for material resources, emotional
stability, agreeability, conscientiousness, and introversion. For the three-cluster
solution the discriminant function classification statistics revealed that 89.7
percent and 87.5 percent of the respondents were correctly classified in the
original and cross-validated groups. For the four-cluster solution, the
classification statistics revealed that 89.4 percent and 88.3 percent of the
respondents were correctly classified in the original and cross-validated groups.
For the five-cluster solution, the classification statistics revealed that 88.6
percent and 87.2 percent of the respondents were correctly classified in the
original and cross-validated groups. One-way analysis of variance was then
employed to determine which of the input variables best distinguished the
clusters. The Duncan's post hoc test was employed to determine which of the
means for each variable were significantly different across the clusters. In the
three-cluster solution, two of the three means for compulsive buying were
significantly different. In the four-cluster solution, three of the four means for
compulsive buying were significantly different. Finally, in the five-cluster
solution, three of the five means were significantly different. Thus, the four-
cluster solution provided the best separation of means on the key variable of
compUlsive buying. In addition, all four means were significantly different on
the variables of emotional stability and agreeability. The discriminant function
revealed that each of the input variables was significant in the equation. Based
upon these results, the four-cluster solution was identified as superior to the
three-cluster and five-cluster solutions. Table 11.1 provides the means of the
input variables for each of the four clusters.
Table 11.1
Means of the Four-Cluster Solution for Compulsive Buying
Cluster 2 Cluster 4
Cluster 1 "Stable Cluster 3 "Careless
"Easy Marks" Buyers" "Compulsives" Buyers"
Trait N=131 N=58 N=52 N=32
Compulsive Buying 3.52b 3.06a 5.19c 2.91a
Impulsiveness 3.68ab 3.42a 4.70c 3.82b
Material Needs 3.78a 3.52a 6.37b 3.82a
Emotional Instability 4.64c 2.49a 6.23d 3.95b
Agreeability 7.82d 7.34c 6.43b 4.65a
Conscientiousness 6.42b 6.67b 5.32a 4.89a
Introversion 5.01b 2.55a 4.40b 4.63b
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different.

Table 11.1 shows a pattern of results suggesting that one of the four
clusters (Cluster 3) reveals a classic compulsive buying pattern. Representing
12 percent of the respondents, Cluster 3 was highest in compulsive buying,
impulsiveness, material needs, and emotional instability. It was significantly
lower than two of the clusters in conscientiousness, and significantly higher
than two ofthe clusters in introversion and agreeability. This group is labeled
"compulsive buyers."
Cluster 1 was significantly higher in compulsive buying than clusters 2 and
4 and significantly lower than Cluster 3. This group displayed a pattern of
being relatively low in impulsiveness and in material needs. Interestingly, it
was significantly higher than two of the groups in conscientiousness. On
emotional instability, it was significantly higher than two of the groups. The
members of the group were the highest in introversion. It is particularly
noteworthy as being significantly higher than all other groups in agreeability.
This group is labeled "easy marks" and represents 48 percent of the
respondents.
Clusters 2 and 4 were not significantly different from each other on
compulsive buying. In addition, there were no significant differences between
the groups on material needs. These two groups were the lowest in compUlsive
buying. Cluster 4, however, was significantly higher than Cluster 2 in
impulsiveness, emotional instability, and introversion. Cluster 4 was signifi-
cantly lower than cluster 2 on agreeability and conscientiousness. Indeed, this
group was lowest of all the groups in conscientiousness. Based upon the
pattern of responses, Cluster 4 is labeled "careless consumers" and composed
12 percent of the respondents. Cluster 2 reveals a pattern of responses that are
highly inconsistent with a group with financial problems. They were the lowest
in compulsive buying, impulsiveness, and material needs. They were highest
in emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness. Based upon their
pattern of responses, Cluster 2 is labeled "stable buyers." It composed 21
percent of the respondents.
General Discussion
This chapter sought to answer three questions concerning compUlsive

buying. The first question asked whether competitiveness was a significant
predictor of compulsive buying. The second question sought to determine the
relationship between a measure of impulsiveness and compulsive buying.
Finally, the chapter compared the ability of the 3M with the Rokeach Value
Inventory (Rokeach 1979) and the LOV Scale (Kahle 1983) to predict
compUlsive buying.
Competitiveness and Compulsive Buying

Concerning research question 1, the meta-t analysis of the results revealed
a significant negative relationship between competitiveness and compulsive
buying when the effects of the elemental traits are accounted for. The
relationship was strongest in the 1997 Student Study. The results of the CCCS
Study directionally supported the findings in the Student Study and as a result,
the meta-t statistic was significant at p < .01. In sum, the results provide no
evidence for the proposal that compUlsive buying results from a competitive
urge to "keep up with the Joneses."
Impulsiveness and Compulsive Buying

Research question 2 investigated the relationship between consumer
impulsiveness (Puri 1996) and compulsive buying. The results revealed a
strong positive relationship between the constructs in both studies. In addition,
in both studies significant direct paths were also found between emotional
instability and compulsive buying and between materialism and compUlsive
buying. Thus, impulsiveness fully mediated the effects of competitiveness and
agreeability on compulsive buying. It partially mediated the effects of
materialism and emotional stability. Across the two studies, the full hierarchical
model accounted for an average of 34.3 percent of the variance in compulsive
buying.
The hierarchical model also identified the constructs associated with
impUlsive behavior as measured by the Puri (1996) scale. Impulsiveness was
found to be negatively related to emotional stability and conscientiousness in
both studies. In addition, it was found to be positively related to materialism
in both studies. In the Fall 1997 Student Study 2, impulsiveness was negatively
related to openness to experience. A meta-t indicates that the effect across the
two studies was significant (meta-t = 1.67, P < .05). In the CCCS Study the
construct was found to be negatively related to competitiveness. The meta-t
analysis indicated that the effect was significant across the two studies (meta-t
= 2.27, p < .05). Finally, extraversion was positively associated with impulsive-
ness in the CCCS Study. A near significant relationship was also found in the
1997 Student Study 2. The meta-t was highly significant (meta-t = 2.68,
P < .01).
These findings can be interpreted within the context of past research on
compulsive buying. Work by Mowen and Spears (1999) found that high
materialism, low conscientiousness, high agreeability, and low emotional
stability were associated with compulsive buying. The present research
supported the effects found previously for materialism, agreeability, and
emotional stability. The negative relationship between conscientiousness and
compulsive buying was not found. The relationship, however, was found
between conscientiousness and impulsiveness. Interestingly, a closer inspection

of the results reveals that the negative relationship between conscientiousness
and compulsive buying was nearly significant in the 1997 Student Study 2
(t = -1.92, P < .06). It did not approach significance in the CCCS Study
(t = .62, p> .50). (Indeed, in this study a significant positive relationship was
found between conscientiousness and compulsive buying.) One explanation of
these results is that individuals who choose to enter the CCCS program to
reduce debt are expressing conscientiousness. That is, participants in the CCCS
program know that they have debt problems, and they are assiduously seeking
to solve the problem. Thus, not all individuals with debt problems are
compulsive buyers and/or lack the trait of conscientiousness.
The results also help to explain the relationship between compulsive
buying and extraversion. Based upon the research of DeSarbo and Edwards
(1996), Mowen and Spears expected that a positive relationship may exist
between compulsive buying and extraversion. This relationship, however, was
not obtained in their research. The hierarchical model employed in the present
research revealed that extraversion was positively associated with impulsive-
ness. These results may provide an explanation for the inability of Mowen and
Spears (1999) to obtain the expected effect. That is, the DeSarbo and Edwards
(1996) research employed a measure of compulsive buying different from that
of Faber and O'Guinn (1989). The DeSarbo and Edwards (1996) scale may
have been measuring impulsiveness as well as compulsive buying. As shown
in the present research, these constructs appear to be distinct. Indeed, within
the context of the 3M Model, impUlsiveness should be considered a compound
trait that can be expressed across situations. Future research should evaluate
the measurement properties of the different scales designed to measure
compUlsive buying.
Values and Compulsive Buying

Research question 3 investigated the ability of the Rokeach Value
Inventory (Rokeach 1979) and the LOV Scale (Kahle 1983) to predict
compulsive buying. Across two studies, the results revealed that these
instruments designed to measure values had little or no ability to predict
compulsive buying. In contrast, an early version of the 3M's elemental traits
was able to account for 22 percent and 27 percent of the variance in compulsive
buying in the two studies. In sum, in comparison to two well-established
approaches, the elemental traits of the 3M Model were found to possess
superior predictive ability.
Segments of Compulsive Buyers

In order to develop public-policy responses to the consumer debt problem
in the United States, an important step is to identify the characteristics of
segments of consumers with financial problems. The data from the CCCS
Study, whose participants by definition have financial problems, were analyzed
in order to determine whether segments of compulsive buyers could be
identified. The results revealed four segments of buyers, three of which
differed on compulsive buying. The "compulsive" segment is marked by high
compulsive buying, high impulsiveness, high materialism, high emotional
instability, and low conscientiousness. The "easy mark" segment is at a middle
level of compulsive buying. It is denoted by high levels of agreeability,
introversion, and emotional instability. The "careless" segment is low in
compulsive buying and conscientiousness. The "stable consumer" segment is
low in compulsive buying and lowest in impulsiveness. It is highest in
emotional stability, conscientiousness, and extraversion.
These results suggest that there are many reasons why individuals may
have financial misfortune. For example, the pattern of traits for the compulsive
buyers suggest that deep psychological problems may be responsible for their
indebtedness. The "easy mark" group may have problems because they find it
hard to say "no" to effective sales messages. The "careless" consumers simply
may not be able to engage in sufficient detailed analysis to make sure that they
are not overspending. Finally, the "stable" consumers may be composed of a
group who simply had financial misfortunes-perhaps very high medical
bills-that created the problem. Future research needs to track the individuals
in these groups to determine their degree of success in completing the CCCS
program. In addition, future research is required to identify whether the actual
causes of financial misfortune parallel the speculations made in this paragraph.
Future Research Issues

Future research should begin to focus on developing counseling techniques
and communications strategies to influence consumers to take greater control
of their buying activities. The data suggest a number of possible approaches.
First, the strong relationship between emotional instability and compulsive
buying indicates that counseling techniques focused on increasing the emotional
stability of consumers may have the effect of decreasing compulsive buying. In
sum, by taking steps to influence emotional stability, it may be possible to
reduce the compulsive buying expression of the underlying need. This
approach should be particularly effective on the "compulsive buying" segment.
Second, the relationship between agreeability and compulsive buying
deserves investigation. The results can be interpreted to indicate that one
reason for compulsive buying may be an unwillingness to say "no" to sales
personnel because these consumers are such "nice guys." Programs to train
compulsive buyers to "say no" may be highly effective. This program may be
particularly appropriate for consumers in Cluster I-the "easy marks."
In a similar manner, programs developed to increase the conscientiousness,
orderliness, and efficiency of consumers may be effective in decreasing
compulsive buying. Getting organized and having control over budgets may
dramatically influence spending behavior. These ideas are consistent with the
finding that impulsiveness is strongly related to compulsive buying. That is, if
means can be found to increase conscientiousness, it may be possible to reduce
impulsive buying that occurs without regard to the consequences. These
techniques may be particularly effective for those in Cluster 4-the "careless
buyers."
Finally, the strong relationship between materialism and compulsive
buying suggests additional intervention strategies. In particular, counseling
programs that seek to decrease an individual's focus on obtaining material
goods as a means of finding happiness may decrease the urge to buy
compUlsively. This approach may be particularly effective for Cluster 3-the
"compulsives"-who were significantly higher in materialism than all other
groups.
Chapter 12
FROM VALUE CONSCIOUSNESS TO BARGAINING PRONENESS
Abstract
Two studies were conducted investigating the surface level trait of

bargaining proneness and its relationship to the situational level trait of value
consciousness. In Study 1, the bargaining proneness scale was developed and
shown to have good convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity. In
addition, it was found that value consciousness, competitiveness, materialism,
and the need for arousal were predictive of the construct. Study 2 extended the
research by collecting new data and examining the relationships using structural
equation modeling. Significant predictors of bargaining proneness were: value
consciousness, competitiveness, the need for arousal, and materialism. The
results revealed that the elemental traits of need for arousal, conscientiousness,
agreeability, emotional instability, and materialism were predictive of
competitiveness. Value consciousness was predicted by agreeability,
materialism (negative relation), emotional stability, conscientiousness, the need
for arousal, and the need for body resources. Variance accounted for in the
constructs by the model were: bargaining proneness =32 percent, competitive-
ness =48 percent, and value consciousness =28 percent. Results are discussed
in terms of the possible use of the findings for developing communication
themes for persuasive purposes.
Introduction
Angelmar and Stern (1978) suggested that bargaining may be the

" ... central element of marketing transactions in a number of contexts" (p. 100).
As described by Evans and Beltramini (1987), when pricing products such as
autos, homes, and appliances, negotiations may occur. Similarly, bargaining
frequently happens at flea markets, garage sales, and when negotiating for
services such as yard work and even medical services. Particularly in the
underground economy where services are traded (e.g., dental services are
provided in exchange for legal services), a bargaining process will take place.
Snyder and Diesing (1977) identified a variety of competitive behaviors that
may occur in bargaining contexts such as imposing time limits and communica-
tions limitations. Other researchers have identified tactics that negotiators may
employ such as using persuasive arguments (Capon and Swasy 1977), low
balling (Cialdini et al. 1978), and employing the door-in-the-face technique
(Mowen and Cialdini 1980). Other researchers investigating bargaining have
analyzed strategies of offers and counteroffers, such as tit-for-tat (Kuhlman and
Marshello 1975).
158 From Value Consciousness to Bargaining Proneness
Evans and Beltramini (1987) developed a theoretical model of consumer

negotiated pricing. In the model they identified three sets of conditions that
influence negotiated pricing orientation, which in tum impacts the nature of the
participant interchange. The first type of condition is the background, which
is composed of negotiation expertise, attitudes between the parties, and the
psychological characteristics and perceived roles of the negotiators. The
second set of conditions is composed of antecedent factors such as perceived
outcome expectations, incentives to initiate the negotiations, and perceived
power relationships. The final set of conditions specify the concurrent factors
that influence the negotiated pricing orientation, including situational factors
(e.g., the number of parties involved, stress and tension) and structural issues
(e.g., open versus secret proceedings).
Consistent with the work of Evans and Beltramini (1987), the chapter
investigates personality as one of the background factors that impacts the
tendency to bargain. More specifically, it seeks to identify the set of elemental,
compound, and situational traits that are associated with tendencies to be
bargaining prone. Bargaining proneness is defined as the disposition to seek to
negotiate prices and barter with others. In this chapter it is proposed that
bargaining proneness represents a surface level trait. Thus, the construct
identifies a predisposition to perform a set of actions that take place within a
specific behavioral domain.
Within the consumer environment, individuals frequently encounter
situations in which they have a choice of whether to place themselves in a
situation in which bargaining is required. For example, when selling a home,
consumers can choose whether to hire a real estate agent or sell the home
themselves. Similarly, when purchasing an automobile, consumers now have
a choice of between dealerships that will deal and bargain and dealerships that
have a one-price, no negotiation approach. The Saturn division of General
Motors employs this pricing strategy. One can predict that individuals who
possess a disposition to bargain will select purchase contexts that will involve
the chance to engage in a negotiation process with others. Conversely,
individuals who lack this surface trait will tend to eschew such purchase
contexts. Based upon these ideas, hypothesis one is proposed.
H1: The surface trait of bargaining proneness will be positively
associated with tendencies to select purchase contexts in which
negotiated pricing occurs.
As noted by Evans and Beltramini (1987), psychological characteristics
of the consumer will impact their negotiated pricing orientation (bargaining
proneness). Thus, a key research question investigated in this chapter asks:
which psychological traits in the 3M Model may be related to the surface trait
of bargaining proneness? In order to identify these psychological traits, one
From Value Consciousness to Bargaining Proneness 159
must refer to the work on bargaining and negotiation found in the psychological
literature. Rubin and Brown (1975) reviewed much of the literature on the
social psychology of bargaining and negotiation. In this review they sum-
marized the findings on the underlying psychological characteristics that impact
the participants' approach to bargaining. It should be noted that much of the
literature on bargaining and negotiation was performed within the context of
prisoners' dilemma situations. Mathews, Wilson, and Monoky (1972) noted
that prisoner dilemma games are similar to those faced by buyers in both
industrial and consumer contexts.
One of the strongest findings identified by Rubin and Brown (1975) was
that individuals identified as higher in risk taking will choose an orientation of
individual gain rather than mutual cooperation in prisoner dilemma games.
Within the 3M, the elemental trait of need for arousal is closely associated with
risk taking. This leads to the development of hypothesis two.
H2: The need for arousal will be positively associated with the
tendency to engage in bargaining.
A second finding identified in the literature reviewed by Rubin and Brown
(1975) is that high need for achievement individuals prefer competitive
strategies more than low achievement people. As described in Part III of this
book, both competitiveness and achievement motivation (task orientation) have
been investigated within the rubric of the 3M Model. Chapter 4 revealed that
conscientiousness is highly predictive of task orientation. Further, Chapter 6
found that task orientation is highly predictive of competitiveness along with
several of the elemental traits. While both task orientation and competitiveness
are classified as compound traits, the disposition to enjoy competing against
others appears to be closer to a situational trait. That is, one can be achieve-
ment oriented and not reveal extreme competitiveness. However, it is difficult
to conceptualize someone as highly competitive without also being achievement
oriented. Furthermore, bargaining appears to be more closely related to
competitiveness than to achievement motivation. That is, the bargaining
process involves a competition to wrangle the best deal possible. In sum, in the
hierarchical model, competitiveness appears to be more closely related to
competitiveness than to task orientation. Based upon these ideas, Hypothesis
3 was developed.
H3: A positive relationship will be found between competitiveness
and the tendency to bargain.
Rubin and Brown (1975) also found that individuals with a low need for
affiliation preferred competitive rather than cooperative strategies. To the
extent that affiliation refers to how kind hearted and warm someone is, it is
most closely related to the elemental trait of agreeability in the 3M. This results
in hypothesis four.
H4: Agreeability will be negatively associated with the disposition

to bargain.
The relationship between tolerance for ambiguity and competitiveness has
also been investigated within the prisoners' dilemma paradigm. Rubin and
Brown (1975) summarized this literature as indicating that individuals high in
tolerance for ambiguity act more competitively. The tolerance for ambiguity
is conceptually related to the 3M's construct of openness to experience. That
is, those who are more innovative and original can be expected to reveal a
greater tolerance for ambiguity. This leads to hypothesis five.
HS: Openness to experience will be positively associated with the
tendency to bargain.
One caveat should be made concerning the hypotheses developed. Rubin
and Brown (1975) appeared to strongly equate bargaining with competitive
behavior. Because the construct of competitiveness will be included in the
hierarchical model, it is possible that the traits of openness to experience, agree-
ability, and arousal will be mediated by competitiveness. Indeed, it was shown
in Chapter 7 that each of these traits is predictive of competitiveness.
There is one trait not identified by Rubin and Brown (1975) that may be
associated with bargaining proneness-value consciousness. Lichtenstein,
Netemeyer, and Burton (1990) developed a scale to measure the extent to which
consumers sought to balance the quality of goods obtained with the price that
they paid for the goods. The scale included items such as "When I buy
products, I like to be sure that I get my money's worth." Bargaining proneness
and value consciousness share the same goal. In both cases the consumer is
attempting to get a good price for a product.
H6: Value consciousness will be positively associated with
bargaining proneness.
One question, however, concerns the level in the hierarchy where value
consciousness should be placed. This trait appears to function at the situational
level. That is, people express a disposition to be value conscious within the
general context of purchasing goods and services. It does not, however, appear
to be as domain specific as bargaining proneness. Thus, a person can be value
conscious without being bargaining prone. On the other hand, it would be hard
to be bargaining prone without being value conscious. In sum, value conscious-
ness appears to be the more abstract trait.
In the hierarchical model to be tested in this chapter, value consciousness
and competitiveness will be placed at the same level in the hierarchy. Thus, a
set of elemental traits will be employed to predict value consciousness and
competitiveness. Paths from these traits to bargaining proneness will then be
connected. The paths connecting the elemental traits to competitiveness will
be based upon the findings obtained in Chapter 6. To this author's knowledge,
however, researchers have not previously investigated which more basic

psychological traits are predictive of value consciousness or bargaining.
In order to develop predictions concerning the relationships among the
elemental, situational, and surface traits, this chapter will first present the
results of findings obtained in Fall 1997 Student Study 1 identified in
Appendix C-3. These respondents completed scales measuring the elemental
traits, competitiveness, value consciousness, and bargaining proneness.
Hierarchical regression will be employed to identify relationships among the
variables. These relationships will be tested in a second study that used data
from the Arkansas Household Panel. This study is viewed as the more reliable
of the two because the sample was composed of adults who are likely to have
had more experience bargaining than the individuals in the student sample.
The chapter begins with a description of the development of the bargaining
proneness scale. It then presents the results of the 1997 Student Study 1. A full
structural model is employed in Study 2, which used data collected from the
Arkansas Household Panel. A cluster analysis is also performed on the data in
the second study in order to determine whether segments of respondents who
differ in bargaining proneness can be identified. The chapter concludes with
a discussion of the results.
Developing the Bargaining Proneness Scale
Development of the bargaining proneness scale began with the Fall 1997
Student Study 1. Based upon the descriptions of individuals who tend to
negotiate provided by Rubin and Brown (1975), a set of five items was con-
structed. Respondents were asked to indicate on a nine-point scale "how
frequently that felt or acted this way." The scale was anchored by "Never" and
by "Always."
The Bargaining Proneness Scale

1. Enjoy negotiating prices.
2. I tend to bargain hard with others.
3. I consider myself good at bartering.
4. Deal making is exciting.
5. Dickering over prices is fun for me.
In an initial effort to test the properties of the scale, an exploratory factor

analysis (maximum likelihood extraction with varimax rotation) was conducted
in which items from the eight elemental traits were input along with those for
competitiveness and bargaining proneness. With an eigenvalue of 1 cut-off, a
clean ten-factor solution emerged, which accounted for 74 percent of the
variance in the model. Bargaining proneness was the first factor to emerge, and
it accounted for 21 percent of the variance in the overall model. The coefficient
alpha of the five-item scale was .93. All item-to-corre1ations were .58 or above.
In order to test for the convergent validity of the scale, it was correlated
with the value consciousness scale (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton 1990).
That is, someone who is bargaining prone should also be concerned with getting
their money's worth from products. The correlation between the constructs
was: r = .19, P < .05, which provided initial evidence of convergent validity.
To assess the discriminant validity of the construct, it was correlated with a
measure of consumer innovativeness (Raju 1980). The correlation was not
significant (r = -.06), which provided initial evidence of its discriminant
validity. In order to assess the predictive validity of the construct, an item was
included in the survey that stated: "I really enjoy the process of buying a new
car." The correlation between bargaining proneness and the item was
significant (r = .29, P < .001), which provided evidence of predictive validity.
Finally, in order to further assess the predictive validity of the bargaining
scale, the respondents in the study were given a hypothetical car buying
situation. The scenario read as follows.
Suppose that you needed a new car and were willing to pay about $20,000 for
it. You have decided what brand and model to purchase. There are two dealerships
that have this model. Dealer A has a big sale going and advertises: "Make your best
offer. We will not be undersold." Dealer B has an everyday low price policy. Its
ad states: "No Hassle, No Price Haggling." From which dealership would you be
more likely to purchase your car, assuming that each has the same quality of service
department?
Strongly Prefer Strongly Prefer

Dealer A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Dealer B
(Make best offer dealer) (No haggling dealer)
The correlation between the bargaining scale and the preference for the
"No Haggling Dealer" was highly significant (r= -.37, p < .001). Again, these
results provide good evidence of the predictive validity of the construct. That
is, the greater the bargaining proneness of the respondents the less they
preferred the "no haggling dealer" and the more they preferred the "make your
best offer" dealer. These results support Hypothesis 1, which predicted that
bargaining proneness would be associated with preferences for consumer

situations involving negotiated pricing.
In order to estimate the variance accounted for in competitiveness, value
consciousness, and bargaining proneness, hierarchical regression models were
run. Items were summed to form indices for each of the elemental traits,
competitiveness, value consciousness, and bargaining proneness. Coefficient
alphas of competitiveness and value consciousness were competitiveness,
alpha = .92; value consciousness, alpha = .84. (Alphas of the elemental traits
were all above .79, except for introversion, which was .71.)
A hierarchical regression analysis was then run in order to begin exploring
the relationships among the variables. In the analysis, bargaining proneness
was the dependent variable, value consciousness and competitiveness were
inserted as Model 1, and the elemental traits were inserted as Model 2.
The overall model accounted for 24 percent of the variance in the
bargaining construct. In Model 1, both value consciousness (p < .02) and
competitiveness (p < .001) were significant. This model accounted for 19
percent of the variance in bargaining proneness. When the elemental traits
were added, variance accounted for increased to 24 percent (p < .001). In this
final model, value consciousness (~ = .16, p < .05) and competitiveness
(~= 3.40, p < .001) remained as significant predictors. In addition, the need for
arousal was significant (~= 3.71, p < .001).
An analysis was run to identify which of the elemental traits were
predictive of value consciousness. The results revealed that the elemental traits
accounted for 9.2 percent of the variance in value consciousness. Significant
predictors were materialism (~= -.25, p < .002) and conscientiousness (~= .17,
p < .05).
Study II: Further Investigations of Bargaining Proneness
In order to further explore the bargaining proneness construct, a second

study was conducted in order to assess the relationship of bargaining proneness
with the eight elemental traits, competitiveness, and value consciousness. Each
of these constructs was assessed in the Arkansas Panel Study, which is
described in Appendix C-5. The first section presents a structural equation
analysis of the data in which multiple latent indicators were employed for all
constructs. The second section presents the results of cluster analytic work to
identify segments of bargaining prone consumers.
Structural Equation Modeling of the Arkansas Panel Data

In the first analysis, a measurement model was constructed by performing
a confirmatory factor analysis on the eleven constructs (Anderson and Gerbing
1989). As expected, the initial fit statistics were quite poor. Based upon the
standardized residuals, items were eliminated from the bargaining and value
consciousness scales. Specifically, one of the items from the bargaining scale
("I tend to bargain hard with others.") was eliminated. In addition, three ofthe
seven items in the value consciousness scale were eliminated. The four items
retained in the value consciousness scale were: "When shopping, I compare the
prices of different brands to be sure I get the best value"; "When purchasing a
product, I always try to maximize the quality I get for the money I spend"; "I
generally shop around for lower prices on products, but they still must meet
certain quality requirements before I buy them"; "I always check prices at the
grocery store to be sure I get the best value for the money I spend." The fit
statistics for this model were acceptable (X2 = 1418, df = 764, TLI = .89, CFI =
.91, RMSEA = .059. Of the 861 pairwise relationships among the 42 scale
items entered into the analysis, the standardized residuals of only two
relationships were greater than t = 2.58. Coefficient alpha for the value
consciousness scale was .85. Coefficient alpha for the bargain proneness scale
was .96. Alphas of the elemental traits are found in Appendix D; all alphas
were above .80.)
In the next analysis a partial mediation model was run in which paths were
connected from the elemental traits to competiti veness, to value consciousness,
and to bargaining proneness. In addition, paths were connected from value
consciousness and competitiveness to bargaining proneness. The fit statistics
of this model were satisfactory (X2 = 1418, df = 766, TLI = .90, CFI = .91,
RMSEA = .059).
The t-statistics for the regression weights identifying the paths in the
partial mediation model were then employed to identify nonsignificant
relationships. These paths were eliminated. This trimmed model was rerun.
Figure 12.1 provides the path diagram of this model. Its fit statistics were very
close to those of the partial mediation model (X2 = 1433, df = 775, TLI = .90,
CFI = .91, RMSEA = .059).
In a final analysis, a full mediation model was run and compared to the
partial mediation model. In this model paths were connected from the
elemental traits to competitiveness and value consciousness. Paths were then
run from value consciousness and competitiveness to bargaining proneness. The
fit statistics for this model were slightly worse (X2 = 1467, df = 775, TLI = .89,
CFI = .90, RMSEA = .60). Because this model is nested within the partial
mediation model, a X2 difference test could be performed. The results revealed
that the full mediation model was significantly worse (X2diff = 49.0, df = 9,
P < .001).
Figure 12.1
Path Diagram for Bargaining Proneness
Body
Value
Conscientious
Agreeability
Introversion 0
Unstable
Competitiveness
Materialism R2 =.48
Arousal .34
Openness 0
Note: Path coefficients are standardized path coefficients.
The same scenario as that used in the 1997 Student Study 1 was given to
the participants in the Arkansas Panel Study. A final structural equation model
was run (using the trimmed model) in which the preference for the "make your
best offer dealer" or the "no haggling dealer" was included as the dependent
variable. The fit indices were identical to the trimmed model. The results
revealed that a single path from bargaining proneness to the dealer preference
variable was appropriate, and the model accounted for 15 percent of the
variance in the dependent variable.
Identifying Segments of Bargaining Prone Consumers

The same approach as used in Chapters 10 and 11 was employed to
identify segments of bargaining prone consumers. Looking at Figure 12.1, the
summed indices of each of the variables with a significant path were input as
variables in the cluster analysis (Ward's Method with squared Euclidian
distance). Among the eleven variables identified in Figure 12.1, three were not
included in the cluster analysis: openness to experience, introversion, and need
for body resources. IS Three, four, and five cluster solutions were requested.
Each of the solutions was submitted to discriminant function analysis in which
the variables were input as predictors of the clusters. (Recall that the measure
of bargaining proneness was included in the cluster analysis and the discrimi-
nant function analysis.) For each cluster solution the classification results were
outstanding. That is, the function correctly classified over 94 percent of the
cases in the original grouped cases and over 92 percent in the cross-validated
group for each cluster solution.
One-way analyses of variance was employed to further investigate the
ability of the clusters to discriminate the respondents based upon the means of
the constructs. (A Duncan's multiple-range post hoc test was employed to test
for significant differences among the individual means of the constructs.)
These results supported a three-cluster solution. The three-cluster solution had
the highest F-value for bargaining proneness (F = 672.2, P < .0001). In
addition, the clusters for bargaining proneness broke out such that a significant
difference was found for the variable between each of the groups. The one-way
ANOV A indicated that a significant difference was found among the means for
each of the variables, except for the agreeability construct. Table 12.1 presents
the means of each of the variables for each of the clusters.
ISNeed for body resources was not included because there was no theoretical
justification for its relationship with value consciousness. In addition, the relationship
was not found in the 1997 Student data.
Table 12.1
Means of the Three-Cluster Solution for Bargaining Proneness

"Low "Medium "High
Bargainers" Bargainers" Bargainers"
Trait N=108 N=75 N=66
Bargaining Proneness 2.04a 4.31b 6.58c
Value Consciousness 5.67a 5.85a 6.37b
Competitiveness 3.64a 4.58b 5.37c
Need for Arousal 3.03a 3.98b 4.92c
Conscientiousness 5.61a 6.21b 6.47b
Materialism 3.09a 3.84b 4.26b
Emotional Instability 3.43a 4.17b 3.64a
Agreeability 6.97a 6.86a 6.91a
Note: Means with different letters are significantly different.
Inspecting the table, one finds that the three clusters align on the
bargaining construct. That is, one finds a low bargaining group (mean = 2.04),
a medium bargaining group (mean =4.13), and a high bargaining group (mean
=6.58). Similarly, the means of the other variables in the motivational complex
are arranged in a low-to-high order. Thus, for competitiveness, the low
bargaining group is lowest, the medium bargaining group is in the middle, and
the high bargaining group is the highest on the construct. (All means for
competitiveness were significantly different.) A similar pattern was found for
the need for arousal. While not all means were significantly different, this
overall pattern was found for each of the other constructs-except for emotional
instability. For this construct, the individuals in Cluster 2 (the medium
bargaining group) revealed a significantly higher degree of emotional instability
that the low bargaining or the high bargaining group.
Discussion
As shown in Figure 12. 1, the results revealed that the model accounted for
28 percent of the variance in value consciousness, 48 percent of the variance in
competitiveness, and 32 percent of the variance in bargaining proneness. The
large amount of variance accounted for in these constructs indicates that the
hierarchical model has identified a number of the key psychological determi-
nants of the constructs.
Based upon the hierarchical regression model run on the data from the
1997 Student Study 1, the results were found to support Hypothesis 1, that
bargaining proneness is positively associated with the tendency to select
contexts in which bargaining is likely to occur. That is, a significant correlation
was found between bargaining proneness and the selection of an automobile
dealership in which price haggling would occur. This relationship was
supported in the Arkansas Panel Study.
The remainder of the hypotheses deal with the interrelationships among
the personality traits. As a result, the discussion will focus on comparing the
results of the partial mediation model, after eliminating nonsignificant paths,
to the hypotheses and to the results of the hierarchical regression analysis
performed on the student data set.
Interpreting the Results for Bargaining Proneness

Looking at the results of the Arkansas Panel Study, five constructs had
significant paths to bargaining proneness. The strongest path was from arousal
(~= .34, P < .001), followed by value consciousness (~= .18, p< .05), material-
ism (~ =.17, P < .05), competitiveness (~ =.14, p < .08), and conscientiousness
(~= .14, p < .06).19 These results support several of the hypotheses proposed.
Thus, H2 predicted that the need for arousal would be predictive of bargaining
proneness, and this was supported. H3 predicted a relationship with competi-
tiveness, and H6 proposed a relationship with value consciousness. Each of
these hypotheses was supported, although for competitiveness the relationship
was at p < .03 (one-tailed).
Hypotheses 4 and 5 were not supported by either the hierarchical regres-
sion analysis or the structural equation modeling results. H4 specified that
agreeability would be negatively associated with the disposition to bargain. As
described further below, agreeability was positively associated with value
consciousness (p < .001) and negatively associated with competitiveness
(p < .05). Thus, the relationship that was anticipated between agreeability and
bargaining proneness was obtained with competitiveness instead. Indeed, when
All tests are two-tailed.

19
the bivariate correlation between bargaining proneness and agreeability is

calculated, the result reveals a nonsignificant effect (r = -.04, P > .50). A
similar nonsignificant bi variate correlation between bargaining and agreeability
was found in the data from Student Study 1 (r = .01). A possible explanation
of these results is that Rubin and Brown (1975) linked interests in negotiation
to competitiveness more than to bargaining. In addition, their work relied on
the results of prisoner dilemma research, which involves zero sum games where
your gain is someone else's loss. When price bargaining occurs, both parties
can still have a net gain in utility. In sum, the present research indicates that
agreeability is a trait underlying competitiveness, and competitiveness is a trait
that underlies bargaining. However, agreeability is unrelated to bargaining.
Hypothesis 5 was also not supported. That is, no significant effects were
found between the openness to experience construct and bargaining proneness.
Indeed, in neither the hierarchical regression analysis nor the structural equation
modeling was openness significantly related to value consciousness, competi-
tiveness, or bargaining proneness. The prediction of a relationship was based
upon work relating the tolerance for ambiguity with bargaining. Future
research needs to investigate empirically the relationship between openness to
experience and tolerance for ambiguity. It is possible that the constructs are not
measuring similar psychological processes.
One unexpected relationship was found in the Arkansas Panel Study. That
is, the elemental trait of materialism was significantly related to bargaining.
Thus, in addition to bargaining proneness having significant paths to value
consciousness and to competitiveness, a significant path was also found to
materialism. In hindsight this relationship makes a great deal of sense. One
reason for bargaining is to obtain a material good. Thus, an interest in material
goods may lead to a desire to bargain.
Finally, the predictive validity of the bargaining proneness trait was again
supported in the Arkansas Panel Study. That is, the surface trait was a strong
predictor of whether the respondents preferred a "no haggling" or a "make your
best offer" auto dealer.
Interpreting the Results for Value Consciousness

The results for the 1997 Student Study indicated that materialism was
negatively related to value consciousness (p < .002) and conscientiousness was
positively related to the construct (p < .05). In this study the linear regression
model accounted for 9.2 percent of the variance in value consciousness.
In the Arkansas Panel data, the structural equation model revealed that the
elemental traits accounted for 31.8 percent of the variance in value conscious-
ness. Consistent with the Student data, materialism was negatively related
(p < .001) to the construct, and conscientiousness was positively related to the
construct (p < .02). In addition, agreeability (p < .01), arousal ( p < .01), and
need for body resources (p < .06) were found to be positively related to value
consciousness. Finally, emotional instability was found to be negatively related
to the construct (p < .08).
The findings that materialism and conscientiousness are predictive of value
consciousness were consistent across two studies with very different samples
of respondents (an older adult sample and a student sample). Future research
will be required to determine whether the additional relationships found
between the elemental traits and value consciousness found in the Arkansas
Panel Study are real or are the result of Type I errors. Thus, it is intuitive that
individuals who are value conscious are also emotionally stable. However, the
finding that the value conscious have a high need for body resources and for the
need for arousal is somewhat surprising.
Interpreting the Results for Competitiveness

The results for competitiveness were already discussed in Chapter 7. A
high need for competitiveness was found to be associated with higher needs for
arousal, higher conscientiousness, emotional instability, and materialism. One
surprising finding, however, was the relative weak relationship between
competitiveness and bargaining proneness (t = 1.74, p < .08, two-tailed) in
Study 2. While it is appropriate to employ a one-tailed test because of the a
priori prediction and because of the results obtained in Study I, nonetheless a
stronger relationship was expected. One possibility is that the strong relation-
ship found between materialism and bargaining proneness and between the need
for arousal and bargaining proneness reduced the variance left for competitive-
ness to account for. Because of the strong theoretical justification for the
relationship between competitiveness and bargaining proneness, however, this
author believes that it is premature to discount its effects.
Interpreting the Three Bargaining Clusters

The results of the cluster analysis revealed three clusters of respondents.
For each cluster, the means for bargaining proneness, competitiveness, and need
for arousal were significantly different. A general pattern emerged in which the
high bargaining group was highest on each of the traits. Thus, high bargainers
were also high in value consciousness, competitiveness, arousal, conscientious-
ness, and materialism. Two exceptions occurred for this trend. First, Cluster
2 (the medium bargainers) was significantly higher than Cluster 1 or Cluster 3
on emotional instability. Second, no significant differences were found for the
clusters on agreeability.
Future Directions of Research

As indicated previously, a number of surprising findings should be
examined in future studies. In particular, in the second study it was found that
in addition to materialism (negative relationship) and conscientiousness
(positi ve relationship) four constructs were related to value consciousness: the
need for arousal, agreeability, need for body resources (positive relationships),
and emotional instability (negative relationship). While it makes perfect sense
that individuals who are value conscious are also emotionally stable and
conscientious, it was surprising that they also have a high need for arousal, are
agreeable, and have a higher need for body resources. Future research should
further investigate these relationships.
In this author's view, however, the major thrust offuture research should
be on investigating whether the results of the present study can be employed to
develop persuasive messages. The present results revealed that individuals who
like to bargain have a high need for arousal, have high materialistic needs, have
relatively higher competitiveness needs, and higher value consciousness needs.
One research question is: can a traditional automotive dealer develop messages
using themes based around these values? Conversely, could a one-price
automotive dealer employs themes emphasizing the opposite values to attract
buyers?
The findings can also be applied to the real estate industry. That is, it
might be possible to educate agents to recognize the signs of clients who are
high versus low bargainers. The underlying traits predictive of bargaining
proneness may give information that would be useful in communicating to
buyers or sellers. For example, for individuals who are high bargainers, the
agent may want to emphasize the adrenaline rush that one gets from making
deals (use the need for arousal relationship). On the other hand, for a low
bargaining proneness individual, the agent may want to minimize surprises and
excitement.
Chapter 13
FROM SPORTS INTEREST TO SPORTS PARTICIPATION
Abstract
Data were collected from 325 respondents from Sweden and the United
States. Measures were taken of the 3M's elemental traits, task orientation,
competitiveness, sports interest, and sports participation. The results revealed
that sports participation was predicted by a measure of sports interest. In tum,
sports interest was associated with higher levels of competitiveness, extraver-
sion, emotional stability, and need for body resources. Profiles of sports
participants were developed via cluster analysis. Four clusters were identified
and labeled: "Jordans," "Rettons," "Wannabes," and "McBeals." Each cluster
was significantly different in its degree of sports participation. The results are
discussed in terms of their implications for the marketing of sports.
Introduction
Sports in the United States and around much of the world is big business.
The business of sport impacts consumers in multiple ways. Consumers obtain
positive utility from sports as fans and as participants. On the other hand,
negative utility results from the subsidies that state and local governments pay
for the building of stadiums for professional teams, as well as for the fields and
gymnasiums for amateurs to play. Noll and Zimbalist (1997) estimated that by
2006 more than $7 billion dollars will be spent on new facilities for profes-
sional sports teams. They also argued that most of these costs will be born by
taxpayers. While I could not find any estimates of the overall impact of sports
on the U.S. economy, the financial effects of sports can be illustrated by three
examples. First, stock-car racing is estimated to be a $2 billion industry
(J ohnson 1999). After professional football, it is the second highest rated sport
on television. Second, fishing is estimated to be a $40 billion a year industry
(McCallum 1998). Third, one basketball superstar-Michael Jordan-is esti-
mated to have added approximately $10 billion to the U.S. economy in the
1990s (Johnson and Harrington 1998).
In sum, sports are important to American consumers. In aggregate, fans
and participants are willing to pay billions to play sports, to watch sports, and
to buy products endorsed by superstars. Indeed, the strong connections between
consumers and their favorite players and teams influence their consumption
behavior. For example, significant revenues are obtained by universities and
professional teams for selling goods adorned with their logos. Michael Jordan
is estimated to have been responsible for obtaining $3.1 billion in licensing fees
for products sold by the Chicago Bulls and the National Basketball Association
174 From Sports Interest to Sports Participation
(Johnson and Harrington 1998). Researchers have found that the connection
between fans and their favorite teams can become part of their self-concept.
Cialdini et al. (1978) found that the outcome of Saturday afternoon college
football games influenced the shirts that students wore to class the following
Monday. In a massive study, his team of researchers found that when their
university team won their game the previous Saturday, students significantly
more often wore sweatshirts that bore the logos of their school, as compared to
when their team lost. Cialdini et al. (1978) gave the acronym BIRGing to the
phenomena in which fans "bask in the reflected glory" of their home team-but
only as long as it wins.
Academic researchers have investigated a number of research questions
concerning the role of sports in U.S. culture. One issue concerns the socializa-
tion role of sports. That is, does participating in sports act as a positive force
for the development of adolescents and for achievement as an adult? As
described by Spreitzer (1994), conventional wisdom states that sports has a
positive impact on socialization. Frey and Eitzen (1991), however, challenged
this idea by arguing that contrary to strong cultural beliefs, any positive
socialization effect results from a selection process in which only the youth
with appropriate values and personali6ty characteristics are selected for
participation. In a longitudinal study of 18-24 year olds, Spreitzer (1994) found
that youths from disadvantaged backgrounds tended to drop out of athletics
more frequently than their more fortunate counterparts. While the educational
attainment of those participating in athletics was higher, no relationships were
found between athletic participation and early parenthood, alcohol use, or level
of self-esteem.
A related question concerns the effects of sports participation on both
physical and mental health. As described by Vilhjalmsson and Thorlindsson
(1992), copious evidence demonstrates the positive effects of physical activity
and exercise on both mental and physical health. Working from a physiological
perspective, these authors argued that physical activity improves overall
conditioning. The conditioning improves cardiac output and a host of other
positive physical outcomes, which in tum lead to decreased depression and
better mental health functioning. In their investigation of ninth-grade students
in Iceland, the investigators found that sport participation in organized settings
was positively related to life satisfaction and negatively related to anxiety,
depression, smoking, and alcohol use. As these authors noted, however, the
issue of causality is critical. Their results could have been caused by the
selection and filtering effects identified by Spreitzer (1994). It is clear,
however, that individuals who begin exercise programs do exhibit clear
physiological benefits.
From Sports Interest to Sports Participation 175
Researchers have investigated the relationship between sports participation

and gender. Koivula (1995) observed that historically " ... sports and physical
activity have been considered a male domain" (p. 544). In his study, Spreitzer
(1994) found that women dropped out of high school sports to a significantly
greater extent than men. Koivula (1995) found that men who were sex-typed
based upon the Bern Sex Role Inventory tended to stereotype sports as
masculine or feminine.
Another area of investigation for sports researchers involves the motiva-
tions for attending sporting events. Using Kelman's (1961) functional theory
of attitudes, Kahle, Kambara, and Rose (1996) investigated the motivational
factors influencing college football attendance. Factors found to influence
game attendance included: (1) the desire for a unique, self-expressive
experience; (2) camaraderie; and (3) attachment and love for the game. Among
the 112 students surveyed, a regression analysis revealed that the factors
accounted for 32 percent of the variance in the number of football games they
attended.
In other research, Shoham and Kahle (1996) investigated factors
influencing the frequency with which adults attended sporting events, watched
sports on television, and read magazines about sports and hobbies. The
variables measuring attendance at sporting events and watching sport on
television are particularly relevant to the research reported in this chapter.
MUltiple regression analysis indicated that the following variables were
significantly related to attending sports events: the degree to which the
respondents participated in competitive sports, the degree to which they
engaged in fitness sports, a measure of a desire to spend more time playing
sports, an ambitious and aspiring personality, a measure of competitiveness, and
higher ratings on the value of seeking warm relations with others. Attendance
was negatively related to the value of equality and the value of seeking fun and
enjoyment. Twenty percent of variance in the dependent variable was
accounted for by the regression equation. Significant predictors of watching
sports on television were: participation in competitive sports, a measure of
competitiveness, a desire to spend time playing sports, and the values of
patriotism and competitiveness. Three variables were negatively related to
sports television watching: accomplishment, duty, and being well respected.
Overall, these variables accounted for 18 percent of the variance in the
dependent variable of "watching sports on television."
As described by Ryckman and Hamel (1993), sports psychology
researchers have sought to understand the factors that motivate young athletes
to participate in organized sport. Particularly important was a study by Gill et
al. (1983) that employed a motivational inventory to survey 1,500 participants
at a summer sports school. Motivational factors identified via factor analysis
were: achievement motivation, skill development, friendship, fun, team spirit,

fitness desires, and a set of miscellaneous desires. Ryckman and Hamel (1993)
compared athletes higher in physical ability to those lower in physical ability
on these motivations to engage in sport. The results revealed that those higher
in athletic ability participated to a greater extent for the following motivational
reasons: skill development, team spirit, and having fun. Overall, the higher skill
athletes gave more intrinsic motivation reasons for participating than lower skill
athletes.
Researchers have also investigated the relationship between personality
traits and sports participation. As indicated previously, Shoham and Kahle
(1996) found that ambition and competitiveness were related to the attendance
of sporting events. Newcombe and Boyle (1995) found that sports participants
were more extraverted and less anxious and neurotic. These conclusions are
supported by a large number of studies (e.g., Cooper 1969). Generally, this
research has employed scales developed by Eysenck et al. (1982) that measure
neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism. These scales have very close
analogues in three of the traits identified by Five-Factor Model theorists-i.e.,
emotional stability, extraversion, and agreeability. Morgan (1968) described
a pattern of traits among high performing athletes consisting of emotional
stability and extraversion. He called this pattern the "iceberg profile" and
associated it with positive mental health.
The purpose of the present chapter is to employ the 3M Model to develop
a motivational profile of heavy sports participants as compared to individuals
with lower levels of sports involvement. Based upon the literature review,
hypotheses concerning the relationship between several of the personality traits
found in the 3M Model and sports interest and sports participation can be
proposed. Because of the hierarchical structure of the 3M, each of the
hypotheses will be framed in terms of the relationship of the construct with
sports interest, which is expected to fully or partially mediate the effects on
sports participation.
First, Kahle, Kambara, and Rose (1996) found that a love for the game was
positively related to attending athletic contests. This idea suggests that an
global measure of sports interest/involvement will be predictive of sports
participation.
HI. Sports interest will be positively related to higher participation
levels in sports.
Based upon the "iceberg" profile of athletes, the next two hypotheses were
proposed.
H2. Introversion will be negatively related to higher sports interest.
H3. Emotional stability will be positively related to higher sports
interest.
Based upon the work of Shoham and Kahle (1996), it was expected that
competitiveness and ambition would be related to sports interest. As described
in Chapter 6, a measure of competitiveness was developed for the 3M. Because
of the close relationship of task orientation (see Chapter 4) and achievement
motivation, it was expected that the construct would be related to sports
participation. In addition, Chapter 4 also revealed a strong relationship between
task orientation and competitiveness.
U4. Competitiveness will be positively related to higher sports
interest.
US. Task orientation will be positively related to higher sports
interest.
A number of the traits found in the 3M Model have not been investigated
previously in relation to sports participation. In particular, the need for body
resources was anticipated to be an important construct in the sports domain.
That is, individuals who are competing in sports can be expected to be
concerned about maintaining a healthy, fully functioning body.
U6. The need for body resources will be positively associated with
sports participation.
Method
Three-hundred twenty-nine respondents completed a survey entitled

"Sports Motivation Study." Four respondents were eliminated due to excessive
missing data. Respondents were adults living in Sweden and students and
adults attending a midwestern university. Among the respondents 55 percent
were male. Forty percent were from Sweden, 51 percent were from the U.S .A.,
and 9 percent were from other nations. Average age of the respondents was
31.8 years.
The first section of the questionnaire contained a set of items designed to
measure the degree of sports participation of the respondents. The first three
items asked respondents to indicate for all sports how many times a year they:
(1) compete in matches or games against others, (2) playa sport socially
without competing in matches or games, and (3) practice a sport alone. These
items were answered on a seven-point scale bounded by "almost never" to
"almost every day." The next item asked respondents to indicate "For all
sports, how many times a year do you attend matches or games?" The last item
in this section asked: "For all sports, how many times a year do you watch
games or matches on TV?" Both questions were answered on seven-point
scales bounded by "almost never" and "more than once per week."
The next section of the survey contained the items for the elemental traits
and compound traits. The third section contained the measures designed to
assess the situational and surface level traits that were anticipated to be
predictive of the measures of sports participation.
Results
The first phase of the analysis sought to investigate the dependent variable
of sports participation along with the measure of sports interest. Looking first
at sports interest, a set of four items was developed to measure the construct.
Sports Interest Items

1. Participating as a player in a sport is fun for me.
2. Playing sports is extremely appealing to me.
3. Playing sports is exciting for me.
4. Participating as a player in sports is really dull. (Reverse scored.)
Exploratory factor analyses revealed that item 4 did not load with the first
three items, and it was discarded from the analyses. The coefficient alpha for
the three-item scale was .95. The construct was assessed via a seven-point
Likert scale.
The next analysis investigated the dependent measure and the sports
interest scale via confirmatory factor analysis. Initially, the three items of the
sports involvement scale were input into the analysis along with the five items
designed to measure sports participation. The fit indices of this analysis were
unacceptable, and two of the sports participation items were eliminated. The
fit indices in this model were acceptable (X2 = 53.3, df = 8, P < .001, GFI = .94,
TLI = .94, CFI = .97).
An analysis was then run to test whether the sports interest scale and the
sports participation scale were measuring different constructs. A model was
run in which all six items were loaded on the same factor (X2 = 133.2, df = 8, P
< .001, GFI = .71, TLI = .85, CFI = .91). The chi-square test of difference
between this model and the two factor model was highly significant (X2diff =
79.9, df = 1, P < .001). These results reveal that the two constructs possess
discriminant validity. The coefficient alpha for the three-item sports participa-
tion scale was .75.
Sports Participation Scale

1. For all sports, circle the number that best indicates how many times a
year you compete in matches or games against others.
2. For all sports, how many times a year to you attend matches or games?
3. For all sports, how many times a year do you watch games or matches
on TV?
It is interesting to note that the two items that did not load with the three
items in the sports participation scale were: "For all sports, how many times a
year do you play a sport socially without competing in matches or games
against others?" "For all sports, how many times a year do you practice a sport
alone?" In sum, these results reveal that "practicing alone" and "playing a sport
socially" are tapping different constructs than the items in the sports participa-
tion scale.
In the next phase of the analysis, the overall measurement model was
investigated. A confirmatory factor analysis was run in which the items for the
following variables were input into the model: the eight elemental traits, task
orientation, competitiveness, sports interest, and sports participation.
Consistent with the findings of previous analyses of this data set, the fit indices
were marginally adequate (X2 = 1655.6, df= 795, p < .001, TLI= .88, CFI= .89,
RMSEA = .058).
The next analysis employed a partial mediation model in which multiple
latent indicators were used for each of the constructs (i.e., the same indicators
as employed in the confirmatory factor analysis). Thus, paths were connected
from each of the elemental traits to task orientation, competitiveness, sports
interest, and sports participation. Paths were connected from competitiveness
and task orientation to sports interest and sports participation. In addition,
based upon the results of Chapter 6, a path was placed from task orientation to
competItiveness. Finally, a path was run from sports interest to sports
participation. The fit indices for the model were virtually identical to those
obtained in the confirmatory factor analysis (X2 = 1654.1, df = 794, p < .001,
TLI = .88, CFI = .89, RMSEA = .058).
Tests of the Hypotheses

In order to test the hypotheses, the path coefficients were examined. First,
HI was examined, which stated that sports interest was strongly related to
sports participation (t = 7.52, P < .001). H2 stated that extraversion would be
positively related to sports interest, and this effect was obtained (t = 1.71, P <
.05, one-tailed). H3 stated that emotional stability would be positively related
to sports interest, and this effect also significant (t= 2.24, P < .05). H4 proposed
that competitiveness would be predictive of sports interest. The results
revealed that this effect was significant (t = 6.66, p < .001). H5 stated that task
orientation would be predictive of sports interest. However, this effect was not
significant. Instead, consistent with the results of Chapter 6, task orientation
was strongly related to competitiveness (t = 2.64, P < .01). Finally, H6 stated
that the need for body resources would be positively related to sports interest,
and this effect was obtained (t = 5.24, P < .01).
The partial mediation model also identified a number of significant effects

that were not predicted based upon previous research. First, it was found that
the need for body resources was significantly related to sports participation
(t =3.60, p < .001) as well as sports interest. In addition, openness to experi-
ence was found to be negatively related to sports participation (t = -3.42,
P < .01). Finally, the need for material resources was found to be negatively
related to sports interest (t = -2.43, p < .05).
Figure 13.1 presents the path diagram of the significant effects obtained
from the partial mediation model. The squared multiple correlations of each of
the endogenous constructs in the model were: sports participation =.62; sports
interest = .40; competitiveness = .43; and task orientation = .56.
Profiles of Sports Participation

Consistent with the work done in previous chapters, cluster analysis was
employed to develop profiles of individuals on the criterion variable-in this
case, sports participation. For the analysis all eight of the elemental traits, task
orientation, competitiveness, sports interest, and sports participation were
included in the analysis. Ward's cluster method was employed using the
squared Euclidian distance measure. Three-, four-, and five-cluster solutions
were a priori specified. After performing the cluster analysis, discriminant
function analysis and one-way ANOVA were employed to select the appro-
priate solution.
Based upon the results of the discriminant function and the one-way
ANOVA, the four-cluster solution was selected as superior to the three- and
five-cluster solutions. The discriminant function for the four-cluster solution
was highly significant and correctly classified 87.7 percent of the cases in the
original sample and 84.3 percent in the cross-validated sample. In addition, the
one-way ANOV A revealed that all four of the clusters were significantly
different (p < .05) on the measure of sports participation. Table13.1 provides
the means of the constructs for each of the clusters.
At the risk of creating stereotypes, names were given to each of the
clusters. The "J ordans" represent the high sports participation group. They are
the highest in sports interests, competitiveness, material needs, body needs,
openness to experience, and need for arousal. The group was the youngest
(mean age =25.1), and 60 percent were males.
Fro", Sports
Interest to s
ports participatio
n
P a t h Diag Figure 13
.1
ram for S
ports parti
cipation
Body
Arousal
openness
Conscienti
OUs
M a te ri a li s Competiti
m veness
R 2 :: : .43
Task
Orientatio
n
R 2 :: : .56
IntrOversio
n
u n s ta b le
Table 13.1
Means of the Four-Cluster Solution for Sports Participation
Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4

N=73 N=98 N=100 N=54
Trait Jordans Wannabes Rettons McBeals
Sports participation 5.l0d 3.74b 4.70c 2.86a
Sports interest 6.35c 5.03b 6.17c 3.65a
Competitiveness 6.88d 4.16a 6.13c 5.35b
Task orientation 6.66b 5.38a 6.63b 7.16c
Introversion 3.75b 3.67b 2.82a 4.17b
Material needs 6.34d 3.16a 5.13c 4.34b
Body needs 7.28d 3.84a 5.58c 5.00b
Emotional instability 5.61b 3.65a 3.60a 5AOb
Openness 6A7c 4A7a 5.50b 6.16c
Agreeability 6.60ab 6.19a 6.69b 6.87c
Conscientiousness 6.58b 5.63a 6A9b 6.74b
Need for arousal 6A2d 3.99a 5.56c 4.53b
Exercise propensity 5.96c 4.01a 5.24b 3.93a
Age 25.la 36Ab 29.3a 37.0b
Sex (0 =male, AOa .36a A7a .60b

1 =female)
Note: Different letters indicate a significant difference (p < .05) based upon the Duncan's
multiple range test.
The "Rettons" are named after the spunky little Olympic gymnast who
now does public speaking for a living. In general they parallel the ratings of
the J ordans, except that they are slightly lower on most of the measures. This
group was second highest in sports participation, sports interest, competitive-
ness, material needs, body needs, and need for arousal. The construct on which
they most differed from the J ordans was emotional instability. The Rettons
were significantly more emotionally stable than the Jordans. They were the
second oldest group (mean age = 36.4 years). In addition, the cluster was
approximately evenly divided between males and females (53 percent male).
Cluster 2 was labeled the "Wannabes." This group was fairly low on
sports participation but rated above the middle of the scale on sports interest
(mean = 5.03 on the seven-point scale). The group rated the lowest on a
number of variables, including task orientation, competitiveness, material
needs, body needs, emotional instability, openness to ideas, agreeability,
conscientiousness, and agreeability. It was composed mostly of males (64
percent) and was the second oldest in age (36.4 years).
The final group is labeled the "McBeals." It is named after the anorexic-
appearing star of the television series Ally McBeal who seems to be too frail to
lift a baseball bat. This group has the lowest sports participation and sports
interest. Composed mostly of women (60 percent), the group is highest in task
orientation, agreeability, and conscientiousness.
Testing the Predictive Validity of the Clusters

An important question concerns whether the clusters can differentiate
respondents on related constructs that were not included in the cluster analysis.
In the survey a four-item measure of exercise propensity was collected. The
items are: "I exercise intensely for over three hours a week"; "I exercise
regularly to stay physically fit"; "Without exercise I start feeling bad"; "Staying
physically fit is part of my self-concept." The coefficient alpha of the scale was
.89.
The exercise measure was included in the one-way ANOV A. The results
revealed that cluster 1 (the J ordans) was the highest (mean =5.96), followed by
Cluster 3 (the Rettons, mean =5.24). These means were significantly different.
The Wannabes and the McBeals were significantly lower, but not significantly
different from each other (mean Wannabes = 4.01; mean McBeals = 3.93).
In sum, these results reveal that the clusters can discriminate ratings on a
construct that was not included in the cluster analysis. This effect provides
evidence of the predictive validity of the cluster procedure.
Discussion
The chapter sought to test a series of hypotheses concerning the relation-

ship between personality traits and sports participation and sports interest. In
addition, it sought to determine whether motivational profiles could be
developed of individuals with divergent patterns of sports participation.
The results revealed that five of the six hypotheses were supported. First
supporting HI, a measure of sports interest was found to be closely related to
sports participation. Supporting H2, extroverts were found to have greater
sports interest than introverts. Supporting H3, individuals reporting higher
levels of sports interest were found to have greater emotional stability. H4 was
also supported, which stated that competitiveness would be positively related
to sports interest. The expected positive relationship between task orientation
and sports interest predicted in H5 was not supported. Instead, as found in
Chapter 6, task orientation has a strong relationship with competitiveness,
which in tum predicts sports interest. Finally, H6 predicted that the need for
body resources would be predictive of sports interest, and the results confirmed
this hypothesis.
Overall, the results revealed a pattern of relationships in which all of the
3M's elemental traits except agreeability were connected in some way with
sports interest and sports participation. Indeed, it is likely that agreeability is
also a component of this motivational complex. That is, as found in the meta-
analysis conducted in Chapter 6, agreeability has a negative relationship with
competitiveness, which did not reach conventional levels of significance in the
study reported in the present chapter.
Two unexpected findings were obtained. First, a negative relationship
between openness to experience and sports participation was obtained. Second,
a negative relationship between the need for material resources and sports
interest was found. Interestingly, these relationships did not emerge in the
cluster analysis. Indeed, the cluster scoring highest in sports participation was
highest in openness to experience and need for material resources. Additional
analyses were performed to explain these results. Bivariate and quadratic
regressions revealed that no bivariate relationship existed between openness to
experience and sports participation. Similar analyses were run on the relation-
ship between material needs and sports interest. Here the results revealed a
positive bivariate relationship (r = .14, P < .02). In sum, suppressor variables
must have been operating to cause the unexpected relationships in the structural
equation modeling. (Multiple regression analysis found effects similar to the
structural equation modeling.) Future research is required to understand these
relationships.
The results of the cluster analysis revealed that four clusters of sports
participants best fit the data. Each cluster was significantly different on the key
sports participation dependent variable. The cluster with the highest sports
participation was named "the 10rdans." This group was marked by the highest
level of sports participation, sports interest, competitiveness, material needs,
body needs, openness to experience, and need for arousal. The 10rdans are
young and mostly male (60 percent). The cluster with the second highest
sports participation was named the "Rettons." Their ratings paralleled the
J ordans, but at a reduced level. The area of marked differences occurred on the
variable of emotional stability, where the Rettons were significantly more stable
than the J ordans. The Rettons were second youngest group and were evenly
divided between men and women.
Significantly lower in sports participation and sports interest are the
"Wannabes." This group scored above the neutral point in sports interest (mean
= 5.03 on the seven-point scale) but below the neutral point on the sports
participation measure (mean = 3.74 on the seven-point scale). These ratings,
however, were significantly higher than those of the McBeals. On the
remaining personality traits, the Wannabes consistently had the lowest scores.
Thus, they were the lowest in competitiveness, task orientation, material needs,
body needs, emotional stability, openness, agreeability, conscientiousness, and
need for arousal. The only exception was for introversion. Here the Wannabes
were slightly lower (but not significantly so) than the McBeals. The Wannabes
group had the highest proportion of men and was the second oldest group.
While the McBeals were the lowest in sports participation and sports
interest, they were generally higher than the Wannabes on the trait measures.
Indeed, they were highest of all groups on task orientation, agreeability, and
conscientiousness. The group was also somewhat high in emotional instability.
The group had a higher proportion of women than the others and was the oldest
in age. The overall pattern of responses provides a portrait of a group of people
who are successful (i.e., conscientiousness, agreeable, and task oriented), but
who are simply not very interested in sports.
A test of the predictive ability of the trait clusters was performed by
comparing the groups on a measure of exercise propensity. The results revealed
that the Jordans were significantly higher than the other groups. This group
was followed by the Rettons, who were significantly higher than the Wannabes,
and the McBeals, who were not significantly different. This analysis suggests
that the clusters can predict behaviors that are not included as inputs to the
cluster analysis.
Implications and Future Research

The research has potential application to marketers of sports-oriented
products. For example, a company interested in promoting sports equipment
or a professional sports team should target individuals in the Jordan and the
Retton categories. Based upon schema congruity theory (Fiske and Taylor
1984), communications should include message themes, music, and the visual
context that evoke images and feelings related to competition, to arousal, and
to the active use of the body.
The finding that measures of the frequency of competing in sports, of

attending matches and games, and of watching sports on television formed a
single measure of overall sports participation was surprising. It was anticipated
that two factors would emerge. One factor would be composed of the measures
of competing in matches/games, playing sports socially, and practicing alone.
A second factor was expected to result from the measure of sports attendance
and of watching sports on television. The results revealed, however, that the
items tapping into practicing alone and playing socially did not want to load
with the other three measures, which in turn were found to be more closely
related in the confirmatory factor analysis. The relationship of the 3M traits to
the measures of practicing alone and playing socially was analyzed by mUltiple
regression analysis. The results revealed a somewhat different pattern of
effects than for the index of overall sports participation. Specifically, for both
measures task orientation was positively related to playing socially (t = 3.01,
P < .002) and to practicing alone (t = 2.44, P < .02). In addition, agreeability
was positively related to playing socially (t = 2.07, P < .05) and to practicing
alone (t = 1.92, P < .06). These direct effects were not found when the analysis
of the index of sports participation was analyzed via regression or via structural
equation modeling.
In sum, practicing alone and playing socially appear to tap different facets
of sports participation. Future research should investigate further the
dimensions of sports participation and develop additional items designed to tap
the mUltiple dimensions of the construct.
Another area for future research involves investigating the motivational
profile of individuals who participate in different sports. That is, is the profile
different for golfers as compared to basketball, football, or baseball enthusiasts?
An insufficient sample size made it impossible to directly compare any two
sports. An exploratory analysis employing logistic regression found that in
comparison to all others in the sample who reported having a favorite sport,
golfers were older, more interested in sports, revealed higher emotional
stability, were less body focused, and were more extroverted. Future research
is required to determine whether this profile of traits is generally found among
golfers.
A shortcoming of the present study concerns the characteristics of the
sample. A convenience sampling procedure was employed in which individuals
from Sweden and from students in classes at a university were solicited. As a
result, it is possible that the demographic characteristics of the sample may
interact with the trait measures and the measures of sports interest and sports
participation to influence the results. Future research should replicate the
present study with samples drawn from different populations.
Chapter 14
FROM FRUGALITY TO MODEST LIVING
Abstract
Two studies are presented that investigate alternative measures of

frugality. Study 1 found that a newly developed measure called "tightwadism,"
in conjunction with impulsiveness, bargaining proneness, materialism (negative
relationship), and emotional instability accounted for substantial variance
(R2 = 47.9) in a two-item measure of the tendency to lead a modest lifestyle.
Study 2 investigated the measure of tightwadism in relationship with a measure
of frugality developed by Lastovicka et al. (1999). The results revealed that the
measure of frugality possessed poor internal reliability. Four of its eight items,
which were labeled "care in spending," did possess good internal reliability.
Care in spending and tightwadism had a moderate correlation (r = .45). The
measures of tightwadism and care in spending were found, however, to tap
different constructs. The only construct predictive of care in spending was the
need for arousal (negative relationship). Tightwadism was inversely related to
a measure of materialism and positively related to the need for arousal, the need
for body resources, and present orientation. The results are discussed in terms
of the need for further scale development work on measures of frugality. In
addition, additional research should be conducted on the relative effects of
disposition and situation on measures of consumer frugality.
Introduction
Lastovicka, Bettencourt, Shaw, and Kuntze (1999) presented a six-study

investigation of frugality. In their research they developed an eight-item
measure of the construct. Further, they tested its reliability as well as its
construct, predictive, and nomological validity. The authors suggested that the
study of frugality is important for two reasons. First, frugality deals with the
usage stage of consumer behavior. That is, the frugal will tend to use goods
longer, take better care of products, and act to repair goods when they wear out.
Because usage behavior is an underdeveloped area of consumer research (Wells
1993), the study of frugality is an important component in developing a broad
understanding of consumer behavior. Second, frugality is a type of consumer
lifestyle that will impact the goods and services consumed. Thus, segments of
consumers identified as frugal may become targets for marketing efforts. In
addition, the study of frugality may have other benefits. Presumably, frugal
consumers will have less propensity to engage in compulsive buying. By
understanding the characteristics of frugal consumers, researchers may learn
188 From Frugality to Modest Living
more about consumers that represent the end of the buying continuum opposite
that of compulsive buyers.
In their development of the frugality construct, Lastovicka et al. (1999)
analyzed the lifestyle from a historical perspective. They noted that it is
consistent with the philosophical principle of asceticism through its focus on
a denunciation of worldly possessions. The Western Judeo-Christian tradition
also embraces the idea of eschewing money and worldly possessions (Fisher
1976). Belk (1983) noted that four of the seven deadly sins involved
acquisitiveness (greed, pride, gluttony, and envy).
Lastovicka et al. (1999) proposed that in addition to viewing frugality from
a religious and socio-cultural perspective, there are three additional approaches
to the topic. From an economic perspective, frugality can be viewed as
delaying present consumption in order to obtain more generous future rewards.
In addition, disciplined acquisition can also benefit future generations as well.
Another approach is to view frugality as a lifestyle with a self-help orientation.
This lifestyle is illustrated by subscribers to the Tightwad Gazette, who form
a subpopulation in the United States that takes great pride in its ability to avoid
spending money. The investigation of frugality can also be approached from
a psychological perspective. For example, Fisher and Greenberg (1995)
assessed frugality from a Freudian perspective by proposing that orderly and
anal personalities tend to be frugal.
In their development of the frugality measure, Lastovicka et al. (1999) first
employed qualitative research to develop an understanding of frugality in
contemporary America. To develop a portrait of the frugal, the authors
employed depth interviews of self-professed frugal individuals, obtained
student paragraphs on cheap people they knew, and viewed video-tapes of
Oprah and Montel Williams shows on cheap spouses. Based upon this analysis,
they identified three characteristics of the frugal. First, Lastovicka et al. (1999)
proposed that the frugal are disciplined and focus more on the long term and
less on the short term. Second, they are resourceful in their use of possessions.
Third, the frugal view themselves as independent and as less prone to being
influenced by others. Based upon their qualitative work, Lastovicka et al.
(1999) defined frugality as a "consumer lifestyle trait distinguished by
(1) disciplined acquisition of economic goods and services and (2) resourceful
use of these goods and services."
In their series of studies, Lastovicka et al. (1999) first developed an eight-
item measure of the construct that possessed good internal reliability (coeffi-
cient alpha = .85). Next, they found that the construct was different from
measures of social desirability and from measures of ecological interest among
consumers. The third study found that the scale was correlated with measures
of value consciousness (Lichtenstein, Netemeyer, and Burton 1990), price
From Frugality to Modest Living 189
consciousness (Lichtenstein, Ridgway, and Netemeyer (1993), and non-

compulsive buying (Faber and 0' Guinn 1992). In addition, Study 3 found that
the construct was predictive of a number of product-use behaviors that would
be described a frugal (e.g., eating leftovers). Study 4 employed a multi-trait,
multi-method approach to provide further evidence of convergent, discriminant,
and nomological validity. In Study 5 an experiment was performed that
revealed that frugal individuals were likely to be less influenced by a "mental
accounting buying trap." Finally, Study 6 revealed that a known group of frugal
consumers who subscribed to the Tightwad Gazette scored higher on the scale
than did the general population. One of the lines of future research suggested
by Lastovicka et al. (1999) involved identifying the psychological under-
pinnings of the construct. In particular, the authors suggested that conscien-
tiousness may be a cardinal trait underlying frugality. The authors concluded
with a call for additional research on the construct.
This chapter acts on this call for future research by investigating frugality
within the framework of the 3M Model. From this perspective, frugality is a
surface trait that operates at the same level in the hierarchy as compulsive
buying.
Work on measuring frugality was initiated by the author of this book prior
to receiving a "working paper" version of the frugality paper written by
Lastovicka et al. (1999). This chapter presents two studies on the frugality
construct. The first study took place prior to the author receiving the
Lastovicka et al. (1999) working paper. Thus, Study 1 investigates a tight-
wadism scale developed by the author independently of the Lastovicka et al.
(1999) research. The second study took place after the author learned of the
work of Lastovicka et al. (1999). Study 2 investigates the scale developed by
the author along with the Lastovicka et al. (1999) measure. The chapter
concludes with a discussion of both scales and suggestions for future research.
Study 1: Developing the Tightwad Scale
Method
In the early stages of the investigation of the 3M, the author sought to
identify compound and situational level traits on which the predictive validity
of the elemental traits could be assessed. As part of this effort, it was decided
to begin initial scale development efforts on a measure of frugality. Inserted
into the Fall 1997 Student Study 2 were 11 items designed to assess various
elements of frugality. A number of the items were adapted from the voluntary-
simplicity scale of Leonard-Barton (1981). In addition, items were developed
to tap into a characteristic of some consumers to avoid spending money. The
idea was that the frugality trait exists at the surface level. Thus, a combination
of elemental, compound, and situational traits should predict it. In addition,

frugality should be related to other surface traits that assess tendencies to save
and spend, such as compulsive buying. Table 14.1 presents the 11 items
initially assessed in Study 1.
Table 14.1
The Initial Items in the Tightwad Scale
Buy clothing at a second hand store. (Modest living)

Buy furniture or other goods at a garage sale. (Modest living)
Wish that I could make furniture or clothing rather than buy it.
Find that I have a hard time spending money on anything but necessities.
(Tightwadism)
I act like a tightwad, and spend very little. (Tightwadism)
Have taken steps to decrease my standard of living because it makes me feel better.
(Tightwadism)
Find that I can save easier than I can spend.
Feel that the consumer society makes things worse.
Ride a bicycle for exercise or recreation.
Perform activities that are ecologically sound, such as recycling.
Avoid purchasing goods that are heavily advertised.
Note: Items in the final tightwadism scale and in the final measure of modest living are
identified.
Results
The analysis of the items began with an exploratory factor analysis

(maximum likelihood extraction with varimax rotation) of the 11 items. A
messy three-factor solution was obtained with numerous cross-loadings. The
items in the first factor dealt with a desire not to spend. The construct
represented by these items was called "tightwadism." The items in the second
factor dealt with what may be described as "modest living" (i.e., buying goods
at garage sales, buying clothing at second hand stores, and making one's own
clothing and furniture). The third factor contained the items related to ecology.
The two factors associated with tightwadism and modest living more closely
represented the frugality construct and were retained. The coefficient alpha of
the three-item measure of tightwadism was .78. The items measuring modest
living failed to reveal good measurement properties. Two of the items in the
factor did not show adequate separation from the others and were eliminated.
The remaining two items were retained as initial measures of modest living
(buy furniture or other goods at a garage sale; wish that I could make furniture
or clothing rather than buy it). Indeed, these items can be conceptualized as
behaviors that result from the effects of tightwadism. Thus, the items represent
specific outcomes that may result from the surface trait tightwadism. The
correlation between the two items was r = .38.
Predicting Tightwadism. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was

performed in which the measure of tightwadism was input as the dependent
variable. In Modell, the measures of impulsive buying (Puri 1996) and
bargaining proneness were input. In Model 2, the eight elemental traits were
input as independent variables. Based upon the literature review of Lastovicka
et al. (1999), it could be anticipated that a negative relationship should be found
between impulsiveness and the tightwad measure. It was also anticipated that
tightwads would also be more likely to bargain. That is, because they hate to
spend money, they will tend to bargain hard in order to get a better deal.
HI. Tightwadism and impulsiveness will be negatively related.
H2. Tightwadism and bargaining proneness will be positively
related.
Hypotheses were also developed concerning the relationship between the
elemental traits and tighwadism. As described earlier in the chapter, Lastovicka
et al. (1999) proposed that conscientiousness is positively related to tight-
wadi sm. In addition, one should also expect that tightwads will reveal lower
levels of materialism. Indeed, Lastovicka et al. (1999) found a significant
negative relationship between materialism and their measure of frugality.
H3. Tightwadism will be positively associated with
conscientiousness.
H4. Tightwadism will be negatively associated with materialism.
The overall regression model was highly significant (F = 10.4, P < .000).
Model 1 accounted for 25.6 percent of the adjusted variance. Model 2
accounted for an additional 9.4 percent of additional variance. The overall
model accounted for 36 percent of the adjusted variance in the tightwad
measure.
Supporting HI and H2, both impulsiveness (t = -3.49, p < .000) and
bargaining proneness (t = 2.57, p < .01) were significant predictors of
tightwadism. Supporting H4, materialism was negatively associated with the
construct (t =-3.88, P < .000). The hypothesis that conscientiousness would be
positively related to tightwadism (H3) was not supported. In addition, an
analysis of the bivariate correlations between these constructs did not approach
significance (p > .30).
Unexpectedly, the need for arousal was positively related to tightwadism
(t = 2.27, P < .03). In addition, the need for body resources was positively
related to the construct (t = 2.03, P < .05).
Predicting Modest Living. A hierarchical regression analysis was also

employed to investigate modest living. The measure of tightwadism was
entered as Modell, and it was anticipated that the construct would be
predictive of modest living. Model 2 included the measures of impulsiveness
and bargaining used to predict tighwadism. Finally, the elemental traits were
input as Model 3.
H5: Tightwadism will predict measures of modest living.
The overall model was highly significant (F =2.78, df =11, 157, P < .001).
Supporting H5, Modell revealed that the measure oftightwadism was a strong
predictor of modest living (F = 14.6, P < .001). Tightwadism accounted for 7.5
percent of the adjusted variance in the measure of modest living. The F-change
statistics for Models 2 and 3 were not significant (p > .10 in each case). While
Models 2 and 3 were not significant, three of the elemental traits had significant
relationships with modest living. Traits having direct paths to modest living
were emotional instability (t = 2.26, P < .05), the need for arousal (t = 1.98,
P < .05), and materialism (t =-1.91, P < .06). The overall model accounted for
10.4 percent of the adjusted variance in the modest-living dependent variable.
In order to further explore the relationship among the variables, another
hierarchical regression analysis was run in which tightwadism was excluded
from the hierarchical model. The results revealed that the overall model was
significant (F =7.71, P < .02). Modell included the measures of impUlsiveness
and bargaining proneness. This model was not significant (F < 1.0). When the
elemental traits were added, however, the F-change statistic was significant
(Fchange = 2.65, P > .01). Significant predictors of modest living were:
materialism (t =-2.78, P < .01), emotional instability (t =2.44, P < .02), and the
need for arousal (t = 2.45, P < .02). The overall model accounted for 6.9
percent of the adjusted variance in modest living.
Discussion
The results of Study 1 reveal that a three-item measure of tightwadism had

acceptable internal reliability. The construct also revealed predictive and
nomological validity by accounting for significant levels of variance in a
measure of modest living. In addition, a combination of elemental traits, a
compound trait (impulsiveness), and another surface trait (bargaining

proneness) accounted for substantial variance (R2 = .36) in the construct.
As depicted in Study 1, the profile of the tightwad can be described as
follows. He or she is an individual who is low in impulsiveness, low in
materialism, higher in the need for arousal, higher in need for body resources,
higher in bargaining propensity, and higher in the tendency to possess a
"modest living" lifestyle. Inconsistent with the proposals of Lastovicka et al.
(1999), no evidence was found that the tightwad is more conscientiousness.
The scale development efforts were only partially successful in building
a measure of the behaviors that result from tightwadism (modest living). Two
items that assess the tendency of individuals to buy used goods and to make
clothing and furniture were sufficiently related to be include as a tentative
measure of the set of behaviors associated with a modest lifestyle. Hierarchical
regression analysis revealed that tightwadism partially mediated the effects of
the need for arousal, materialism, and emotional instability on the modest living
construct.
Study 1 suffers from a number of problems. Foremost, the development
of the items for the tightwadism and modest living scales was not done as
thoroughly as the measure of frugality developed by Lastovicka et al. (1999).
Therefore, a second study was run in which the measures developed in Study
1 could be compared to those developed by Lastovicka et al. (1999).
Study 2: Comparing the Tightwad Scale to the Frugality Scale
Method
In Study 2, members of a research team contacted respondents while they
were sitting in a student union cafeteria at a large midwestern university just
before or just after the lunch hour. Respondents were approached and told that
in return for completing a I5-minute questionnaire they would be given a
coupon worth $3 toward the purchase of any food item sold in the cafeteria.
Two-hundred and six individuals completed the questionnaire. Among these,
six questionnaires were eliminated because of missing data. The average age
of the respondents was 23.8 years old.
The questionnaire contained the same II-item scale used in Study 1. In
addition, it contained the eight-item scale of Lastovicka et al. (1999).
Measures of the elemental traits were also included. The measure of impulsi ve-
ness (Puri 1996) was not included. However, a measure of "present orienta-
tion" (i.e., low present orientation) was added to the survey. According to
Lastovicka et al. (1999), one of the characteristics of the frugal is a longer time
horizon. This expected relationship resulted in the following hypothesis:
H6: Present orientation will be negatively associated with frugality.
In Study 2, structural equation modeling was employed to analyze the data.

The analysis began with confirmatory factor analysis to assess whether the
tightwad scale from Study 1 and the frugality scale of Lastovicka et al. (1999)
had satisfactory properties. An overall measurement model was then assessed
via confirmatory factor analysis. This model contained the elemental traits, the
measure of present orientation, the items from the Lastovicka et al. (1999)
scale, and the measure of tightwadism. A saturated model (partial mediation)
was then employed to investigate the relationships among the constructs as
identified by the significant paths.
Results
Assessing the Frugality Scale. Lastovicka et al. (1999) proposed that their
measure of frugality was composed of a single factor. The first analysis
employed confirmatory factor analysis to assess a single-factor scale. The
results of the analysis revealed unsatisfactory fit indices (X2 = 156.7, df = 20,
GFI =.83, CFI =.75). The squared multiple correlations ofthe items revealed
that four of them did not load on the latent construct. Indeed, the squared
mUltiple correlations for the four items were all below .10. Each of the four
items dealt with resourcefulness and reusing goods. The coefficient alpha of
the eight-item scale was only .52. When the four items were dropped, the
coefficient alpha was acceptable (alpha = .86). The four retained items were:
"I believe in being careful in how I spend my money," "I discipline myself to
get the most from my money," "I am willing to wait on a purchase I want so that
I can save money," "There are things I resist buying today so I can save for
tomorrow." As can be seen from the wording ofthe items, they assess the care
taken in spending money and the ability to delay gratification by saving. None
of the items deal with a specific desire not to spend.
When an exploratory factor analysis was run on the eight-item scale, two
factors were obtained. The first represented the care in spending construct.
Three of the four remaining items loaded on the second factor, which might be
labeled "care in owning" goods. One item did not load on either factor. A
reliability check was run on the care in owning items, and the coefficient alpha
was quite low (alpha = .61).
In the next analysis, confirmatory factor analysis was employed to assess
the relationship of the items in the care in spending scale derived from the
Lastovicka et al. (1999) frugality scale and the items in the tightwad scale
developed in Study 1. Initially, a two-factor model was tested. The first try
revealed unacceptable fit indices. Modification indices revealed that the
problem occurred because of a relationship between two of the care in spending
constructs. The error terms of these constructs were allowed to correlate, and
the fit indices were acceptable (X2 =24.4, df = 12, P < .02, OFI = .97, CFI =
.98). This two-factor model was compared to a one-factor model, and the chi-
square difference test was significant (X2diJJ = 77.6, df = 1, P < .001). These
results indicate that the scales are measuring two different constructs.
In sum, the results of this phase of the analysis reveal that the frugality
scale of Lastovicka et al. (1999) as assessed in Study 2 has a two-factor
structure. The internal reliability of the overall eight-item scale was unaccept-
ably low in the study. One factor, which is labeled "care in spending," was
composed of four items and had satisfactory internal reliability. The second
factor, which is labeled "care in owning," was composed of three items. Its
internal reliability, however, was quite low. A confirmatory factor analysis
revealed that the care in spending construct and the tightwadism construct
developed in Study 1 are measuring different latent variables.
Developing the Full Measurement Model. In the next phase of the analysis,
the full measurement model was run. In this model, the measures of the eight
elemental traits, of care in spending, of tightwadism, and of present orientation
were assessed via confirmatory factor analysis. The measure of present orienta-
tion was developed in research by Hershey and Mowen (1999) on retirement
planning behavior. The three items in the measure were: "The future seems
very vague and uncertain to me," "the distant future is too uncertain to plan
for," and "it is very hard for me to visualize the kind of person I will be 10
years from now." (Coefficient alpha for the scale was .77.)
When the full measurement model was run via confirmatory factor
analysis, the fit indices were acceptable (X2 = 1045.4, df = 682, P < .001,
TLI =.91, CFI =.92. RESEA =.052). (Note that the error terms of two of the
items in the measure of instability were allowed to correlate.)
In order to check the discriminant validity of the tightwadism scale, an
analysis was conducted in which an index of the items was correlated with five
items from the measure of social desirability developed by Crowne and
Marlowe (1960). The correlation was not significant (r = .05, P > .50)
indicating that the scale has discriminant validity from a general tendency to
answer in socially desirable ways.
Predicting Tightwadism and Care in Spending. In the next analysis, a

saturated path model was run. Here, paths were connected from each of the
elemental traits to present orientation, to care in spending, and to tightwadism.
In addition, paths were placed between present orientation and care in spending
and tightwadism. Finally, care in spending and tightwadism were allowed to
correlate. Fit indices were identical to those obtained from the measurement
model.
First, the squared mUltiple correlations of the latent constructs were

examined. The results revealed that the model accounted for 17 percent of the
variance in present orientation, 14 percent of the variance in care in spending,
and 20 percent of the variance in tightwadism. Significant predictors of present
orientation were conscientiousness (t = -3.75, p < .001) and materialism
(t = 2.27, P < .05). Significant predictors of tightwadism were present
orientation (t = 2.48, P < .05) and materialism (t = -3.56, P < .01). The only
significant predictor of care in spending was the need for arousal (t = -3.16,
P < .01). In the structural model, the correlation between care in spending and
tightwadism was .57. (When present orientation was eliminated from the
analysis, no changes occurred in the path relationships.)
These results failed to support H6. That is, present orientation was not
positively related to the care in spending measure of frugality obtained from the
Lastovicka et al. (1999) scale. In addition, the relationship of present
orientation with tightwadism was in the opposite direction to that expected.
None of the hypotheses relating the elemental traits to frugality (Le., care in
spending) that were based upon the Lastovicka et al. (1999) work were
confirmed. Thus, the structural model failed to support the expected relation-
ship between care in spending and conscientiousness (H3) or materialism (H4).
Predicting Modest Living. In the next analysis, the two-item measure of

modest living developed in Study 1 was employed as the dependent variable.
(The bivarate correlation between the two items in the scale was r = .57.) A
saturated model was employed in which paths were connected from all latent
constructs to the measure. (Thus, paths were connected from the care in
spending and the tightwadism constructs to the dependent variable.) The rest
of the model was identical to the path model described in the preceding
paragraph. Again, the fit indices of the model were acceptable (X2 = 1130.8,
df = 750, P < .001, TLI = .91, CFI = .92. RESEA = .051). The squared
multiple correlation of the modest living construct was .51. Significant direct
paths to the construct were from tightwadism (t =4.08, P < .001) and material-
ism (t = -2.31, P < .05). The path from the measure of care in spending did not
approach significance (t = -1.35) and was in the opposite direction expected.
The bivariate correlation between care in spending and modest living was
r = .17 (p < .05). Thus, this relationship between care in spending and modest
living was accounted for by the much stronger relationship between tight-
wadism and modest living. Figure 14.1 presents the path diagram of these
relationships.
One possible reason for the superior predictive ability ofthe tightwad scale
of modest living is that the dependent variable was assessed with the same type
of scale as that measuring tightwadism (a nine-point scale bounded by "never
act/feel this way" to "always act/feel this way"). In contrast, the Lastovicka et
al. (1999) scale uses a six-point Likert format. Thus, methods variance could
have accounted for the stronger effects for the tightwad scale. In order to
partially test this possibility, the three items from the "resource use" factor of
the Lastovicka et al. (1999) scale were employed as the dependent measure in
the same path model. (That is, "resource reuse" replaced "modest living" as
the dependent variable in the structural equation model.) The squared multiple
correlation of resource reuse was .28. Significant predictors were care in
spending (t = 2.50, P < .01) and openness to experience (t = 2.83, P < .01). The
bivariate correlation between tightwadism and resource reuse was r = .17
(p < 05). Thus, the bivariate correlation between tightwadism and resource
reuse was the same as that between care in spending and modest living. The
bivariate correlation between care in spending and resource reuse was r = .31.
Interestingly, the bivariate correlation between resource reuse and modest living
was very weak and only marginally significant (r = .13 P < .07).
In sum, methods variance cannot be eliminated as a factor contributing to
the relationship found between tightwadism and modest living. The same scale
was employed to measure modest living and tightwadism. This scale was
different from that employed to measure resource reuse and frugality, but these
constructs were measured by another scale. The constructs measured by the
same scale were found to be more closely related than were constructs
measured by different scales. Methods variance could account for the relation-
ships. It is also possible that tightwadism is simply more closely related to
modest living than is care in spending. Similarly, frugality may be more closely
related to resource reuse than is modest living. This issue can only be settled
by employing a multi-trait, multi-method research methodology.
Developing a Tightwad Profile. Consistent with previous chapters, cluster

analytic procedures were employed to develop a profile of different segments
of consumers on the surface trait being investigated. The path diagram found
in Figure 14.1 was employed to identify the traits to include in the cluster
analysis. In addition to the modest living variable, the traits composing the
motivational complex were tightwadism, present orientation, materialism, and
conscientiousness. As shown in Figure 14.1, each of these traits was connected
via a significant path to modest living. For each construct, the mean of the
items composing the latent variable was employed for all statistical procedures.
The cluster analysis employed the Ward's method with squared Euclidian
distance. Consistent with the approach employed previously, three-, four-, and
five-cluster solutions were requested. After obtaining the cluster solutions,
discriminant analysis and one-way ANOVA (using Duncan's post hoc tests)
was employed to interpret the results.
Figure 14.1
Path Diagram for Modest Living
Introversion 0
Openness 0 Tightwadism
R2 = .20
Agreeability 0
Material Needs
Conscientiousness
Body Needs 0
Need for Arousal
Stability 0
The discriminant functions revealed that when the variables were

employed to predict cluster membership, for each of the cluster solutions the
model correctly classified over 85 percent of the grouped cases in both the
original and cross-validated groups. The discriminant function, however, was
best able to predict the three-cluster solution. The equation correctly classified
93.9 percent of the respondents in the original group and 91.9 percent in the
cross-validated group. Table 14.2 presents the table of means for the
constructs.
Table 14.2
Results of the Cluster Analysis of Tightwadism
Controlled Potential
Tightwads Spenders Big Spenders
Variable N=90 N=60 N=48
Modest living 5.80b 2.09a 2.18a
Tightwadism 4.61c 2.28a 3.51b
Present orientation 3.20b 2.44a 4.01c
Materialism 3.80a 5.91c 4.66b
Conscientiousness 5.97b 7.54c 5.22a

Note: DitIerent letters indicate that the clusters were significantly different based upon
the Duncan's post hoc test.
An extremely interesting pattern of results was found when the means of

the traits on each cluster were examined. Looking at Table 14.2, one finds that
Cluster 1 was the highest in the modest living. In addition, this group revealed
the highest level of tightwadism, the lowest level of materialism, and a medium
level of conscientiousness and present orientation. This cluster was labeled
"the tightwads." Clusters 2 and 3 revealed low tendencies to live modestly, and
their means were not significantly different on this measure. However, cluster
2 was significantly lower in tightwadism than cluster 3. In addition, cluster 2
had the lowest present orientation as well as the highest levels of materialism
and conscientiousness. This combination of traits suggests that when the
financial situation of this group changes, its members will be willing to spend
on luxury goods in a controlled and conscientious way. As a result, this group

is labeled "controlled spenders." Finally, cluster 3 was represented by low
levels of modest living, medium levels of tightwadism, the highest present
orientation, medium levels of materialism, and the lowest levels of conscien-
tiousness. This pattern of responses suggests a group that is currently spending,
but is taking some steps to reduce expenditures by revealing some tightwad
characteristics. The group's medium levels of materialism, relatively high
present orientation, and relatively lower conscientiousness levels, however,
suggest a potential for high levels of spending. As a result, this group is labeled
"Potential Big Spenders." An analysis was conducted to assess whether the
three clusters differed in emotional instability, and no significant differences
were found. Thus, it is unlikely that any of the groups have a high potential for
compUlsive spending.
General Discussion
The results of Study 2 provided little support for the measure of frugality
developed by Lastovicka et al. (1999). In the sample used in Study 2, the items
associated with the use of resources did not compose the same factor as the
items tapping care in spending. The coefficient alpha for the full scale was
below the level advocated by Nunnally (1978) for exploratory research (alpha
= .52). The internal reliability of the four items tapping the care in spending
component of the scale, however, was satisfactory (alpha = .86). The care in
spending items were weakly related to a two-item measure of modest living
(r = .17). A stronger, but not robust, relationship was found with a measure of
resource reuse that was taken from three of the remaining items in the
Lastovicka et al. (1999) scale that assessed the tendency to use resources
frugally (r = .31).
The bivariate correlation between the tightwadism scale developed in
Study 1 and care in spending of r = .45 indicates a substantial relationship
between the two constructs. A confirmatory factor analysis revealed, however,
that the two scales measure different constructs. Furthermore, a different set
of predictor variables accounted for variance in the constructs. Specifically, the
only significant predictor of care in spending was the need for arousal trait,
which had a negative relationship with the construct. Thus, individuals higher
in care in spending had a lower need for arousal. When bivariate correlations
were examined, care in spending was found to have very weak negative
relationship with materialism (r =-.19, P < .01) and a weak positive relationship
with conscientiousness (r = .16, P < .05). Thus, at the bivariate level, these
results support Hypotheses 3 and 4. In contrast to the results for care in
spending, significant predictors of tightwadism were present orientation
(positive) and materialism (negative). At the bivariate level, there were no

other significant relationships with the elemental traits.
The relationship of the elemental traits with tightwadism differed some-
what in studies 1 and 2. In Study 1 the elemental traits predictive of tight-
wadism were: materialism (negative relationship), the need for arousal (positive
relationship), and the need for body resources (positive relationship). In Study
2, the only significant effect was with materialism. However, the signs of the
paths for the need for arousal (t = 1.45, P < .20) and for the need for body
resources (t = 1.28, P < .20) were in the correct direction. A meta-analysis of
the two studies revealed that when the studies are combined, the effects are
significant (the need for arousal, meta-t = 2.61, P < .01; need for body
resources, meta-t =2.33, P < .03). Overall, the results suggest that materialism,
the need for arousal, and the need for body resources are predictive of
tightwadism.
While the negative relationship between materialism and tightwadism was
predicted, the positive relationships between body resources and tightwadism
and between arousal and tightwadism were not. It is particularly interesting to
note that arousal was found to be positively related to tightwadism and
negatively related to care in spending. Future research is required to substan-
tiate this finding. Assuming that it is supported, how can this finding be
explained? One possibility is that individuals high in care in spending are
cautious, low-risk individuals. In contrast, individuals high in tightwadism live
an alternative lifestyle that includes risk taking. As a result, they are higher in
the need for arousal.
Why would the need for body resources be related to tightwadism? While
one can only speculate, a possibility is derived from the concept in the 3M
Model that the resources form a system. Thus, if an individual is lower in the
need for one of the resources, one should expect that he or she will have a
higher need for another resource in order to compensate. Thus, individuals who
are lower in the need for material resources may have a correspondingly higher
need for other resources-such as the body resources.
In sum, while related to each other, care in spending and tightwadism
appear to be very different constructs. An examination of their items provides
a tentative explanation for the differences obtained. The items in the care in
spending scale focus on the ability to delay gratification (e.g., " ... can resist
buying today," and " ... can wait on a purchase") and in being careful in how
money is spent. Thus, an individual could be very interested in living a good
life and enjoying buying while simultaneously agreeing with these items. In
contrast, the tightwad items focus on spending very little, decreasing a standard
of living, and finding it hard to spend. From this perspective, it makes sense
that the tightwad scale would be more closely related to measures that tap into
modest living behaviors, such as buying second-hand goods, because they are
a natural byproduct of a dislike for spending.
Hypothesis 6 predicted that the present orientation of individuals should
be negatively associated with the Lastovicka et al. (1999) scale. The results of
structural equation modeling failed to support this hypothesis. One possibility
is that the present orientation scale does not have construct validity. The results
of the Hershey and Mowen (1999) research, however, did support the validity
of the measure. As predicted, they found that present orientation was nega-
tively related to measures of retirement planning behaviors. Based upon these
results, the data suggest that the care in spending construct is not related to
present orientation. (Indeed, the bivariate correlation between the constructs
was r = .01). Conceptually, however, it makes sense that someone who takes
care in their spending should be future oriented. Additional research should
further investigate the relationship between these constructs.
The significant positive relationship between present orientation (the
measure of present orientation employed in the research) and tightwadism was
surprising. The small bivariate correlation of r = .15 (p < .05) between the
constructs confirms that the relationship was not caused by a suppressor
variable in the structural equation modeling. One possible explanation of these
results is that individuals who express higher levels of tightwadism are finding
it necessary to focus on the present. It may be that in the sample of respondents
obtained in Study 2, situational variables forced the participants to focus on the
present. That is, most of the sample was composed of students who may be
experiencing financial hardships. Indeed, it makes sense that if an individual is
facing severe personal difficulties, he or she will tend to focus on the present.
In addition, it would make it difficult for the individual to focus on the future.
Unfortunately, the survey employed in Study 2 did not employ measures of
current life circumstances in order to test this explanation of the results.
In order to further explore the data, a hierarchical regression was run on
the data from Study 2 in which age and sex were input as independent variables.
The results revealed that no age effects could be discerned (t = .95, p > .30).
An effect for sex was found, however. Men were more frugal than women in
this sample (t =2.44, P < .02).
The cluster analytic work provided a set of interesting findings. The
results revealed that the traits associated with the tightwad cluster are consistent
with what one would expect of ascetics. That is, they live modestly, are high
in tightwadism, low in materialism, and medium in present orientation and
conscientiousness. In contrast, there is a group of "future spenders" that is
medium in tightwadism but low in modest living, high in present orientation,
medium in materialism, and low in conscientiousness. This pattern may
represent a group of individuals who have the potential for high spending.
Finally, there is a group of "controlled spenders" who are low in tightwadism

and modest living. However, they are also low in present orientation, conscien-
tious, and materialistic. This pattern suggests a group of individuals who are
willing to spend but only in a controlled way.
In sum, two major findings emerge from the present research. First, the
results are consistent with the measure of tightwadism representing a surface
trait in the hierarchical model. The construct is highly predictive of a measure
of modest living, which represents a specific set of behaviors that result from
tightwadism. Thus, individuals who have a distaste for spending money are
more likely to purchase goods from second-hand stores and to make their own
clothing/furniture. These results support the predictive and nomological
validity of the tightwadism construct. In addition, constructs at more abstract
levels in the hierarchy are predictive of tightwadism.
Second, the results reveal that frugality is a difficult concept to measure.
Frugality may be composed of a number of different facets that represent a
distaste for spending money, a desire to use care in spending, and a desire to
efficiently use resources. Future research is required to further delineate the
dimensions offrugality. In this research, investigators must measure both the
dispositional and situational factors that could cause individuals to reveal each
of these patterns of behaviors. That is, higher scores may result from an
enduring disposition toward asceticism or from temporary situational forces
that focus an individual on the present and on avoiding spending.
Consistent with the difficulty of measuring frugality, the research revealed
that the measure developed by Lastovicka et al. (1999) requires further
investigation. While one study cannot make or break a construct, the present
research suggests that additional scale development efforts are required on the
measure. The full eight-item scale possessed inadequate internal reliability.
Further, the care in spending factor did not behave as one would expect. It had
minimal relationship with a measure of modest living that one would a priori
expect to be associated with frugality. In addition, the structural equation
modeling revealed that the trait had a minimal relationship with a measure of
conscientiousness, which Lastovicka et al. (1999) hypothesized should be
related to the construct. Finally, it was not related to future orientation, which
was also hypothesized by these researchers.
PARTV.
ADDITIONAL INVESTIGATIONS INTO

THE HIERARCHICAL MODEL
Part V continues the investigation of the 3M Model. The section begins

by analyzing the trait of extraversion that is found in the Five-Factor Model and
in the work of Hans Eysenck. The results of two empirical studies will
demonstrate that extraversion is a compound level trait. Chapter 16 extends the
empirical work to investigate the ability of the 3M to predict preferences for
movie genres. Next, Chapter 17 begins the process of determining whether the
3M can be employed to develop communications themes that influence attitudes
and buying intentions regarding the purchase of an innovative electronics
product. Finally, the book concludes with a chapter that summarizes the
findings, identifies the contributions of the 3M, and suggests directions for
future research.
CHAPTER 15
WHAT IS AN EXTROVERT? THEY ARE MORE THAN THEY SEEM!
Abstract
Two studies were conducted that investigated the construct of extraversion

and its relationship to the 3M model. The results revealed that extraversion, as
operationalized by Saucier (1994) and Eysenck and Eysenck (1985), is a
compound level trait. The 3M Model traits predictive of the Saucier measure
were: introversion, the need for arousal, emotional stability, and the need for
activity. Traits predictive of the Eysenck's measure were: introversion, the
need for arousal, and agreeability. In each instance over 50 percent of the
variance in the measures of extraversion was accounted for. Study 2 also began
the process of developing a measure of the need for social resources. The six-
item scale had high internal reliability and was found to represent a compound
level trait. Results are discussed in terms of the need to compare the measure-
ment properties of several extraversion measures in a single study. The goal is
to develop a theory that explains the sources of and the effects of extraversion.
Introduction
The construct of extroversion-introversion has a long history in psychol-

ogy. In the late nineteenth century, William James described the human
instincts. He observed that an instinct characterized by two of the character-
istics of extroversion, shyness and sociability, begin early in life (James 1948).
In his descriptions of "finding unity in the self," Carl Jung (1923) emphasized
the opposing forces of introversion and extroversion. In Jung's view, the
introverted type is hesitant, reflective, and cautious. In contrast, the extroverted
type is focused on the outside world and is socially engaging, active, and
adventuresome. More recently, the work of Carl Jung has been integrated into
Myers/Briggs type indicators (Myers and McCaulley 1985). Specifically,
extroversion/introversion represent one of the four pairs of preference
alternatives that combine to create sixteen personality types.
The construct of extroversion has also appeared consistently as a trait in
factor analytic studies of human personality. These studies found five traits.
The possibility that five factors could be used to describe personality originated
with the work of Thurstone (1934). Fiske (1949) supported a five-factor
structure and replicated it across samples of self-ratings, observer ratings, and
peer ratings. Based upon his extensive analysis of numerous data sets, Norman
(1963) argued that a set of five stable personality traits emerged. Norman
(1963) described people high in the extraversion trait as talkative, frank and
208 What Is An Extrovert? They Are More Than They Seem!
open, adventurous, and sociable. More recently, prolific work by Costa and
McCrae (1985) has supported the existence of five factors: extraversion,
stability, agreeability, consciousness, and openness to experience (or creativity).
Another researcher employing a factor analytic approach to personality is
Raymond Cattell. His work resulted in the identification of sixteen personality
traits (Cattell 1965). One of these was labeled "surgency" and is represented
by items such as reserved versus outgoing. This trait appears to be very closely
related to extroversion.
The construct of extroversion also appeared in the three-factor theory of
Hans Eysenck. In his factor analytic work, Eysenck identified three super-
factors: introversion-extraversion, neuroticism (emotionally stable versus
emotionally unstable), and psychoticism (agreeable versus disagreeable).
Interestingly, Eysenck linked his neuroticism and extraversion factors to the
four Greek temperament types, and these bear strong similarity to lung's
architypes. The four Greek types are melancholic (unstable and introverted),
phlegmatic (stable and introverted), sanguine (stable and extroverted), and
choleric (extroverted and unstable). Eysenck's prolific research provided
evidence that extraversion-introversion has a genetic/biological basis and that
it occurs cross-culturally (Eysenck and Eysenck 1985).
As currently conceptualized, extroversion is employed descriptively to
characterize the behavior of people. The best theoretical account of extro-
version currently available comes from Eysenck and Eysenck (1975). They
describe extraversion as " ... closely related to the degree of excitation and
inhibition prevalent in the central nervous system" (p. 7). Within the theoreti-
cal structure of the 3M, however, this description is more closely aligned to that
expected from an elemental trait such as the need for arousal. Zuckerman
(1979) in his work on sensation seeking provides solid evidence for the
biological basis for sensation seeking and the need for arousal.
The first research question addressed by this chapter asks where in the
hierarchical model the extraversion construct best fits? Zuckerman (1979)
discussed extraversion at some length in his book. He used the research on the
construct by Eysenck (1947) and by Raymond Cattell (1957) to support his
theory of sensation seeking. Zuckerman (1979) noted that Cattell sought to
identify the underlying "source traits" (akin to the elemental traits in the 3M)
that enter into the determination of "surface traits." According to Zuckerman
(1979), Cattell identified a broad second-order factor called "Exvia-Invia."
Zuckerman argued that this factor is identical to Eysenck's extraversion-
introversion factor. This conceptualization is consistent with extraversion
existing at the compound trait level. Based upon these ideas, the first
hypothesis can be posed.
H1: Extraversion represents a compound level trait.
What Is An Extrovert? They Are More Than They Seem! 209
A second research question addressed in this chapter concerns which

elemental traits are predictive of extraversion. Cattell (1957) also proposed that
"Exvia-Invia" is composed of three "first-order" factors. "Cyclothmia" reflects
extraversion in the social sphere as related to being good-natured, cooperative,
and soft-hearted. "Surgency" reflects extraversion in terms of high energy
levels and positive mood states. Finally, "parmia" reflects extraversion via
adventurousness and impulsiveness. It is important to note that these three
forms of extraversion appear to match elemental traits in the 3M. Parmia is
closely related to the need for arousal construct. Surgency appears to reflect
the opposite of the introversion construct in the 3M. Finally, cyclothmia
appears to reflect the agreeableness construct. Based upon the research of
Cattell (1957), hypotheses can be developed as to which elemental traits are
predictive of extraversion.
H2: Introversion will be negatively related to extraversion.
H3: The need for arousal will be positively related to extraversion.
H4: Agreeableness will be positively related to extraversion.
In order to answer the research questions, the chapter presents two studies
that investigate the relationship between the 3M measure of introversion and
the measures of extraversion developed by Saucier (1994) and by Eysenck and
Eysenck (1985). The next section presents the results of the investigation of the
Saucier (1994) version of extraversion. This is followed by an investigation of
the trait as operationalized by Eysenck and Eysenck (1985). The chapter
concludes with a discussion of the results and directions for future research.
Assessing the Saucier (1994) Extraversion Construct
Method
The 40-item scale developed by Saucier (1994) to measure the Five-Factor
constructs was included in the Spring 1998 Student Survey (see Appendix C-6).
In this study 226 respondents in marketing classes completed a questionnaire
entitled "Consumer Needs Analysis Survey." After eliminating surveys with
excessive missing data, 218 responses were analyzed. Along with the Saucier
(1994) items, the survey operationalized the items designed to measure the
elemental traits of the 3M.
Saucier (1994) measured the Five-Factor constructs by asking respondents
to indicate how accurately the traits describe you on a nine-point rating scale.
The endpoints of the scale are labeled "Extremely inaccurate" and "Extremely
accurate." The items are placed in a 4 x 10 matrix, and the respondent writes
in the number to the left of the trait descriptor. The traits are listed alpha-
betically in the matrix.
Results
In the data analysis the eight items developed by Saucier (1994) to
measure extraversion were first analyzed via exploratory factor analysis
(maximum likelihood extraction with varimax rotation). A two-factor solution
was obtained that explained 61.4 percent of the cumulative variance. The first
factor was composed of bashful and shy. The second factor was composed of
talkative and energetic. Two items cross-loaded across the factors: quiet and
withdrawn. Finally, two items had factor scores that were below .35: bold and
extroverted. The coefficient alpha of the full eight-item scale was .83.
Indices were created for each of the 3M's elemental traits. All coefficient
alphas were above .80, except for the three-item introversion scale. Its
coefficient alpha was .74.
In the next analysis, the bivariate correlation between Saucier's (1994)
extraversion scale and the 3M measure of introversion was assessed. The
correlation was r = -.76. Thus, a strong negative relationship was found
between the 3M's introversion measure and Saucier's (1994) extraversion
measure. This would be expected because the 3M trait of introversion was
originally developed out of the Saucier (1994) measure.
In the next analysis, a multiple regression equation was created in which
the eight elemental traits were employed to predict Saucier's (1994) extra-
version measure. The adjusted variance accounted for was substantial-
R2 = .60. Significant predictor variables were introversion (P = -.69, p < .0001),
the need for arousal (P = .12, p < .02), emotional stability (P = .11, p < .02), and
conscientiousness (P = .12, p < .01).
Because the Saucier measure contains items such as bold and energetic, it
was anticipated that his measure may also be related to the need for activity
construct. The need for activity was added to the regression equation as a
predictor variable. In this model, variance accounted for increased to 63
percent. Significant predictors were introversion (P =-.64, p < .001), the need
for activity (P = .20, p < .001), emotional stability (P = .11, p < .02), and the
need for arousal (P = .09, p < .05). Conscientiousness was not significant in
this model (P = .07, p < .15).
The next analysis inserted the Saucier (1994) extraversion scale as a
predictor variable and employed introversion as the criterion variable. The
adjusted variance accounted for was also substantial- R2 = .57, but less than
that found when the Saucier extraversion measure was the criterion variable.
The only significant predictor of introversion was the extraversion measure.
When the need for activity was added to the model to predict introversion,
again the only significant predictor variable was the Saucier measure of
extraversion (P = -.74, p < .001). The adjusted variance accounted for was the
same as for the model without the need for activity, R2 =.57. The results reveal
that the Saucier (1994) measure fully mediated the effects of the elemental traits
on the measure of introversion.
Discussion
Addressing the first research question, these results are partially consistent
with the Saucier (1994) measure of extraversion representing a compound level
trait. That is, a combination of elemental traits is predictive of it, and they
account for high levels (over 60 percent) of the construct's variance. In
addition, when introversion is employed as the criterion variable, extraversion
fully mediates the effects of the elemental traits.
The results also supported H2 by showing that introversion was negatively
related to extraversion. In addition, they supported H3 by revealing that
extraversion was positively related to the need for arousal. Hypothesis 4,
however, was not supported. That is, for the Saucier (1994) measure of
extraversion, agreeability was not a significant predictor variable.
On two dimensions, however, the trait was inconsistent with the definition
of a compound trait. First, the scale consisted of more than six items. Second,
the exploratory factor analysis indicated that the trait was not unidimensional.
Assessing the Eysenck Measure of Extraversion
Method
The Fall 1998 Student Survey (see Appendix C-12) included the 10-item
scale developed by Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) to measure extraversion. The
scale includes items such as "are you rather lively?" "Do you enjoy meeting
new people?" "Do you like going out a lot?" "Do you like to make decisions on
the spur of the moment?" "Do you call yourself happy-go-lucky?" and "Can you
easily adapt to new and unusual situations?"
One-hundred fifty-four students in marketing classes completed the survey.
Four surveys had to be eliminated because of excessive missing data. The study
was described as a "Personality and Movie Interest Study." In order to hold
constant the effects of methods variance, the Eysenck extraversion items were
assessed on the same scale as the introversion items from the 3M Model. That
is, respondents indicated how frequently they feel/act this way. Nine-point
scales were used and were bounded by "Never" and "Always."
The survey also contained an additional set of eight items designed to
directly measure a need for social resources. These items were developed by
the author in an attempt to build a measure that from a content validity
perspective more closely represents individual differences in the tendency to
build relationships with others.
Results
In the initial analysis the Eysenck extraversion scale was submitted to
exploratory factor analysis (maximum likelihood extraction with varimax
rotation). The results revealed a two-factor solution that accounted for 58.7
percent of the cumulative variance. The first factor was composed of nine
items. The second factor consisted of the item "Make decisions on the spur of
the moment." The coefficient alpha for the full scale was .86.
The coefficient alphas for the 3M elemental traits were all equal to or
above .76, which was the internal reliability of the measure of introversion.
The analysis followed the same approach as that employed to assess the Saucier
(1994) measure of extraversion. First, the eight elemental traits were regressed
on the Eysenck extraversion measure. The model was highly significant,
accounting for 52 percent of the adjusted variance in the criterion variable.
Significant predictors of extraversion were introversion W= -.54, p < .001), the
need for arousal (P = .32, p < .001), and agreeability (P = .16, p < .01). When
the need for activity was added to the model, it did not enter as a significant
predictor (p >.95).
In the next analysis, introversion was employed as the criterion variable
and extraversion was inserted as the predictor variable. The model was signi-
ficant and accounted for 42 percent of the variance in introversion. Consistent
with Study 1, the only significant predictor variable of introversion was the
Eysenck extraversion construct (P = -.65, p < .001). When the need for activity
was added as a predictor variable, it was not significant (p > .21).
Additional analyses were performed on the Fall 1998 Student Study to
assess whether the Eysenck extraversion measure would account for incre-
mental variance in other compound, situational, or surface traits beyond that of
the elemental traits. The first analysis was run on the measure of playfulness
discussed in Chapter 8. The hierarchical regression analysis revealed that after
accounting for the effects of the elemental traits, the partial correlation of
extraversion with the need for play was r =.32 (p < .001). The same procedure
was employed for measures of competitiveness and the need for learning. In
neither case did the partial correlation of extraversion with the criterion variable
approach significance.
Assessing the Need For Social Resources Measure

The eight items developed to measure the need for social resources were
first entered into an exploratory factor analysis (maximum likelihood extraction
with varimax rotation). The results revealed a one-factor solution accounting
for 54 percent of the cumulative variance. Next, a coefficient alpha was
computed for the eight-item scale. The coefficient alpha was acceptable (alpha
=.87). However, two ofthe items had item-to-total correlations of.46 and .55.
When these items were dropped, the coefficient alpha increased to .88.
Need for Social Resources Scale

1. Maintaining friendships is my highest priority.
2. Other people are my most important resource.
3. I work hard to keep my friendships healthy.
4. Devote time each day to building relationships.
5. Worry about making my relationships work smoothly.
6. Building solid friendships is important to my success.
The next analysis of the construct involved assessing whether it or the

introversion trait was the more basic trait. First, an index was created of the
need for social resources by using the mean of the six-item measure of the
construct. A regression analysis was performed in which the need for social
resources was the criterion variable and the eight elemental traits were the
predictor variables. The adjusted variance accounted for was 28.1 percent.
Significant predictors of the need for social resources were introversion
(~= -.19, P < .02) and agreeability (~= .46, p < .001).
Next, introversion was input as the criterion variable and the need for
social resources was employed as one of the eight predictor variables. The
variance accounted for in introversion was 14.5 percent. Significant predictors
of introversion were the need for arousal (~= -.32, P < .001), the need for social
resources (~= -.23, P < .02), and emotional stability (~= .18, P < .05). Based
on the finding that substantially more variance was accounted for in the need
for social resources than in the measure of introversion, the results are
consistent with the need for social resources being identified as a compound
trait.
In the final analysis, a hierarchical regression was run in order to
determine whether extraversion (Eysenck and Eysenck 1985) would account for
incremental variance in the need for social resources after taking out the effects
of the elemental traits. In the analysis the need for social resources was the
criterion variable, the eight elemental traits were the predictor variables in
Modell, and extraversion was the predictor variable in Model 2. The results
revealed that the partial correlation between extraversion and the need for social
resources was significant (partial r = .18, t = 2.14, P < .05).
Discussion
Answering the first research question, the results of Study 2 are partially
consistent with the Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) extraversion measure repre-
senting a compound level trait. That is, a combination of elemental traits
accounted for high levels of variance in the construct (52 percent). In addition,
the construct accounted for incremental variance in the need for play and the
need for social resources after taking out the effects of the elemental traits.
Finally, the scale had good internal validity.
On two dimensions, however, the trait was inconsistent with the definition
of a compound trait. First, the scale consisted of more than six items. Second,
the exploratory factor analysis indicated that the trait was not unidimensional.
Addressing research question 2, the study found that three elemental traits
were predictive of Eysenck's extraversion measure. Consistent with H2,
introversion was a significant predictor. Consistent with H3, the need for
arousal was significant predictor. Finally, consistent with H4, agreeability was
positively related to extraversion.
Study 2 also began the process of developing a scale to measure the need
for social resources. The results revealed a construct with good internal validity
(alpha = .88). Additional analyses revealed that the trait appears to reside at the
compound level. That is, a combination of elemental traits accounted for 28.1
percent of the adjusted variance in the measure. This was almost twice that of
introversion when it was input as the criterion variable.
General Discussion
Two studies were conducted to investigate the research question of where

in the hierarchical model of personality the construct of extraversion as
operationalized by Saucier (1994) and by Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) is
located. In addition, the research sought to identify the elemental traits
predictive of these alternative measures of extraversion.
Research Question 1
As defined in Chapter 2, compound traits represent unidimensional
dispositions that are cross-situational and that emerge from the interplay of
elemental traits, from the culture in which an individual lives, and from the
learning history of the individual. In addition to being cross-situational,
compound traits are proposed to have four characteristics: (1) they should be
unidimensional; (2) they should have good internal reliability and be composed
of six or less items; (3) a combination of elemental traits should account for
over 25 percent of the variance in a compound trait; and (4) when combined
with the elemental traits, they should incrementally account for variance in
other compound traits, in situational traits, or in surface traits.
The extraversion measures of Saucier (1994) and Eysenck and Eysenck
(1985) were found to be consistent with three of the criteria for a compound
level trait. First, they are cross-situational. That is, the tendency to reveal
extroverted patterns of behavior may occur in consumer settings, in work

settings, in leisure settings, etc. In addition, the measures of extraversion are
clearly consistent with Criterion 3. That is, a combination of elemental traits
accounted for more than twice the 25 percent of variance criterion. For the
Saucier measure, three elemental traits (introversion, the need for arousal, and
emotional stability) and a compound level trait (the need for activity) accounted
for 64 percent of the adjusted variance in extraversion. For the Eysenck
measure, a combination of introversion, the need for arousal, and agreeability
accounted for 52 percent of its adjusted variance.
Good evidence was found that the Eysenck measure meets criterion 4.
That is, it accounted for incremental variance in the measures of the need for
play and the need for social resources after the effects of the elemental traits
were eliminated. (These constructs were not included in the study that
investigated the Saucier measure.)
On other dimensions, however, the measures of extraversion failed to meet
the criteria of compound traits. Specifically, both the Saucier (1994) scale and
the Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) measures were multidimensional. In addition,
both had more than six items. An important question, however, concerns the
whether these criteria are necessary. On one level, it is possible to disagree
with the definition of a compound trait that was identified in Chapter 2.
Clearly, placing a six-item limit on compound traits is arbitrary. However,
when more than six or so items are included in a scale, it is very likely that
multiple dimensions will be obtained. In addition, when doing structural
equation modeling, it is very difficult to employ more than three or four items,
much less more than six. So from a practical perspective, the six-item limit
makes sense.
A more important issue, however, concerns the unidimensionality
criterion. Is it necessary to define compound traits as having only one dimen-
sion. In this author's view, more thinking needs to be done on this question.
The majority of scales presently in use that may exist at the compound level
(e.g., the need for cognition, impulsiveness, and so forth) generally have at least
two dimensions. As described in Chapter 2, the reason for specifying that
compound traits should have one dimension was based upon the physics
metaphor. That is, the compound traits should act like molecular compounds.
While resulting from combinations of elements, like water and alcohol, they are
also unidimensional in nature.
The fact remains, however, that in order to investigate the relationship of
the elemental traits with existing multidimensional scales at the compound,
situational, or surface levels, it will be necessary to find a means of including
these scales in the hierarchical model. Currently, my preferred option for future
research is to use the mean of the index of each factor of the multidimensional
trait as an indicator of the underlying latent construct. This procedure reduces

the number of latent constructs assessed in the structural equation model. In
addition, it retains the multidimensional nature of the latent construct.
In sum, the results are most consistent with the Saucier (1994) and the
Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) extraversion measures representing a compound
level trait. Both measures are cross-situational in application. In addition, a
combination of elemental traits accounts for over 50 percent of the variance in
both constructs. Finally, Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) accounted for
incremental variance in other traits after the effects of the elemental traits were
eliminated.
Research Question 2
The second research question asked which elemental traits are predictive
of extraversion. The results revealed a slightly different pattern of results for
the Saucier (1994) measure and for the Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) measure.
Four traits were predictive of the Saucier measure: introversion, the need for
activity, emotional stability, and the need for arousal. Three elemental traits
were predictive of the Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) version of extraversion:
introversion, the need for arousal, and agreeability. Thus, both studies
supported Hypothesis 2 for introversion and Hypothesis 3 for the need for
arousal. Hypothesis 4, which proposed that agreeability would be predictive of
extraversion, was supported only for the Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) extra-
version measure. Thus, the Eysenck measure appears to conform more closely
to Cattell's (1957) conceptualization of the construct.
Cattell (1957) proposed cyclothmia, surgency, and parmia as elements of
the secondary trait of extraversion. I view the close resemblance of cyclothmia
to agreeableness, of surgency to introversion (negative relationship), and of
parmia to the need for arousal as independent confirmation of these elemental
traits. Further confirmation is obtained by the finding in Study 2 that
introversion, agreeableness, and the need for arousal were predictive of the
Eysenck measure of extraversion.
Summary and Future Research Directions

As a summary statement, what conclusions can we draw about the
measures of extroversion developed by Saucier (1994) and Eysenck and
Eysenck (1985). First, the results reveal that the traits can be categorized as
compound level dispositions. Second, the results reveal that the measures do
not tap exactly the same latent construct. The regression analysis revealed that
two of the elemental traits were predictive of both traits. That is, introversion
was negatively related and extraversion was positively related to both
constructs. However, for the Saucier (1994) measure the constructs of need for
activIty and emotional stability were also predictive of extraversion. In

contrast, for the Eysenck measure, agreeability was significantly related-in
addition to introversion and the need for arousal.
Overall, the findings lead to a number of directions for future research.
Specifically, researchers should develop studies that simultaneously operation-
alize multiple measures of extroversion and systematically explore their
measurement properties. In the present research, the measures developed by
Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) and Saucier (1994) were collected via different
instruments and could not be directly compared. These alternative measures of
extraversion should be compared in terms of what elemental traits are predictive
of them and of what situational and surface traits the extraversion measures
predict.
The result of the analysis of alternative measures of extraversion will be
the identification of the interrelationships among different measures of
extraversion, the elemental traits predictive of the measures, and the situational
and surface traits that are predicted by the measures. The goal of the analysis
will be the development of a theory of extraversion. In addition, future research
should compare the hierarchical model developed by Cattell (1957) to that of
the 3M. Cattell's work appears to be consistent with that of Paunonen (1998),
which was discussed in Chapter 2. That is, the source/primary/elemental traits
are viewed as broad and lead to more narrowly defined traits associated with
only one source trait. The 3M turns this model upside-down by proposing that
mUltiple elemental traits combine to create the compound/second-order traits.
As described earlier in the book, the structural equation modeling supports the
hierarchical model proposed in the 3M. Additional work, however, is needed
on this important question.
Another line of future research needs to investigate the advantages and
disadvantages of unidimensional versus multidimensional personality scales.
In particular, what are the benefits and liabilities of seeking to develop
unidimensional compound traits as recommended by the 3M Model?
The title of the chapter asked "What Is an Extrovert?" The answer is that
extroverts are low in introversion (not bashful and shy), they have a high need
for arousal, they appear to have a high need for activity, and they may be more
agreeable and sociable.
Chapter 16
FROM CHICK-FLICKS TO GUY-FLICKS TO SCI-FI JUNKIES:

TRAITS OF MOVIE HOUNDS
Abstract
Study 1 employed the 3M's elemental traits and a measure of "interest in

romantic chivalry" to predict preferences for four movie genres. The multiple
regression analysis revealed a good ability of the Model to account for variance
in liking for romance, action/adventure and science fiction genres but not for
the drama category. In addition, Study 1 investigated factors predictive of
liking for the movie Titanic along with the number of times that respondents
attended the movie. Structural equation modeling revealed that overall liking
for the movie, along with sex of respondent, accounted for 25 percent of the
variance in attendance. Significant predictors of liking for Titanic were liking
for dramas, liking for science fiction (negative relationship), sex of respondent,
and agreeability. Study 2 investigated the relationship between the elemental
traits and sex of respondent and age of respondent. A meta-analysis of five
studies revealed that the elemental traits accounted for an average of 16.4
percent of the variance in gender and 15.7 percent of the variance in age.
Significant predictors of the female gender were need for arousal (-), agree-
ability (+), need for body resources (+), conscientiousness (+), and openness to
experience (-). The only significant predictor of age was the need for arousal
(-). Results are discussed in terms of the implications for the promotion of
movies and for understanding the relationship between the elemental traits and
gender and age.
Introduction
In a recent paper on the impact of film critics on box office receipts,

Eliashberg and Shugan (1997) observed that the entertainment industry is
growing rapidly. Further, they noted that despite the importance of the
industry, academic researchers in the marketing discipline have neglected the
field. The importance of marketing a feature film is illustrated by its high cost,
which averages $14 million (Shugan 1995).
The goal of most movie producers is to develop and market feature films
that appeal to a wide spectrum of consumers. But how does one determine a
priori what characteristics of a film will make it popular? One approach is to
identify the personality traits that are predictive of preferences for the various
categories of movies. That is, by developing an understanding of the individual
differences that impact movie category preferences, marketers may have a
220 Traits of Movie Hounds
means of determining the nature of the movie product itself as well as how to
communicate the movie product to specific audience segments.
Previous Research on Movie Preferences20

As described by Eliashberg and Shugan (1997), the movie business is a
major leisure industry. Family Motion Pictures, Inc. (1997) estimated that
domestic box revenue in the United States was $5.8 billion in 1995. In 1996,
thirteen films each grossed over $100 million in the U.S. Furthermore, the
number of movie theaters in the U.S. has steadily increased in the 1990s. In
1996, 29,731 screens were available in the U.S.-a 6.7 percent increase over
1995 totals and a 21 percent increase over 1991 totals. While recent data have
been difficult to obtain, a study reported that in 1976 over 53 percent of
consumer entertainment dollars was spent on film (Austin 1982). In 1988,43.7
percent of spectator amusement expenditures was on movies (Family Motion
Pictures 1997) These estimates, however, exclude revenues from video rentals
and promotional tie-ins.
Studying consumer preferences for types of movies is also important
because of their potent impact on consumer values and popular culture. While
difficult to quantify, movies transmit important societal values and mores to the
younger members of a culture. In 1990, researchers found that people aged 16-
29 accounted for 56 percent of total movie attendance (Family Motion Pictures
1997). In 1999, the murder of teens at Columbine High School in Littleton,
Colorado, brought national attention to the effects of violence in film.
Early research on consumer responses to movies by Thurstone (1930) was
concerned with the effects of movies on societal values. The study of consumer
preferences and attitudes toward movies has continued on a sporadic basis since
this initial work. Austin (1982) collected data from 170 self-selected respon-
dents using Thurstone' s (1930) scale in order to identify categories of consumer
attitudes regarding the movies. Other researchers investigated whether
increased aggressive behavior follows exposure to violent media content (e.g.,
Betsch and Dickenberger 1993; Black and Bevan 1992; Lande 1993.) Weaver,
Brosius, and Mundorf (1993) sought to identify the types of movies, and
empirically derived the categories of horror, nonconformist drama, sexual-
comedy, and tragedy. Gutman (1982b) identified six factors that compose film
content: wholesome entertainment, violence, emotional/caring, realism,
exciting action, and makes you think.
Another area of investigation concerns the question - why do people go
to the movies? Uses and gratifications theory states that people attend movies
2°Many thanks are extended to Jeb Stone for his assistance in collecting information for
the literature review.
Traits of Movie Hounds 221
because of the reward contingencies inherent in either the medium itself or in

the content of the medium (Domzal and Kernan 1983; Stanford 1984). Tesser,
Millar, and Wu (1988) sought to identify the needs that movie going fulfills in
consumers. Their factor analytic study revealed three types of moviegoers,
each perceiving the function of movies as fulfilling different needs: 1) self-
escape, 2) self-development, and 3) entertainment.
Eliashberg and Sawhney (1994) developed a conceptual framework for
predicting enjoyment of a specific movie. Prior to watching the movie, subjects
completed a series of scales measuring mood state, the need for arousal, and
other factors. Overall, their model accounted for just over 9 percent of the
variance in enjoyment of the movie. The need for arousal and the measures of
moodiness interacted together to influence enjoyment. This result supports the
use of the need for arousal as a factor relevant to predicting movie preferences.
The study of the needs movie-going fulfills has implications for identifying
the motivational and personality factors predictive of movie preferences.
Eysenck and Eysenck's (1985) empirically derived trait theory of personality
has been used to predict movie preferences. This psycho-biological theory
identifies three dispositional factors that influence conduct across situations:
extraversion (social adaptability, affiliation, and activity), neuroticism (anxiety,
emotionality, and social isolation), and psychoticism (lack of restraint,
responsibility, and socialization). (As described previously in this book, these
three factors are closely related to three of the elemental traits: introversion,
emotional stability, and agreeability.) This theory has thus far served as the
primary basis for work on the personality factors that influence movie
preference (Frost and Stauffer 1987; Weaver, Brosius, and Mundorf 1993).
Frost and Stauffer (1987), however, found no effects for the three personality
traits on physiological arousal in response to viewing scenes of graphic
violence. On the other hand, Weaver (1991) found that those scoring high on
emotional instability (i.e., psychoticism in the Eysenck and Eysenck, 1985,
model) expressed a preference for horror movies but much less interest in
comedies. Weaver et al. (1993) concluded that personality type can in fact be
used to explain and predict media preferences.
Interestingly, the literature review failed to identify investigations that
specifically investigate the effects of sex of respondent on movie preferences.
One study investigated the role of gender in relation to the impact of depictions
of violence in film on physiological responses (Frost and Stauffer 1987). The
results revealed that gender did not mediate the effects of violence. Despite the
lack of research on the impact of gender on movie preferences, one frequently
hears people talk about "chick flicks" and "guy flicks." Thus, one goal of the
chapter is to investigate the role of sex of respondent in predicting movie
preferences.
The Two Major Goals of the Chapter

The chapter has two major goals. First, the research investigates the
relationship of the 3M's elemental traits with preferences for movie genres,
liking for the movie Titanic, and the number of times respondents had seen the
movie. The second major goal of the chapter is to investigate the relationship
of 3M's elemental traits to the gender of the respondents. That is, do males and
females reveal enduring differences in their personality traits?
Within the first goal of the chapter, one can identify four research
questions. First, what is the relationship between preferences for four movie
genres and the liking for the movie Titanic? The preferences for four movie
genres are investigated in the chapter: science fiction (sci-fi), action/adventure,
romance, and drama. As the top-grossing film of all time, an interesting applied
question concerns what made Titanic so popular. The possibility being
explored is that it tapped into the interest in multiple genres of film.
A second research question asked what is the relationship of the 3M's
elemental traits, the gender of the respondents, and a newly developed
compound trait with preferences for four categories of movies: action/
adventure, romance, drama/suspense, and science fiction. The compound trait
is called "chivalry" and seeks to measure enduring interest in romantic love.
The third research question investigated asked how much variance can be
accounted for in the number of times people have seen the movie Titanic. A
model is built in which the elemental traits, the measure of chivalry, preferences
for movie genres, and the liking for the movie are employed to predict the
number of times people have seen Titanic.
The fourth research question asked whether cluster profiles of movie goers
can be identified. The motivational network employed in the cluster analysis
consisted of the elemental traits, the compound trait of chivalry, and prefer-
ences for movie genres. The ability of the clusters to distinguish the character-
istics of the different movie genres, the liking for Titanic, and the number of
times seeing Titanic was also investigated.
As noted above, the second goal of the chapter is to assess the ability of
the 3M's elemental traits to predict the gender of respondents. In addition, the
ability of the traits to predict the age of respondents is investigated. Thus,
across four studies, sex and age are employed as dependent variables and the
3M's elemental traits are employed to predict these demographic variables.
The chapter next presents the results of a study designed to assess the
relationship of the 3M traits with selected movie category preferences, liking
for the Titanic, and the measure of chivalry. A series of studies are then
presented that investigate the relationship of the 3M with the demographic
variables of sex and age. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the results
and with directions for future research.
Study 1: Predicting Movie Preferences
Method
One-hundred eighty-six students in marketing classes completed a
questionnaire entitled "Consumer Motivation Study" (see Appendix C-15).
One-hundred seventy-seven questionnaires were adequate for analysis. The
questionnaire contained the 3M traits, the items developed to measure chivalry,
and a set of items designed to assess preferences for four categories of movies:
action/adventure, romance, drama/suspense, and science fiction. In addition,
items designed to measure liking for the movie Titanic were included.
The same scales were employed to measure movie genre preferences and
liking for Titanic. In each case three semantic differential scales were
employed. The seven-point bipolar scales were anchored by: bad-good,
unfavorable-favorable, negative opinion-positive opinion. The specific
statement for the Titanic measure was: "Next, we would like to get your
reactions to the movie Titanic. Circle the number that best represents your
overall feelings about the movie, even if you have not seen the movie." For the
action/adventure genre, the statement was: "Now, we would like to your
personal evaluation of the genre of action/adventure movies, such as Indiana
Jones, James Bond, Die Hard, Twister, etc." For romance movies, the
statement read: "In this section, please provide your personal evaluation of the
genre of romance movies, such as Sleepless in Seattle, Gone with the Wind,
Casablanca, The English Patient, etc." For drama/suspense, the statement read:
"Next, please provide your personal evaluation of the genre of drama/suspense
movies, such as The Client, Apollo 13, Schindler's List, Saving Private Ryan,
etc." Finally for science fiction, the statement read: "Please provide your
personal evaluation of the genre of science fiction movies such as Star Trek,
Stargate, Star Wars, Independence Day, etc."
Based upon a previous pilot study, six items were employed to measure
"chivalry and romantic interest." In addition, three items were also added that
dealt with the sensuous side of romance.
Chivalry Scale
1. I am a very romantic person.
2. People who really know me recognize that I am amorous.
3. I am more passionate than most.
4. I enjoy thinking about romantic love and chivalry.
5. I enjoy day-dreaming about romance.
6. The idea of courtship and gallantry is appealing to me.
Sensuousness Scale
1. I like sensuous experiences.
2. I really enjoy gratifying my senses.
3. I am an erotic, but tender, person.
A secondary purpose of Study 1 was to further investigate the elemental

trait of introversion. As illustrated by the results found in Chapter 15, the
coefficient alpha of introversion has consistently been somewhere in .70s. As
a result, the descriptor "introverted" was added to assess whether it would
improve the internal reliability of the construct.
Results
Assessing the New Scales.

The analysis began with the investigation of the introversion scale. First,
an exploratory factor analysis was run on a five-item version, which also
included "feel uncomfortable in a group of people" (maximum likelihood
extraction with varimax rotation). The results revealed a one-factor solution
that accounted for 70.4 percent of the cumulative variance. Next, a coefficient
alpha was calculated, which was very high: alpha = .89. Each of the items had
item-to-total correlations above .74, except for "feel uncomfortable in a group
of people." This statement's item-to-total correlation was .64. When this item
was eliminated, the coefficient alpha remained at .89. As a result, the four-item
scale was employed to assess the introversion construct.
The next analysis investigated the measures of chivalry and sensuousness.
An exploratory factor analysis was first performed on the nine items assessing
chivalry and sensuousness (maximum likelihood extraction with varimax
rotation). The results revealed a two-factor solution that accounted for 74.9
percent of cumulative variance. The two factors generally matched the a priori
anticipation of the measures. The coefficient alpha for chivalry was .92. The
coefficient alpha of sensuousness was .88. The correlation between the two
constructs was r = .69.
The coefficient alphas of the three-item scales measuring overall liking for
Titanic, as well as for the four movie genres were calculated. All coefficient
alphas were above .94.
Movie Category Preferences and Liking for Titanic.

Research Question 1 asked what the relationship is between preferences
for movie categories and liking for Titanic? The analysis employed the indices
for the preferences for the four movie categories as predictor variables and the
liking for Titanic as the dependent variable in a multiple regression analysis.
Significant predictors of liking for Titanic were romance movie preference

(~ = .31, P < .001), drama movie preference (~ = .21, P < .005), and sci-fi movie
preference (~= -.30, p> .001). Preferences for action/adventure movies did not
approach significance (p > .15). The adjusted variance accounted for by the
model was R2 = .17.
The next analysis employed a hierarchical approach to predict the number
of times that respondents had seen Titanic. A single item asked respondents
how many times they had seen the movie. A six-point scale was employed that
ranged from 0 times to 5+ times. Modell used the measure of the preference
for Titanic as the predictor variable. In Model 2 the preference for each of the
four movie genres was input. The adjusted variance accounted for by the full
model was R2 = .27. Modell was significant (~= .52, P < .001) and accounted
for 26 percent of the adjusted variance. In Model 2, preference for Titanic was
still significant (~= .46, P < .001) along with preferences for romantic movies
(~= .14, P < .05).
Based upon these analyses, it was apparent that in understanding the
variables associated with the number of times the respondents had seen Titanic,
one must include the liking for the movie as well as the liking for the romance
genre, the drama genre, and the sci-fi genre.
Predicting Preferences for Movie Genres.

Research question 2 asked what the effects are of gender and personality
traits on preferences for the four movie genres investigated. The analysis
employed a hierarchical regression approach. For each of the four sets of
analyses, the indices of the measures of chivalry and sensuousness were input
in Modell. The eight elemental traits were input as Model 2 along with the sex
of the respondent.
First, romance movies was investigated. Model 1 was significant and
accounted for 20.1 percent of the variance in the measure. The measure of
chivalry W= .52, P < .001), but not the measure of sensuousness (p > .30), was
significant. When Model 2 was added, the change in variance accounted for
was significant (R\hange = .21, P < .001). Significant variables in Model 2 were
sex of respondent (~ = .44, P < .001), chivalry (~= .33, P < .001), and agree-
ability (~ = .13, P < .06). Overall variance accounted for in preference for
romantic movies was R2 = .38.
Next, liking for sci-fi movies was investigated. Model 1 was not
significant (p > .30). Model 2 was significant and accounted for 15 percent of
the adjusted variance. Significant predictor variables were sex of respondent
(~= .36, P < .001), chivalry (~ = -.31, P < .005), introversion (~ = .17, P < .05),
and conscientiousness (~ = .16, P < .05). When the variables in Model 2 were
added, chivalry moved from nonsignificance (p < .37) to be highly significant.
One or more of the constructs in Model 2 must have acted as a suppressor

variable.
The genre of dramas was investigated in the third analysis. Model 1 was
not significant (p > .30). Similarly, Model 2 was not significant (p < .13). The
only constructs predictive of the movie category were the need for arousal
(P = .22, p < .03) and agreeability (p = .18, P < .04). The adjusted variance
accounted for by the full model was only 3.2 percent.
Finally, the genre of action/adventure movies was investigated. Again,
Model 1 was not significant. When the variables contained in Model 2 were
added, a significant effect was obtained (p < .001). The model accounted for
14.2 percent of the variance in the measure. Significant predictor variables
were conscientiousness (p =.29, P < .001), sex of respondent (p =-.22, P < .01),
emotional stability (P = .19, p < .02), and the need for arousal (P = .15, p < .08).
Predicting the Number of Times People Have Viewed Titanic

Research question 3 asked what factors are predictive of the number of
times people have the movie Titanic. The structural equation models tested
were based in part upon the results of the regression analyses conducted to
answer the first three research questions. The first model tested employed a
fully mediated approach. In the model, the dependent measure was the number
of times respondents had seen the movie Titanic. To this construct a direct path
was connected from the measure of liking for the Titanic movie. Connected to
this attitudinal variable were latent variables (employing multiple indicators)
for liking for the romance, drama, and sci-fi movie genres. Connected via a
path to these latent constructs was the latent indicator of chivalry. (This latent
variable was composed of the three items with the highest item-to-total
correlations with the construct.) Connected to chivalry were the eight elemental
traits. Finally, in order to assess the effects of sex of respondent, this variable
was added as a latent construct and connected to chivalry. In order to reduce
the degrees of freedom in the model, the eight elemental traits and the sex of the
respondent were represented by single indicator latent variables with error
variance and the path coefficients fixed.
The fit indices of the model were excellent (X2 = 418.1, P < .001,
TLI = .94, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .064). The squared mUltiple correlation ofthe
number of times the respondents had seen Titanic was .26. The measure of
liking for Titanic that had the single path to the dependent measure was highly
significant (t = 7.59, P < .001).
Variance accounted for in the measure of liking for Titanic was R2 = .20.
Consistent with the regression analysis, three movie genres were significantly
related to the construct (romance, t = 4.39 P < .001; drama, t = 3.19, P < .001;
sci-fi, t = -3.61, P < .001).
The next analysis sought to determine whether adding the measure of

chivalry, the 3M traits, and sex of respondent would increase the variance
accounted for in the measures of liking for Titanic and the number of times the
movie was seen. A second structural model was analyzed. In this model, a
partial mediation model was employed in which paths were connected from the
measure of chivalry, the 3M elemental traits, and sex of respondent to the
Titanic liking construct, and to the number of times the movie was seen
construct.
The fit indices for the second model were also excellent (X2 = 388.0,
P < .001, TLI = .94, CFI = .96, RMSEA = .064). Because the models are nested
within each other, a chi-square difference test can be run to assess whether
adding the new paths improved the fit of the model. The result was significant
(X2diff = 30.1, df = 19, P < .051). Thus, adding paths significantly improved the
model fit. Variance accounted for in the "number of times seeing Titanic" was
R2 = .25. Significant predictors were liking for Titanic (t = 5.89, p < .001) and
sex of respondent (t = 1.96, P < .05). Variance accounted for in the measure of
liking for Titanic was R2 =.21. Significant predictors were liking for dramas
(t = 3.26, P < .001), liking for sci-fis (t = -2.28, P < .05), sex of respondent
(t = 2.81, P < .01), and agreeability (t = 1.90, P < .06).
Identifying Clusters of Movie Goers

Research question 4 was investigated by performing a cluster analysis on
the traits that composed the motivational network for movie genres. Thus, the
variables included in the cluster analysis were preferences for the four movie
categories investigated, chivalry, the elemental traits (minus materialism, which
was not significant in any of the analyses), and gender. The four-cluster
solution provided the best overall results. In a discriminant function analysis,
it correctly classified 87.6 percent of the respondents in the original group and
78.5 percent of the respondents in the cross-validated group. Table 16.1
provides the means of each of the variables and the results of the one-way
ANOV A (with Duncan's mUltiple range post-hoc test). A significant one-way
effect was found for all the variables.
The four clusters provided a divergent pattern of traits associated with
movie genre preferences, the liking for Titanic, and the number of times they
saw the movie. Cluster 1 was labeled the Cautious Romantics. Composed
mainly of women, the group had seen the movie most frequently, had the
highest rated liking for the movie, and had the highest rating for the romance
genre of movies. They were also the highest in introversion and chivalry. They
were the lowest in the need for arousal and openness to experience.
Table 16.1
Results of Cluster Analysis of Movie Goers
Cluster 1 Cluster 2 Cluster 3 Cluster 4

N=46 N=50 N= 31 N=50
Cautious Aloof Stable Chivalrous
Romantics Males Females Males
Times seen Titanic 2.24b 1.22a 2.19b 1.58a
Liking for Titanic 6.09c 4.72a 5.68bc 5.39b
Romance Preference 6.33d 4.04a 4.90b 5.55c
Act!Adv Preference 5.43b 5.69b 4.70a 6.32c
Sci-Fi Preference 4.59b 4.90b 1.92a 5.81c
Drama Preference 5.97ab 5.80a 5.51a 5.81b
Introversion 4.22c 4.15b 2.28a 2.87a
Body 6.15b 4.87a 6.55b 6.74b
Arousal 4.21a 5.69b 5.86b 7.15c
Instability 4.34ab 4.94b 3.70a 4.65b
Openness 5.43a 5.83a 5.72a 6.56b
Agreeability 7.72b 6.29a 6.73b 7.29b
Conscientiousness 6.91b 5.88a 6.44ab 6.87b
Gender .89b .26a .74b .24a
Chivalry 7.06c 4.79a 5.52b 6.80c
Note: Means with different letters are significant at p < .05 based on the Duncan's Multiple
Range test.
Composed mostly of males, Cluster 2 was labeled the Aloof Males. This
group had seen Titanic the least and had the lowest rating of the movie. In
addition, they were lowest on preference for romance movies. They were the
lowest in agreeability and were also high in introversion.
Cluster 3 was labeled Stable Females. This group of mostly women saw
Titanic second most frequently and had the second highest rating of the movie.
This group had the lowest level of introversion and the lowest preference for
action/adventure, sci-fi, and drama films. The group had the highest level of
emotional instability (high emotional stability).
The last cluster was labeled Chivalrous Males. While the group was third
lowest in times seeing Titanic and in liking for the movie, it is notable for being
second highest in chivalry ratings, highest in the need for arousal and openness
to experience, and highest in ratings of sci-fi and action/adventure movies.
Interestingly, it was second highest in preferences for romance movies.
Chivalrous males are very active individuals who generally like movies.
Discussion
The goal of the chapter was to investigate the ability of the 3M Model to
account for variance in movie preferences and in the tendency to see the movie
Titanic. Based upon the results, the four research questions posed in the
introduction were answered. The first research question concerned whether
liking for the four movie genres investigated in the study were predictive of the
liking for Titanic. The results revealed a positive relationship between liking
for romance movies and dramas and liking for Titanic. A significant negative
relationship was found between liking for sci-fi movies and Titanic. One
reason for the success of the movie may be that it very effectively crossed two
movie genres.
The second research question investigated the relationship between the
elemental traits, a measure of chivalry, and gender on liking for the four movie
genres. The research revealed that three constructs accounted for 38 percent of
the variance in romance movies. Significant predictor variables were chivalry,
gender, and agreeability. Significant predictors of sci-fi movies were chivalry,
gender, introversion, and conscientiousness. Combined, these variables
accounted for 15 percent of the adjusted variance. For action/adventure films,
the significant predictor variables were conscientiousness, gender, emotional
instability, and need for arousal. They accounted for 14 percent of the variance
in the liking for action/adventure flicks. The overall model was not significant
for the drama genre. The need for arousal and agreeability were both
significant predictors and accounted for 3.2 percent of the variance in the
measure. (Females preferred romance and males action/adventure and sci-fi
movies.) In sum, the 3M Model showed a good ability to account for variance
in the movie genres with the exception of the drama category.
The third research question investigated the ability of the 3M to account
for variance in the number of times that individuals viewed the movie Titanic.
The results showed that a partially mediated model best fit the data and
accounted for 26 percent in the variance in the dependent measure. Structural
equation modeling revealed that the liking for the movie and gender had
significant direct paths to the construct. Variables having direct paths to "liking
for Titanic" were liking for dramas, liking for sci-fi movies (negative relation-
ship), gender, and agreeability.
The fourth research question sought to investigate whether clusters of
movie-goers could be identified. Four clusters of individuals emerge from the
data. The Cautious Romantics are mostly females and like Titanic and romantic
movies very much. At the same time they are low in the need for arousal and
openness to experience but high in introversion. The Aloof Male segment is
composed mostly of men who do not like romance movies or Titanic. They are
low in agreeability and high in introversion. The Stable Female group like
Titanic and saw the movie second most frequently. This group is average,
however, in liking for romance movies. They are the most extraverted and have
the highest level of stability. Finally, the Chivalrous males are high in chivalry,
the need for arousal, openness to experience, and liking for all types of movies,
including romance movies.
Study II: Predicting Gender and Age
The results of Study I revealed that males and females had divergent views
of the various types of movie genres. These findings, along with the pattern of
results found in previous chapters, lead to the research question of whether the
3M's elemental traits can predict the gender of respondents. A related question
concerns whether the traits can predict the age of respondents. No specific
hypotheses were developed.
In order to assess the relationships, five studies were employed. The data
from Study 1 in this chapter is employed to provide a set of students. In
addition, data from the Privacy Study, the Fall 1998 Study, the Sports
Motivation Study, and the CCCS Study were analyzed. As described in the
manual to SPSS Version 8.0, when the dependent variable is dichotomous,
regression analysis is equivalent to discriminant function analysis and provides
a more readily interpretable output. Based upon this recommendation, all
analyses employed multiple regression analysis. Furthermore, following the
recommendations of Rosenthal (1991), each study was analyzed separately. A
meta-analysis of the results is presented to assess the relationships across the
studies.
Results
The Spring 1999 Study

In the first analysis, indices of the eight elemental traits were input as
independent variables and sex (0 = males and 1 = females) was the dependent
variable. The Model accounted for 17.9 percent of the adjusted variance.
Significant predictors were the need for arousal (~ = -.43, P < .001) and the
need for body resources (~ = 3.32, P < .001).
In the next analysis, age of respondent was input as the dependent variable.
The overall model was not significant (p > .50). This study, however, was
inappropriate to investigate age because 98.9 percent of the respondents were
under 30 years old. Thus, a restriction of range existed in the data.
The Privacy Study

The same process was employed to analyze the data from the Privacy
Study performed in the summer of 1998. The model for predicting gender
accounted for 11.0 percent of the adjusted variance. Significant predictors were
the need for arousal (~ = -.26, P < .001) and emotional stability (~ = -.25,
P < .002). The results for age revealed that the model accounted for 15.8
percent of the adjusted variance. Significant predictors of age were need for
arousal (~= -.37, P < .001), agreeability (~ = .19, P < .007), and introversion
(~= -.14, P < .05).
Fall 1998 Study

The analysis of gender revealed that the equation accounted for 17.4
percent of the adjusted variance. Significant predictors were need for arousal
(~ = -.23, P < .003), openness to experience (~ = -.20, P < .01), agreeability
(~ = .17, P < .02), conscientiousness (~= .15, P < .05), need for body resources
(~= .13, P < .06), and emotional stability (~= -.13, P < .08). The analysis for
age was not performed because of a restriction of range. The mean age was
23.0 years.
Sports Motivation Study

The analysis of gender indicated that the model accounted for 14.7 percent
of the adjusted variance. Significant predictors were the need for arousal
(~ = -.22, < .001), agreeability (~ = .27, P < .001), need for body resources
(~= .22, P < .001), and emotional stability (~= .10, P < .10). The analysis of
age indicated that the model accounted for 15.6 percent of the adjusted
variance. Significant predictors of age were the need for arousal (~ = -.23,
P < .001), need for body resources (~ = -.19, P < .001), conscientiousness
(~= .13, P < .02), and materialism (~= -.11, P < .07).
The CCCS Study

The analysis of gender indicated that the model accounted for 20.7 percent
of the adjusted variance. Significant predictors of gender were need for arousal
(P =-.33, p < .001), agreeability (p = .29, P < .001), openness to experience (P =
-.17, P < .01), and introversion (P =-.11, P < .10). The respondents' ages were
not collected in this study.
The Meta-Analyses
The meta-analysis employed the meta-t approach (Rosenthal 1991) to
analyze the data from the five studies. The effects for gender were analyzed
first. The results revealed that six of the constructs had significant effects. The
strongest effect occurred for the need for arousal (meta-t =9.09, P < .0001), and
it revealed that males had a significantly greater need for arousal than females.
The second strongest effect occurred for agreeability. Females were signifi-
cantly higher in agreeability than males (meta-t = 5.19, P < .0001). Need for
body resources was also highly significant. Females had a significantly greater
need for body resources than males (meta-t =4.77, P < .001). Females also had
significantly higher ratings of conscientiousness (meta-t = 2.54, P < .01).
Openness to experience also revealed a significant effect with males having a
significantly greater tendency to report higher levels of creativity (meta-t =
2.41, P < .05). The effect for introversion was marginally significant (meta-t =
1.64, P < .10) with males reporting higher introversion scores than females.
The meta-t analysis indicated that no overall effect was found for materialism
or emotional stability. Overall, the mean variance accounted for in gender by
the elemental traits was 16.4 percent.
The meta-analysis for age could only be performed on two studies (the
Privacy Study and the Sports Participation Study). The only effect at p < .05
was the need for arousal, which was inversely related to age (meta-t = 6.08,
p < .001). Effects at p < .10 were found for body resources (negative relation-
ship) and need for material resources (negative relationship). Average variance
accounted for was 15.7 percent.
Discussion
The results revealed that the average variance accounted for in gender
across the five studies was 16.4 percent. Traits associated with being female
were the need for arousal (negative), agreeability (positive), need for body
resources (positive), openness to experience (negative), and introversion
(negative). For age, the need for arousal was found to have a strong negative
association with the construct. Weak negative relationships with age were
found for introversion and the need for material resources. The average
variance accounted for in age across the two studies was 15.7 percent.
General Discussion
Is it appropriate to describe movies in terms of chick flicks and guy flicks?

The results of Study 1 indicate that the answer is "YES!" The cluster profile
for the "cautious romantic" segment had significantly higher ratings for the
romance genre, liked the movie Titanic the most, and saw the movie the most.
Eight-nine percent of this group was women. The stable female group also had
high levels ofliking for Titanic and saw the movie significantly more frequently
than the "aloof male" segment or the "chivalrous male" segment. This cluster
was composed of 74 percent women. This group particularly disliked science
fiction movies and action/adventures. In contrast, the chivalrous male segment,
which was composed of 76 percent males, gave significantly higher ratings for
action/adventures and for science fiction movies. Finally, 74 percent of the
aloof male group was male.
These results reveal that the gender of movie goers is an important
segmentation variable. The cluster analysis, however, reveals that gender
should be combined with the 3M's elemental traits to develop profiles of the
movie audience. The discriminant function analysis revealed that the Model
correctly classified the clusters 87.6 percent of the respondents. Of course,
these results need to be replicated across various demographically diverse
groups of consumers. Study 1 employed college students taking business
courses at a large university. While this age group is a target market for film
producers, the generalizability of the results is limited.
The results also gave some hints as to why the movie Titanic is the highest
grossing movie of all time. That is, individuals who like romance movies and
dramas liked the Titanic. There was no relationship between the liking for
action/adventure movies and Titanic. Thus, this set of movie goers was not
turned off by the film. Finally, a negative relationship was found between
liking for science fiction movies and for Titanic. Interestingly, on the seven-
point scale measuring liking for Titanic, even the "aloof male" segment gave
it a mean rating of 4. 72, which was significantly above the neutral point of 4.00.
In sum, Titanic crossed multiple movie genres, which attracted a broad
audience to the film.
The results of the analyses of gender and age was performed in order to
further develop an understanding of the elemental traits. The meta-analysis
revealed that women are lower in the need for arousal, higher in agreeability,
higher in conscientiousness, higher in the need for body resources, lower in
openness to experience, and lower in introversion. The findings are interesting
when viewed from an evolutionary perspective. This pattern fits a role in which
women are relatively more responsible for the maintenance of the family, for
establishing positive social relations, for caring for the health of the group, and
for keeping the group out of danger. In contrast, the profile of men is consistent
with the role of hunter and of the seeker of change. Readers should not
misinterpret this analysis to indicate a bias on the part of this author to form
stereotypes of men and women. These relationships are based upon correla-
tions. As shown in Study 1, a significant proportion of men can be classified
as "cautious romantics" and a significant proportion of women fit the profile of
"chivalrous males." From an overall perspective, however, these results are
consistent with an evolutionary pull to differentiate the sexes on six of the
cardinal traits.
CHAPTER 17
THE 3M AND DEVELOPING MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS:

AN EMPIRICAL STUDy21
Abstract
Two studies are reported that test the 3M Model's ability to identify traits
from which message themes can be derived that influence and persuade target
markets. The approach, called PERMS, involves developing a structural model
that identifies the elemental, compound, and situational traits predictive of the
surface trait measure of interest. The surface trait becomes a market segmenta-
tion variable. From among the elemental, compound, and situational traits
predictive of the surface trait, message themes are developed. Experiments are
then conducted to test whether the message impacts the target segment in the
expected manner. Self-schema theory (Fiske and Taylor 1984) is identified as
a possible theoretical mechanism responsible for the effects. Study I found that
the elemental trait of agreeability was inversely related to a surface trait
measure of electronic innovativeness. In Study 2 message themes were devel-
oped in which a source acted more or less agreeable with a salesperson.
Consistent with expectations, the results revealed that among high electronic
innovators, buying likelihood and attitude-toward-the-brand were higher for the
low agreeability ad. In contrast, among low electronic innovators, buying
likelihood and attitude-toward-the-brand were higher for the high agreeability
ad.
Introduction
Three of the most venerable topics in the marketing discipline involve the
study of market segmentation, personality traits, and message effects. Tedlow
(1990) described marketing as historically being built around segmentation.
One basis for segmenting consumer markets identified by researchers is
personality (Alpert 1972). Thus, marketers can employ personality constructs
such as the need for cognition (Haugtvedt, Petty, and Cacioppo 1992) to
identify relatively homogeneous groups of people possessing similar needs and
wants. In addition, however, personality variables have also been identified as
a means for developing messages. For example, Wang and Mowen (1997)
showed that the personality trait of separateness-connectedness could be
employed as a means for creating message themes. They found that individuals
21Thanks go to Jerome Christi a for assisting in the literature review of product

innovation. In addition, Jerome Christia and Nancy Spears assisted in the design of
Study 2.
236 The 3M and Developing Marketing Communications
who were identified as having the trait of connectedness preferred messages

that emphasized relationships with other people. In contrast, people identified
as separated preferred message themes that emphasized independence from
others. In sum, segmentation, personality, and message effects are interrelated
constructs.
Despite the interrelationship of personality, segmentation, and message
themes, a methodology for systematically developing marketing strategy as a
result of their interplay has not been developed. In this chapter an approach is
proposed that may provide such a methodology. The technique is called
PERMS, which stands for rua:sonality-message-~egmentation. Briefly, the
approach involves using surface traits as a segmentation variable. In this sense,
surface traits are similar to product usage as a segmentation variable. (When
product usage is employed, the market is divided into the heavy, medium, light,
and nonusers of a product class.) The elemental, compound, and situational
traits predictive of the surface trait provide the basis for message development.
Thus, just as separateness-connectedness (a probable compound trait) can be
used as the basis for message development, so can the other enduring
dispositions. For example, if the need for arousal is found to be positively
related to a surface trait, the relationship suggests that a focus on risk may
resonate with the target market and have a powerful persuasive effect. If
successfully operationalized, the methodology will result in the identification
of an empirical approach for creating communications that are effective in
influencing attitudes and buying intentions.
The present research investigates these ideas within the situational domain
of innovative buying behavior for new electronic products. Few concepts in the
behavioral sciences have as much relevance to consumer behavior and
marketing as innovativeness (Hirschman 1980). Innovative buyers determine
the initial success or failure of new products. In addition, they influence the rate
of diffusion of those innovations (Alpert 1994). Applying adoption and
diffusion theory, the identification of consumer innovators helps marketing
managers tailor new products to the buyers who initiate the diffusion of
innovations (Fox all and Haskins 1986). The propensity of consumers to adopt
novel products, whether they are ideas, goods, or services, can play an
important role in theories of brand loyalty, decision making, preferences, and
communication (Hirschman 1980).
In order to successfully operationalize the PERMS methodology, four
steps are required. First, a surface trait measure of electronic product
innovativeness must be developed. This surface trait will be employed as the
segmentation variable. Second, elemental, compound, and situational traits
predictive of electronic product innovativeness are empirically identified
through consumer surveys. Third, one or more message themes are created that
The 3M and Developing Marketing Communications 237
are consistent with the psychological traits found to predict the surface trait.
Finally, controlled experiments are conducted to determine whether the manip-
ulation of the message theme differentially impacts attitude-to ward-the ad and
brand as well as the buying intentions of individuals identified as high or low
electronic product innovators.
Based upon these ideas, two research questions are posed. One, can a
model be developed that employs a set of elemental, compound, and situational
traits to predict a surface trait measure of electronic buying as well as actual
electronic buying behavior? Second, can these results be employed to develop
message themes that differentially influence the attitudes and buying intentions
of high versus low electronic innovators?
The chapter is divided into three major sections. The first section presents
Study 1, which explores the relationship among the elemental, situational, and
surface traits. (No compound traits were investigated in this study.) As will be
shown, the elemental trait of "agreeability" is negatively related to electronic
innovativeness. The next section presents Study 2, which presents an
experiment in which high and low agreeability message themes are developed.
The hypothesis is tested that electronic innovati veness will moderate the effects
ofthe message theme on attitude-toward-the-ad, attitude-toward-the-brand, and
buying intentions. The final section discusses the results of the research.
Study I
The first research question posed was whether a combination of elemental

and situational traits can be employed to predict a surface trait measure of
electronic innovativeness. A measure of consumer innovativeness is employed
as the situational trait. That is, consumer innovativeness represents an enduring
disposition to act within the general context of buying. Electronic innovative-
ness is classified as a surface trait because it represents an enduring tendency
to be innovative with regard to a particular product class. It is expected that the
situational trait of general consumer innovativeness will be predictive of the
surface trait of electronic innovativeness.
HI: General innovativeness will be predictive of electronic
innovativeness.
Base,d upon a literature review, there is indirect evidence indicating that
elemental traits of the 3M may be predictive of consumer innovativeness.
Midgley and Dowling (1978) observed that the diffusion of a new product is
impacted by a communication process in which individual experiences with the
product are disseminated through a particular social system. They proposed that
the favorable personal recommendation of a social contact is instrumental in
influencing later adopters. Consequently, innovators are those members of
society prepared to adopt a new product early in its diffusion without the
personal or social support gained from discussions with prior users. Since they
use less interpersonal information in their decision making, innovators will
display less communication dependence. These characteristics match a number
of the characteristics of individuals classified as having higher levels of the trait
of disagreeability. Individuals possessing the trait of disagreeability reveal a
pattern of behavior in which they are less kind to others, reveal less sympathy,
and may be more rude to others. Such individuals would appear to be less
information dependent than others. Based upon these ideas, a positive
relationship should exist between the construct of disagreeability and
innovativeness. These ideas resulted in the second hypothesis.
H2: Agreeability will be negatively related to consumer
innovativeness.
Researchers have found that innovators belong to more social groups
(Dickerson and Gentry 1983) and are more socially integrated (Robertson and
Kennedy 1968). Robertson and Myers (1969) found a positive correlation
between sociability and innovativeness. They describe sociability as a trait
possessed by " ... persons of outgoing, sociable, participative temperament" (p.
165). These ideas suggest a positive correlation between extraversion and
innovativeness.
H3: Extraversion will be positively related to innovativeness.
Burns and Krampf (1992) found evidence that innovators tend to seek
uniqueness and show interest in novelty. Furthermore, Rogers (1983)
suggested that innovators must be able to cope with the high degree of
uncertainty about an innovation at the time of adoption. Similarly, Hirschman
(1980) hypothesized that high levels of consumer creativity lead to increased
innovativeness. These characteristics are closely related to the pattern of
behavior shown by individuals possessing an openness to experience.
Individuals who are open to experience value creativity, imagination, and
originality. These relationships suggest that innovators will exhibit a greater
degree of openness to experience than others.
H4: Openness to experience will be positively related to consumer
innovativeness.
One explanation for the tendency of consumers to innovate is a desire to
achieve an optimum stimulation level. Raju (1980) suggested that people who
have a higher optimum stimulation level are generally more likely to manifest
an exploratory behavioral tendency such as innovativeness. As discussed
earlier in this book, the need for arousal is closely related to the desire for
stimulation. This leads to the next hypothesis.
H5: The need for arousal will be positively associated with
innovativeness.
There is evidence that innovators usually enjoy higher economic status

(Kirton 1994). Rogers (1983) reported that innovators possess substantial
resources to absorb the possible loss due to an unprofitable innovation. His
evidence suggests that innovators are not only of higher economic status but are
on the move in the direction of still higher levels. Thus, innovators should have
a strong need to obtain goods and financial wealth.
H6: A positive relationship will be found between material needs
and innovativeness.
In order to provide evidence that the surface trait of electronic
innovativeness is predictive of the behavior of purchasing electronic products
early in the product life cycle, a behavioral measure of the construct must be
developed. The next hypothesis makes this prediction.
H7: A positive relationship will be found between the surface trait
of electronic innovativeness and a behavioral measure of the
construct.
Method
The data were collected as a part of the Fall 1997 Student Study 1 (see
Appendix C-3). In this research students in five different marketing classes at
a midwestern university participated in the study as part of a class assignment.
Data were collected in two sessions that took place approximately six weeks
apart. In the first session, respondents completed a questionnaire in which they
responded to the items for the elemental traits. At the second session the
respondents completed a six-item scale that assessed the respondents' domain-
specific innovativeness for electronic products. The scale was adapted from
research by Goldsmith and Hofacker (1991). For this measure, seven-point
Likert scales were employed. In addition, respondents completed a scale
designed by the author to measure electronic innovativeness behavior.
Specifically, the scale asked respondents to indicate their knowledge and
behavior regarding five innovative electronic products: the electronic video
device, digital camera, laptop computer, surround sound stereo system, and
Palm Pilot electronic notebook. For each product, respondents were asked to
indicate whether they: (1) were aware of product; (2) were aware, but had not
purchased; (3) had considered purchasing; (4) intended to purchase; or (5) have
purchased the product. In addition, general innovativeness was measured by a
set of six items culled from Raju (1980). Table 17.1 presents the items in the
measures of innovativeness.
Table 17.1
The Scales Employed to Measure General and Electronic
Innovativeness
General Innovativeness Items (Coefficient alpha = .83)

1. I am the kind of person who would try any new product once.
2. When I see a new brand somewhat different from the usual, I investigate
it.
3. I enjoy taking chances in buying unfamiliar brands just to get some variety.
4. I like to buy new and different things.

5. I am usually among the first to try new products.
6. I often try brands before my friends and neighbors do.
Electronic Innovativeness Items (Coefficient alpha = .83)

1. In general, I am among the first in my circle of friends to tryout a new
electronic device when it appears.
2. If I heard that a new electronic device was available in the store, I would
be interested enough to buy it.
3. Compared to my friends, I own a lot of electronic devices.
4. In general, I am the last in my circle of friends to know about the latest
electronic products.
5. I will not buy a new electronic product if I haven't heard/tried it yet.
6. I do not like to buy a new electronic product before other people do.
A total of 278 respondents completed questionnaires. However, beqmse

students were absent from one or the other class sessions, a final sample of 176
respondents who fully completed both questionnaires was obtained.
Results
In the first analysis the bivariate correlation between the surface trait
measure of electronic innovativeness and the behavioral measure of electronic
purchasing behavior was assessed. The correlation was highly significant
(r = .46, P < .001). These results support H7 and provide evidence that the
surface trait measure of electronic innovativeness was associated with
electronic buying behavior.
In the next analysis, two structural equation models with single indicator
latent variables were run using Amos 3.6 (Arbuckle 1997). (The error variance
and path coefficients of each construct were fixed.) The elemental traits were
employed as exogenous variables. General innovativeness was employed as a
mediating variable, and the surface trait measure of electronic innovativeness
was employed as the dependent variable. The first analysis employed a fully
mediated model in which general innovativeness mediated the effects of the
exogenous variables on electronic innovativeness. The analysis revealed
marginally adequate fit statistics ("l = 39.3, df = 16, P = .001; GFI = .95,
AGFI = .86, CFI = .87, RMSEA = .09). The overall model accounted for 12
percent of the variance in electronic innovativeness and 12 percent of the
variance in general innovativeness.
The second analysis employed a partial mediation model in which paths
were connected from the exogenous variables to the dependent variable as well
as to the mediating variable. The fit statistics for this model improved
(X2 = 23.9, df= 9, p = .004; GFI = .97, AGFI= .84, CFI= .91, RMSEA = .10).
In this model 12 percent of the variance in general innovativeness was
accounted for. Variance accounted for in the measure of electronic
innovativeness increased to 18 percent. A chi-square difference test was
conducted in order to determine whether adding the additional paths signifi-
cantly improved the fit of the model. The results revealed that the partial
mediation model had a significantly better fit (X2diff = 15A, df = 7, P < .05).
The path coefficients of the partial mediation model were then assessed in
order to evaluate the hypotheses. HI stated that general innovativeness would
be predictive of electronic innovativeness. The results confirmed this effect
(t = 3.66, P < .001). H2 stated that agreeability would be negatively related to
consumer innovativeness. This effect was not obtained (t = .71, P > .50).
However, the path from agreeability to electronic innovativeness was
significant (t = -2.52, P < .02). H3 proposed that extraversion would be
positively associated with general innovativeness. This prediction was not
supported for general innovativeness (t = -A7, P > .50) or for electronic
innovativeness (t = -.36, p> .70).
Hypothesis 4 predicted that openness to experience would be positively
related to consumer innovativeness. While directionally supported, the results
did not reach conventional levels of significance (t = 1.41, P < .20). When the
path to electronic innovativeness was examined, the results did not support the
hypothesis either (t = .67, P > .50). H5 predicted that the need for arousal will
be positively related to general innovativeness. This prediction was supported
(t = 2A3, P < .05). H6 predicted that the need for material resources would be
positively associated with innovativeness, and this hypothesis was also
supported (t = 2.08, P < .05). Materialism was also related to electronic
innovativeness (t = 1.92, P < .06). No other effects approached significance.
Figure 17.1 presents the final model.
Figure 17.1
Study 1: Path Diagram for Electronic Innovativeness
~tabili0
Discussion
The results supported four of the seven hypotheses. First, the relationship
between general innovativeness and electronic innovativeness was found.
Second, the path from need for arousal to general innovativeness was signi-
ficant. Third, a significant path was found between materialism and electronic
innovativeness. Fourth, the correlation between electronic innovativeness and
innovative behavior was significant. In addition, while the predicted rela-
tionship between agreeability and general innovativeness was not obtained
(H2), agreeability was found to be negatively associated with electronic
innovativeness.
The next step in the implementation of PERMS methodology involves
using the results of Study 1 to develop a message theme. The theme is then
tested in an experiment, and the surface trait is expected to moderate its effects.
A key issue, however, involves identifying which trait, or combination of traits,
to employ as a message variable. Three traits were predictive of either general
innovativeness or electronic innovativeness -the need for arousal, the need for
material resources, and agreeability. The relationship of general innovativeness
with the need for arousal suggests employing a theme that emphasizes trying
new things, experiencing different feelings, and taking some risks. Each of
these ideas should resonate with individuals higher in the need for arousal.
The materialism construct suggests that a theme could be developed that
emphasizes the pleasure derived from owning and possessing material objects.
Finally, the negative relationship between agreeability and electronic
innovativeness suggests that a theme involving toughness and being hard-nosed
(the opposite of being tender-hearted and sympathetic) will resonate with
individuals high in electronic innovativeness. In sum, the message is developed
from the network of personality traits associated with the trait that is employed
as the segmentation variable.
One option that was considered was to simultaneously create messages
high and low in materialism, arousal, and agreeability. This approach was
rejected, however, because of the large sample size required and the difficulty
of independently manipulating each variable without creating confounds.
Based upon the direct path found between agreeability and electronic
innovativeness, a decision was made to employ this trait as the basis for
creating the message variable.
Study 2
As noted in the introduction to the paper, the results of efforts to predict

the surface trait with more basic psychological traits will be meaningful only
if they have utility for the marketing manager. Because surface traits measure
predispositions to behave in specific situational contexts, they have potential

for use as segmentation variables. However, in order to show that the surface
trait measure of electronic innovativeness provides a means of segmenting the
market, evidence must be provided indicating that it moderates the effects of
messages developed from one or more of the elemental traits. Study 1 revealed
that materialism, the need for arousal, and agreeability were predictive (either
directly or indirectly) of electronic innovativeness. Based upon schema
congruity theory (Fiske and Taylor 1984), messages that link themes involving
these characteristics should have greater impact on high electronic innovators
than on low electronic innovators.
In this initial exploratory work, it was not possible to derive message
themes from each of the traits. As a result, we chose to investigate agreeability
as a trait from which message themes could be derived. This selection was
based upon its direct path to electronic innovativeness. Based upon the results
of Study 1, it was expected that respondents classified as high electronic
innovators should prefer brands associated with themes that are less soft-
hearted, less warm, and more cold. Conversely, respondents who are low
electronic innovators should prefer brands associated with themes that are more
soft-hearted, more warm, and less cold. This pattern of results should be
revealed in a cross-over interaction. In order to explore these predictions an
experiment was conducted.
Method
The experiment employed a 2 x 2 full factorial, between-subjects design.
The first factor was a manipulated variable in which a character in a print ad
revealed either a high or low agreeable demeanor. The second independent
variable was a blocking variable in which a median split was performed on the
respondents' level of electronic innovativeness. Dependent variables collected
were attitude-toward-the-ad, attitude-toward-the-brand, and purchase likeli-
hood. A manipulation check for the agreeableness independent variable was
also taken. The ad was for an existing innovative electronic product-the Intel
"Create & Share Pack"©. This new electronic product combines a small camera
device with software to enable consumers to record and send video clips and
electronic post cards over telephone lines with a personal computer. At the
time of the experiment in the spring of 1998, advertising of the product had just
begun.
Procedure
Eight-two students in a consumer behavior class at a southwestern
university participated in the study and received a four-page questionnaire.
Respondents were randomly assigned to conditions and represented the same
general type of student who participated in Study 1, although different people

participated in Study 2. The experiment was conducted early in the semester
before the students received information on personality variables or message
effects. The first page of the questionnaire provided instructions in which
respondents were told that on the next page they would see a mock-up of a
black-and-white ad for a new product. They were asked to look at and read the
ad. They were then instructed to tum the page and answer a series of questions
about the ad from the perspective of how it impacted them. They were told that
they could tum back at any time to look at the ad.
The third and fourth pages contained the dependent variables and
manipulation check items. First, attitude toward-the-ad and attitude-toward-the-
brand were measured on five semantic differential scales employed by Batra
and Ray (1986). All responses were made on seven-point scales. A single-item
measure of buying likelihood was then taken. Respondents read: "Assuming
that you had the necessary computer equipment and sufficient money to buy the
Create & Share Pack©, how likely is it that you would make the purchase?"
Subjects responded on a seven-point scale bounded by "Low Likelihood" and
"High Likelihood." Next, the agreeability manipulation check was taken. The
scale was composed of three semantic differential items. Respondents were
asked to give their reactions to the woman shown in the ad (unsympathetic-
sympathetic, cold to others-warm to others, and harsh-kind). Electronic
innovativeness was then measured by the same six-item scale as employed in
Study 1. Thirteen respondents were dropped from the study because they failed
to answer all of the questions or revealed systematic response bias.
The print advertisement employed in the study was based upon an ad for
Intel's Create & Share CameraPack©. The ad shows an attractive 20-something
woman, who is smiling and looking at a computer monitor. The monitor shows
a 20-something man who is smiling back at her. Below the picture is a box
containing the text for the ad. The headline reads: "Their eyes met from across
a crowded city." The image of the ad was scanned so that the same picture was
employed in the mock-up ad. The wording of the text box was changed so that
the agreeability theme could be manipulated. In addition, the headline in the
ad was changed to read: "Did She Really Smile Across a Continent?"
In the text box employed in the experiment, the young woman was
described as a small business owner who was a collector of old coins. She was
said to be searching for a fifteenth-century Spanish coin. The man on the
computer screen was described as a coin dealer who said that he would find her
the coin. In the high agreeability condition, the text read:
"She smiled when Bill called from New Y ork. You see, he swore
that he could find her the coin that she had long coveted. His smile
turned to a grimace when he told her that he had failed. With that
unexpected news, her smile stayed in place, and she gently consoled
him. It felt good to make him feel better."
In the disagreeability condition, the text read:
"She smiled when Bill called from New York. You see, he swore
that he could find her the coin that she had long coveted. His smile
turned to a grimace when he told her that he had failed. With that
unexpected news, her smile turned to a frown, and she harshly
scolded him. It felt good to put him into his place."
All respondents read the same last paragraph, which was adapted from the
actual Intel ad. The copy read, "With Intel's Create & Share Pack© you can
call and see business colleagues and friends from thousands of miles away on
your Pc. Want more? You can also record and send a video clip on an e-mail
postcard in minutes. You can take quick snapshots, even stretch his face
however you want with your manipulation software. Visit our Web site to find
out everything about the Intel Camera Pack. [www:lntel.comlcreatesharehome/
IIhtm]." After the data were collected, respondents were debriefed and were
shown the actual Intel ad.
Results
The first set of analyses investigated the internal reliability of the scales.
The coefficient alphas were excellent: attitude toward the ad, alpha = .92;
attitude toward the brand, alpha = .94; agreeability trait, alpha = .93; electronic
innovativeness, alpha = .85; manipulation check scale for agreeability,
alpha = .93.
The next analysis investigated whether the manipulation of agreeability
was successful. The results revealed a main effect for the manipulation
(F = 26.7, df = I, 69; p < .001; mean high agreeability = 5.87, mean low
agreeability =4.47). No other effects approached significance.
The dependent variables were investigated next. First, the results for
attitude-toward-the ad indicated that no significant effects were obtained (all
p> .15). Next, attitude-toward-the-brand was investigated, and a significant
interaction was found (F = 4.8, df = 1,69; p < .05). As predicted, the pattern
of results revealed a cross-over interaction. The high electronic innovativeness
respondents preferred the low agreeable ad to the high agreeable ad. In
contrast, low electronic innovativeness respondents preferred the high agreeable
ad to the low agreeable ad. Figure 17.2 shows the pattern of results.
Figure 17.2
Agreeability Message Theme by Electronic Innovativeness Interaction
High M=6.1
M ? < Low Agreeable Theme
Attitude M=5.5 M=5.2

toward the High Agreeable Theme
Brand
Low
I I
Low High
Electronic Innovativeness
The results for the likelihood-of-buying dependent variable closely

paralleled those for the attitude-toward-the-brand. A significant interaction was
obtained (F = 4.4, df = 1, 69; p < .05). A cross-over interaction occurred in
which the high electronic innovativeness respondents had higher buying
intentions in the low agreeable ad condition (mean = 5.7) than in the high
agreeable ad condition (mean = 5.1). In contrast, ratings of the low electronic
innovativeness respondents were higher in the high agreeable ad condition
(mean = 5.4) than in the low agreeable ad condition (mean = 4.5).
The results of Study 2 provide an affirmative answer to research question
2, which asked whether basic psychological traits predictive of a surface trait
can be employed to develop message themes that influence high electronic
innovators in comparison to low electronic innovators.
Overall Discussion
Two studies were conducted that investigated a methodology derived from

the 3M Model, called PERMS, that is designed to provide a means of empiri-
cally identifying message themes in promotional messages. PERMS is based
upon a proposed relationship among basic personality traits, surface traits that
are employed as segmentation variables, and message themes. In Study 1,

elemental traits were employed to predict the situational trait of general
innovativeness and the surface trait of electronic innovativeness. The results
revealed that the traits of the need for arousal and materialism were predictive
of general innovativeness. In tum, general innovativeness was found to be
predictive of the surface trait of electronic innovativeness. The elemental trait
of agreeability was found to have a negative relationship with electronic
innovativeness. Finally, electronic innovativeness was predictive of electronic
buying behavior.
The results of Study 1 were employed to design Study 2 in which two
messages were developed based upon the finding that the personality trait of
agreeability was negatively associated with electronic innovativeness. The
agreeability message variable was manipulated by portraying a character in a
print advertisement as being harsh and unsympathetic or tender hearted and
kind to a second person with whom she was interacting via a new electronic
device. The innovative electronic device was the product being promoted in the
print ad. The same measure of electronic innovativeness that was employed in
Study 1 was used to segment the respondents into high and low electronic
innovators. As predicted, the results revealed a cross-over interaction in which
high electronic innovators had a higher attitude-toward-the-brand and a higher
buying intention when the character was disagreeable. In contrast, low
electronic innovators had a higher attitude-toward-the-brand and a higher
buying intention when the character exhibited agreeableness in the ad.
A question that was not explored in the research concerns the psychologi-
cal mechanism through which the different messages influenced attitude-
toward-the-brand and buying intentions. One possible explanation is based
upon self-schema theory (Fiske and Taylor 1984, Markus 1977, Markus and
Sentis 1982). The theory posits that an individual's self-schema sensitizes
one's information processing and motivates schema-consistent behaviors. As
a result, people tend to seek and recall information that confirms or affirms their
self-concept (Steele 1988, Swann and Read 1981). Self-image/product-image
congruence theory (Sirgy 1982) provides a mechanism by which electronic
innovativeness acts to moderate consumers' responses to marketing communi-
cations. The theory suggests that consumers will prefer an advertised brand if
the cues concerning the brand in the ad theme are congruent with his or her self-
schema. Therefore, by identifying a consumer segment that possesses a specific
self-schema, promotional efforts can be directed to associate the brand with the
self-schema. This is operationalized by employing advertising themes derived
from the psychological traits that are responsible for the development of the
self-schema. If the advertising themes activate the shared self-schema of the
market segment, consumers should respond more favorably to the brand
(Malhotra 1988). The PERMS methodology provides an empirical means of

identifying self-schema from which message themes may be derived.
Examples of the proposal that self-schema consistent promotions will
influence consumers exist in the literature. Consistent with the self-schema
theory, Hong and Zinkhan (1995) found that an "introvert" appeal targeted
toward consumers with an introverted self-concept resulted in more favorable
brand attitudes than when an "extrovert" appeal was used. The effect of the
advertising appeals was reversed when consumers were given an appeal
consistent with an extroverted self-concept. Similarly, Wang and Mowen
(1997) obtained evidence that connected-separateness self-schema moderates
the effects of messages employing themes emphasizing either the connection
to others or the separation from others. In sum, using an advertising appeal that
presents the brand in a way that is consistent with consumers' self-concept
tends to result in higher brand attitudes.
The results of the research suggest that the PERMS advances the literature
by providing a means for empirically identifying the self-schema that can be
employed to develop messages to influence specific market segments. A four-
step process is proposed. First, researchers develop a surface trait measure of
the behavior that they wish to influence. This surface trait will act as the
segmentation variable. Second, the compound and situational traits are
identified that are likely to be predictive of the surface trait. A questionnaire
study is then run in order to identify which elemental, compound, and
situational traits are employed to predict the surface trait and a measure of the
behavior of interest. Third, messages are developed that possess themes
consistent with the self-concept of someone who possesses the trait or traits.
Fourth, experimental research is conducted to test whether the message themes
interact with the surface trait in the predicted manner. If the expected results
are obtained, managers can then employ the advertising themes with confidence
that they will influence the attitude-toward-the-brand and the buying likelihood
of their target market.
Studies 1 and 2 operationalized this procedure. Study 1 identified a set of
psychological traits predictive of electronic innovativeness. In addition, the
study revealed that electronic innovativeness is predictive of innovative
electronic buying behavior. Study 2 revealed that the advertising theme should
be very different for a high electronic innovativeness target market in
comparison to a low electronic innovativeness group. Specifically, if the target
is electronic innovators, themes can be employed that are colder, harsher, and
less soft-hearted. In contrast, if the target market is composed of consumers
who are not electronic innovators, themes should be warm, soft-hearted, and not
harsh. Interestingly, these results suggest that the romantic, sweet ad developed
by Intel to promote the Create and Share Pack© would be ineffective with
electronic product iml0vators-the likely target market for the product.
Future Research Issues

A number of future research issues emerge from these studies. First, the
PERMS model must be tested across diverse samples of respondents and across
different product categories. Student respondents were chosen in this initial
study in part for practical reasons and in part for theoretical reasons. From a
practical perspective, because the studies required two data collection efforts
from a similar group of respondents, the availability of students had positive
benefits. In addition, because the research involved theory testing, a more
homogeneous group of respondents is a benefit (Calder, Phillips and Tybout
1981). As elaborated upon by Kardes (1996), the use of student subjects is
often desirable, particularly when the research involves theory testing and
development. Importantly, it should be noted that college students are a target
market for innovative electronic products. Thus, this population is a logical
starting point for the investigation.
An important issue concerns whether the results will generalize beyond
students to other groups of consumers. Of course, this is an empirical question.
If the results do not generalize, it would suggest that a three-way interaction is
occurring such that a third variable is interacting with the surface trait and the
message theme variable. If this were found, then modifications of the PERMS
model would be necessary.
A second direction for future research involves the investigation of other
psychological traits as message effect variables. Within the realm of the study
of electronic innovativeness, the traits of materialism and the need for arousal
can also be investigated because each is related to the measure of general
innovativeness. The methodology can be extended to investigate other surface
traits such as bargaining behavior (Chapter 12), compulsive consumption
(Chapter 11), health diet behaviors (Chapter 10), and sports participation
(Chapter 13). For example, by understanding the elemental and compound traits
associated with compUlsive buying, it may be possible to develop counseling
techniques and perhaps messages that will diminish the compulsive behaviors.
Another possible application of the methodology involves segmenting the
market based upon consumers' enduring involvement with a product category.
An interesting research question involves investigating the relationship between
enduring product involvement and category-specific surface trait measures of
innovati veness.
Another area of future research involves investigating a curious anomaly.
The results of Study 2 indicated that no significant effects occurred for the
dependent variable of attitude-toward-the-ad. In the author's experience, the
manipulation of message effect variables tends to most frequently impact

attitude-toward-the-ad. It is more difficult to obtain effects for attitude- toward-
the-brand, and even harder to influence buying likelihood. In addition, these
effects are easier to obtain for fictitious products than for known brands such
as the Intel brand employed in the current research. Despite these trends in the
literature, the current research obtained the predicted effects for measures of
attitude-toward-the-brand and buying likelihood for a product produced by a
well-known company.
One possible explanation of the results is that because the surface trait
variable predicts buying behavior within a particular category of products, the
messages derived from the psychological traits (which are predictive of the
surface trait) will influence dependent variables most closely related to
behavior, such as attitude-toward-the-brand and buying likelihood. It remains
for future research to investigate the relationship between attitude-toward-the-
ad, attitude-toward-the-brand, and buying likelihood within the context of the
PERMS approach.
Another criticism of the research is that direct evidence was not obtained
supporting the proposed psychological process through which the message
themes impacted attitude-toward-the-brand and buying likelihood. The results
are consistent with a self-schema explanation in which the messages activated
self-schemas (Fiske and Taylor 1984, Markus 1977, Markus and Sentis 1982),
which in tum impacted the attitude-toward-the-brand and buying intentions.
Self-schema theory posits that an individual's self-schema sensitizes one's
information processing and motivates schema-consistent behaviors. Future
research should investigate appropriate dependent variables to test the self-
schema explanation of the results. Indeed, as a general statement, more
research is required to investigate the mechanism through which personality
variables interact with message themes to influence consumers.
Study 1 may be criticized for employing an exploratory approach to
develop the best fitting model for explaining innovative electronic buying
behavior. In particular, the study may capitalize on chance relationships.
However, if chance effects accounted for the results, one would not find
significant relationships in Study 2. In effect, Study 2 not only tests the
effectiveness of the themes developed from Study 1, but also acts to validate the
results.
CHAPTER 18
HARD QUESTIONS AND TENTATIVE ANSWERS ABOUT THE 3M
Abstract
The chapter first summarizes the meta-theory and the major findings
presented in this book. Next, it evaluates whether the 3M makes a contribution
to the fields of consumer behavior and personality psychology. The chapter
then identifies and discusses five possible criticisms of the 3M. A particular
focus of the chapter concerns the status of the 3M as a theory. Finally, eight
arenas for future research are presented.
Introduction
The previous 17 chapters have presented the theoretical structure and

empirical support for the 3M Model of Personality and Consumer Behavior.
As a meta-theory, the 3M combines elements of control theory, evolutionary
psychology, and trait theory to provide an understanding of how personality
traits motivate and influence consumer behavior. The name of the theory (the
3M) is an acronym for the Meta-Theoretic Model of Motivation and
Personality.
The 3M was developed as an attempt to solve several problems identified
in the field of personality research as it relates to consumer behavior. The over-
arching goal is to develop a new general model of personality that can be
empirically tested. The broad models of personality and motivation found in
today's textbooks are drawn almost exclusively from previous eras of inquiry
that date back to the 1950s and before. These general theories have not been
revised or updated to reflect recent advances in psychology and measurement
theory. In addition, with few exceptions newer approaches tend to focus on
extremely narrow constructs (i.e., surface traits) that fail to provide a deeper
understanding of the causes of the behavior.
A second goal of the 3M Model is to explain more variance in consumer
behavior than previous personality approaches. The general models of
personality and motivation (e.g., the Maslow hierarchy and the Five-Factor
Model) have not accounted for large amounts of variance in behavior. Finally,
the Model was designed to provide an integrated nomological network for
understanding the effects of underlying personality traits and how these
personality traits interact with the situation to influence behavior. By tying
together a set of disparate personality traits into one meta-theoretic model, the
3M provides order to a field that has been described as incoherent by estab-
lished personality psychologists (McCrae and Costa 1996).
254 Hard Questions and Tentative Answers About the 3M
This final chapter has four goals. First, it provides an overview of the 3M
and reviews the major findings presented in the book. Second, the chapter
evaluates whether the 3M makes a contribution to the fields of consumer
behavior and personality psychology. Third, the chapter identifies and
discusses five criticisms of the 3M and its approach to understanding the role
of personality in consumer behavior. Finally, the chapter identifies directions
for future investigation.
Overview and Summary of Findings
As a comprehensive model of personality and motivation, the 3M

integrates ideas from control theory, evolutionary psychology, and hierarchical
models of personality traits. Control theory provides the structure for
understanding how personality traits act as reference points for evaluating the
outcomes that result from the actions of individuals as they interact with the
environment. In the control theory approach employed in the 3M, a comparator
matches outcomes to the reference traits and to the expectations set for
programs of behavior. If the outcomes are consistent with reference values and
with program expectations, no changes are made in activities. In contrast, if the
outcomes are outside of the boundary of acceptable results, an interrupt occurs
and cognitive appraisal takes place. Based upon the cognitive appraisal
process, the individual changes the program of behavior and the activities
employed to implement the program.
The work of Buss (1989) on the relationship between personality traits and
evolutionary psychology provide a second foundation for the development of
the 3M. The concept that a set of fundamental resources are required for
survival led to the proposal that humans employ social, material, body, and
information resources to accomplish programs of behavior. Furthermore, it was
assumed that these basic resource needs would influence personality at the
elemental level. Social resource needs were argued to be consistent with the
agreeability trait found in the Five-Factor Model of personality. Information
needs were proposed to be consistent with the openness to experience trait in
the Five-Factor Model. New personality scales were developed to measure the
need for material resources and the need for body resources.
Work on hierarchical models of personality and trait theory were also
included into the 3M model. Based in part upon Allport (1961), Buss (1989),
Eysenck (1947), and others, it was proposed that personality traits are arranged
into a hierarchy containing four levels. At the most basic level (Reference
Level 4), one finds the elemental traits, which were defined as the basic,
underlying predispositions that arise from genetics and a person's early learning
history. Eight elemental traits were identified, and the acronym OCEAN MAP
Hard Questions and Tentative Answers About the 3M 255
was identified as a mnemonic. The proposed traits are openness to experience,

conscientiousness, extraversion (i.e., introversion), agreeability, neuroticism
(i.e., emotional instability), material needs, the need for arousal, and material
needs.
At the next level in the hierarchy (Reference Level 3), one finds compound
traits, which are unidimensional dispositions emerging from the interplay of
elemental traits, from culture, and from the learning history of the individual.
Examples of compound traits investigated include competitiveness, the need for
activity, task orientation, the need for learning, the need for play, and self-
efficacy.
Situational traits exist at Reference Level 2 and are defined as the enduring
tendencies to express consistent patterns of behavior within a general
situational context. Situational traits result from the combination ofthe effects
of elemental and compound traits as well as the enduring pressures to act that
result from the situational context. Examples of situational traits investigated
in this book include general innovativeness, health motivation, sports interest,
and tightwadism.
Finally, at Reference Level 1, one finds surface traits. These category-
specific traits represent enduring dispositions that delineate tendencies to
behave with respect to general programs of behavior. Examples of surface
traits investigated in book are healthy diet lifestyles, bargaining propensity,
sports participation, compulsive buying, modest living, and electronic
innovativeness.
The next three sections discuss in more detail the findings of the studies
investigating the four levels in the hierarchy of traits.
Investigations of the Elemental Traits

In developing the meta-theory, I sought to incorporate constructs drawn
from a variety of sources. One important goal was to provide parsimony to the
literature by identifying a limited set of basic traits that influence behavior
across situations. From the large amount of work supporting a five-factor
depiction of personality (see Wiggins 1996), the traits of extraversion,
emotional stability, openness to experience, agreeability, and conscientiousness
were included for investigation. Based upon ideas derived from evolutionary
personality theory, two additional traits were added: the need for body
resources and the need for material resources. Finally, the work of Zuckerman
(1979) suggested that any theory of motivation and personality must incorporate
a construct that assesses optimum stimulation level. As a result, a measure of
the need for arousal was developed.
Through a series of five studies, scales were developed and assessed via
confirmatory factor analysis. The result revealed that the eight traits could be
measured by a set of 29 items. Thus, each trait was measured by three- or four-
item scales. The measures of the traits revealed good internal reliability as well
as discriminant validity. (The issue of whether elemental, compound,
situational, and surface traits can be adequately measured by three- and four-
item scales is discussed later in the chapter.)
Predicting Compound Traits with Elemental Traits. Structural equation

modeling and multiple regression analysis were employed to investigate the
relationship between the elemental traits and a series of compound traits. Table
18.1 summarizes the results for eight compound level traits. The table reveals
a number of interesting findings. First, the mean, un weighted amount of
variance of the compound traits accounted for by the elemental traits was 39
percent. These results support the proposition that compound traits result in
part from the effects of combinations of elemental traits.
A second finding is that with one exception at least four elemental traits
were predictive of each of the compound traits. The one exception was the
Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) extraversion scale. In this case, three elemental
traits were predictive of the construct (introversion, the need for arousal, and
agreeability). It should be noted, however, that only one study investigated the
Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) extraversion trait. As a result, the ability to
identify additional relationships was lower than for the other compound traits.
The measure of extraversion developed by Saucier (1994) was also investi-
gated. The 3M traits accounted for 60 percent of the variance in this measure.
Significant predictors were introversion, the need for activity, emotional
stability, and conscientiousness. Overall, these results suggest that extraver-
sion, as measured by Eysenck and Eysenck (1985) and by Saucier (1994),
represents a compound level traits. Thus, the measure of introversion employed
in the 3M is a narrower construct than are the global extraversion measures.
The elemental trait most frequently associated with the compound traits
investigated was the need for arousal, which was significant for seven of the
eight traits. In every instance the need for arousal was positively associated
with the compound trait. These results suggest an interesting speculation. That
is, perhaps the need for arousal acts as a general activator that moves humans
to action. Each of the compound traits investigated possesses an action compo-
nent. For example, the need for play implies that the person is actively
engaging in an activity that leads to fun. Similarly, the need for competition,
which had the highest meta-t for the need for arousal, identifies a desire to
contend against others.
Another possible explanation for the positive relationship between the
need for arousal and eight of the compound traits is methods variance. That is,
perhaps respondents were simply following a similar pattern of responses
Table 18.1
Meta-Analysis of the Relationship of Elemental Traits
with Compound Traits
Elemental Traits
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Task Orientation 2.18 4.03 3.75 2.24 12.60

(44%)
Need for Learning 2.00 6.84 -3.04 11.44 7.55

(31%)
Need for 5.72 4.69 10.87 4.40 -1.92 3.70

Competition (39%)
Need for Activity -3.25 8.40 6.24 1.91 5.54 7.68

(41%)
Need for Play -3.30 5.05 7.57 3.27 6.85

(42%)
Self-efficacy (30%) -3.20 3.53 3.01 -3.01 1.95 1.86 5.37
Impulsiveness -2.68 5.82 3.88 1.68 -6.96

(35%)
Extraversion (52%) -8.84 4.78 2.64
Notes: 1. Numbers in table are derived from a meta-t analysis (Rosenthal 1991). The
exception is for extraversion, which includes the t-values for one study. The meta-
t was based upon five studies for competitiveness, activity, task orientation, and
the need for learning. For self-efficacy and the need for play, three studies were
employed. For impulsiveness and value consciousness, two studies were
employed.
2. Percentages in parentheses represent amount of variance accounted for in
compound traits by the elemental traits averaged across the studies.
because of the properties of the scales. If this were the case, however, one
should expect to find positive relationships across all of the variables. This
pattern of relationships was not found. For example, introversion was
negatively related to five of the compound traits. Emotional instability was

positively related to two constructs and negatively related to two constructs.
Unless one proposes that methods variance affects the relationship between
some variables and not others, the results suggest that the patterns of effects
found in the data were not caused by methods variance. In sum, because the
majority of constructs were measured by the same scales, the likelihood of
methods variance impacting some relationships and not others is very low.
Conscientiousness was also related to a large number (6) of the compound
traits. It was most strongly related to task orientation, followed by the need for
competition, the need for learning, and impulsiveness. Conscientiousness was
negatively related to impulsiveness.
It was also interesting to note the relationships between the need for
material resources and the compound traits. The trait was predictive of task
orientation, the need for learning, the need for competition, and impulsive
buying. These relationships suggest that the need for material resources is
associated with behavioral tendencies that could be described as positive (task
orientation and the need for learning) as well as negative (impulsive buying).
The relationship between the need for body resources and the compound
traits is also illuminating. The trait was associated with the need for competi-
tion, the need for activity, the need for play, and self-efficacy. These
relationships suggest that individuals with a high body orientation tend to be
energetic and oriented to action.
The Direct Effects of Elemental Traits on Surface Traits. As predicted by

the control theory component of the 3M Model, in a number of instances the
elemental traits directly impacted situational and surface traits. In particular,
these direct effects were found when the situational and surface traits tapped
behavioral domains closely related to the elemental traits. For example, as
described in Chapter 10, the need for body resources had direct effects on
measures of health motivation, healthy diet lifestyles, and sports interests.
Similarly, when the situational and surface traits were related to buying and
selling, the need for materialism had direct effects. Thus, it was positively
related to compulsive buying, general innovativeness, and bargaining
proneness. In contrast, it was negatively related to the measure of modest living
described in Chapter 14.
The results of the experiment presented in Chapter 17 revealed that the
elemental traits could form the basis for developing message themes. The
results of a questionnaire study found that the elemental trait of agreeability
was negatively related to innovativeness in purchasing electronic products. An
experiment was then conducted in which a message theme in a print ad was
developed that portrayed either a highly agreeable or a less agreeable character.
The results revealed that high electronic innovators preferred the product (a
new video device for computers) when the protagonist acted in a cold, harsh
manner. In contrast, low electronic innovators preferred the product when the
protagonist was warm and soft-hearted. These results provide initial evidence
that the elemental traits (and presumably the compound traits as well) can be
employed to develop message themes.
The combined results of the studies suggest that each of the eight proposed
elemental traits is unidimensional and is predictive of multiple compound traits.
Furthermore, supporting control theory, the elemental traits may also directly
impact situational and surface traits. The importance of the elemental traits in
understanding behavior was further exemplified by the experiment in which the
agreeability of a message source was varied and was shown to impact attitude-
toward-the-brand. In sum, in order to provide a full understanding of the
underlying motivations for behavior, it is important to include all eight
elemental traits in the modeling process.
Understanding the Compound Traits

Compound traits were defined as unidimensional dispositions emerging
from the interplay of elemental traits, culture, and the learning history of the
individual. Four criteria were identified for an enduring disposition to be
included as a compound trait. They should be unidimensional. Second, the
scales should be short and possess good internal reliability. Third, a combina-
tion of elemental traits should account for high levels of variance (25+ percent)
in the compound trait. Finally, evidence must be obtained that, when predicting
situational or surface traits, a significant effect for the compound trait should
be found after the effects of the elemental traits are accounted for. For each of
the compound traits investigated in Chapters 4-9, these criteria were met.
Understanding the Situational and Surface Traits

Chapters 10 through 14 investigated the relationship of the elemental and
compound traits with a series of situational and surface traits. The surface traits
investigated (with variance accounted for in parentheses) were healthy diet
lifestyles (45 percent), compulsive buying22 (34 percent), bargaining proneness
(28 percent), sports participation (62 percent), and modest living (51 percent).
Across the five studies, the average variance accounted in the surface trait
measures was 44 percent. The situational traits (and the amount of variance
accounted for in parentheses) were health innovativeness (20 percent), health
motivation (29 percent), sports interest (40 percent), value consciousness (28
22The variance accounted for in compulsive buying and in bargaining proneness is

averaged across two studies.
percent), tightwadism (20 percent), and care in spending (14 percent).23 The
mean variance accounted for in the six traits was 25 percent.
The finding that the 3M Model accounted for almost twice the variance in
surface traits as in situational traits is important (44 percent versus 25 percent).
The likely reason for this large discrepancy is that surface traits are highly
related to the underlying situational traits. That is, the surface traits exist within
the general context identified by the situational trait. As a result, there will tend
to be a strong association between the two categories of enduring dispositions.
For example, it is not surprising that general interest in sports predicts the level
of participation in sports. Similarly, it is makes sense that enduring tendency
to be a tightwad leads to a modest living lifestyle. In addition, the surface traits
may also be predicted by compound and elemental traits as well as by the
situational traits. The net result is that the models tend to account for more
variance in surface traits than in situational traits.
Situational traits represent enduring dispositions resulting from the effects
of the elemental traits and compound traits as well as from the impact of
situational forces. The larger the impact of the "press" of the situational
environment, the less the variance accounted for by the elemental and com-
pound traits. The net effect is that, as compared to the surface traits, less
variance tends to be accounted for among the situational traits. Among the
situational traits investigated, the most variance accounted for was for the
enduring disposition to be "interested in sports" (R2 = .40). The least amount
of variance accounted for in a situational trait was for the measure of "care in
spending" (R 2 = .14) construct investigated in Chapter 14.
One possible explanation for this wide discrepancy in the variance
accounted for in the two constructs is that "care in spending" is more strongly
impacted by situational forces than is "interest in sports." That is, among the
university population investigated in the study of frugality (see Chapter 14),
"care in spending" may be impacted strongly by the situational context of being
in school or working at a university for low wages. When the situation changes
because of getting a job or higher paying employment, the scale ratings may
change dramatically. In sum, "care in spending" may be controlled to a larger
degree by the situation than is "sports interest," at least in the samples
investigated in the present research. Certainly, if one took a sample of
respondents from Yugoslavia in 1998, when the Sports Interest study was
performed, one would likely find a very low ability to predict sports interest
because a war was raging in this nation.
23The studies investigating compulsive buying did not include situational traits unless
impulsiveness is defined as a situational trait. However, the characteristics of
impulsiveness are more consistent with the definition of a compound trait.
As shown in Chapters 10 through 14, the relationship of the elemental,

compound, and situational traits with surface traits can be examined via
structural equation modeling. The advantage of this approach is that the
amount of variance accounted for in the surface trait can be determined. A
second approach is to employ cluster analytic techniques in order to identify
segments of consumers that differ in the degree to which they exhibit the
surface trait. The advantage of the approach is that profiles can be developed
that identify the level of the elemental, compound, and situational traits
associated with each segment. The development of these motivational profiles
may provide an important means for developing message themes to influence
target markets.
Does the 3M Make a Contribution to the Literature?
In the introductory chapter to this book, it was proposed that in order to

make a contribution to the fields of consumer behavior, marketing, and
personality and motivation psychology, the 3M Model must meet several
criteria. First, it should provide a nomological net that identifies how the
psychological antecedents influence behavior. Second, it should generate new
knowledge. Third, it should account for more variance in behavior than
traditional models of personality. Fourth, it should add parsimony to the field
by delimiting the number of personality constructs identified. Finally, the 3M
must have practical value for pUblic-policy makers and marketers. These
criteria are discussed below.
Does the 3M Provide a Nomological Net?

The question of whether the 3M provides a theoretical structure for
understanding how personality impacts consumer behavior (Le., provides a
nomological net) is closely related to whether lawful relationships can be
derived from it. This question can be answered at two levels-the theoretical
level and what Hunt (1976) calls the "empirical regularity level." At the
theoretical level, the results of the empirical tests support the existence of a
number of lawlike generalizations that emerge from the 3M. At the empirical
regularity level, the results support the existence of a number of consistent
relationships found among the surface, situational, compound, and elemental
traits. These empirical regularities provide an answer to the issue of whether
new findings emerge from the 3M, which is discussed as the second criterion
for making a contribution.
Hunt (1976) defined lawlike generalizations as "Generalized conditionals
that (a) have empirical content, (b) exhibit nomic necessity, and (c) are
systematically integrated into a body of scientific knowledge ...." (p. 76).
Empirical regularities represent consistent relationships between two or more

variables. Such empirical regularities do not represent lawlike generalizations
because they have not been systematically integrated into a body of scientific
knowledge and because the relationship cannot be logically derived from a
theoretical structure.
Table 18.2 identifies seven "if-then" statements that can be derived from
the 3M Model and that meet the criteria for lawlike generalizations. That is,
they meet all of the requirements of laws but have not been thoroughly tested
and corroborated. As will be described below, each of the lawlike generaliza-
tions proposed in the 3M has been tested by this author in Chapters 3-17.
However, they have not been independently corroborated by other researchers.
As a result, they are given the status of lawlike generalizations, rather than the
status oflaws. Based upon the descriptions oflaws developed by Hunt (1976),
a lawlike generalization should have four qualities. It should: (1) take the form
of an if-then statement, (2) be systematically integrated into the theoretical
structure of the 3M, (3) have empirical support, and (4) not occur merely as an
accidental generalization.
The first lawlike generalization that emerges from the 3M states: if a
partially mediated, four-level hierarchical of personality exists, then one should
find that traits at levels 4, 3, and 2 may predict traits at level 1 (the surface
traits). This lawlike generalization is theoretically grounded because it emerges
from the hierarchical structure of the 3M and from its control theory base.
That is, the elemental, compound, situational, and surface traits provide
reference values for the outcomes that emerge from environmental influences
and the running of programs of behavior. Empirical evidence is obtained in the
results found in Chapters 10-14. The testing of the fit indices of the hierarchi-
cal models revealed that mUltiple levels of traits provided good explanations of
the relationships among the variables. In addition, direct paths were found from
elemental, compound, and situational traits to the surface traits. 24 Could these
results have occurred merely as the result of accidental relationships? While
a possibility, the consistent support for this lawlike generalization across studies
makes it appear very unlikely that the effect is accidental. 25
24Direct paths from one or more elemental, compound, and situational traits to surface
traits were not found in every study. However, the results across studies indicate that
such paths are consistently obtained between Levels 4, 3, and 2 with Levell traits.
25The criterion that the relationship should not have occurred by accident is called nomic
necessity by Hunt (1976). This requirement will not be discussed for the remaining
lawlike generalizations because in each case multiple studies exist to support the
relationships proposed.
Table 18.2
Lawlike Generalizations that Emerge from the 3M
A. If a partially mediated, four-level hierarchical of personality exists, then

one should find that traits at levels 4, 3, and 2 predict traits at level 1
(the surface traits).
B. If eight elemental traits exist, then one should find that they consistently
emerge across studies and samples of respondents when confirmatory
factor analysis is performed.
C. If elemental traits exist, when employed in combination as predictor
variables, each trait should account for an independent amount of
variance in mUltiple compound traits.
D. If compound traits exist, combinations of elemental traits should
account for high levels of variance in the compound trait.
E. If compound traits exist, they should account for an incremental amount
of variance in situational and surface traits after the effects of the
elemental traits are accounted for.
F. If situational traits exist, they should account for an incremental amount
of variance in surface traits after the effects of the elemental and
compound traits are accounted for.
G. If an elemental or compound trait is predictive of a surface trait,
communication themes can be developed, based upon the elemental or
compound trait, that posseSs persuasive impact.
The second lawlike generalization to emerge from the 3M states: if eight

elemental traits exist; then one should find that they consistently emerge across
studies and samples of respondents when confirmatory factor analysis is
performed. This empirical regularity was obtained in the five studies reported
in Chapter 3 on the development of the items for the eight elemental traits. The
prediction that eight elemental traits are present resulted from the integration
of the Five-Factor Model of personality and of evolutionary psychology into the
control theory view of behavior. Thus, each of the eight traits can be linked to
various components of the control theory model. (For example, the identifica-
tion of agreeability, material needs, body needs, and openness to experience are
linked to the four fundamental resource needs that humans are proposed to have
in order to survive: social, material, body, and information needs.)
The third lawlike generalization to emerge from the 3M states: if

elemental traits exist, when they are employed in combination as predictor
variables, each trait should account for an independent amount of variance in
mUltiple compound traits. This empirical regularity was demonstrated earlier
in this chapter. As shown in Table 18.1, across the nine compound traits
investigated, at least three elemental traits made independent contributions to
account for high levels of variance in the constructs. The criterion of
systematic integration into a body of scientific knowledge is met through the
integration with control theory and hierarchical models of personality.
The fourth lawlike generalization states: if compound traits exist,
combinations of elemental traits should account for high levels of variance in
each compound trait. For each of the compound traits investigated in Chapters
4-9, the elemental traits accounted for over 25 percent of the variance in the
construct. Indeed, as presented earlier in this chapter, the mean variance
accounted for in the compound traits identified in Table 18.1 was 38 percent.
The fifth lawlike generalization states: if compound traits exist, they
should account for an incremental amount of variance in situational and surface
traits after the effects of the elemental traits are accounted for. As described in
Chapters 4-9, this if-then statement is a fundamental criterion for defining a
compound trait. Each of the compound traits investigated in these chapters was
shown to possess this characteristic.
The sixth lawlike generalization states: if situational traits exist, they
should account for an incremental amount of variance in surface traits after the
effects of the elemental and compound traits are accounted for. This effect was
found for each of the surface traits and situational traits investigated in Chapters
10-14.
The last lawlike generalizations states: if an elemental or compound trait
is predictive of a surface trait, communication themes can be developed, based
upon the elemental or compound trait that possess persuasive impact.
Empirical evidence of this finding is found in Chapter 17 where two studies
were reported. The first study found that the elemental trait of agreeability was
predicted of the surface trait of electronic innovativeness. Study 2 found that
communications that varied the agreeability of a source of information in a print
ad interacted with the agreeability of the respondents to influence attitude-
toward-the-brand and buying intentions.
In sum, each of the lawlike generalizations proposed meets the four
identified by Hunt (1976). Each is phrased as an if-then statement (a general-
ized conditional). Each has empirical content and support. Each has nomic
necessity. Finally, each is systematically integrated into a body of scientific
knowledge through their linkage to control theory, to hierarchical models of
personality, and to the theoretical structure of the 3M Model.
Do New Findings Emerge from the 3M?

The seven lawlike generalizations presented in Table 18.2 represent the
first category of new findings that emerge from the 3M. These findings
describe higher order relationships that support the theoretical structure of the
3M. A second category of new findings also emerged from the empirical
testing of the 3M-a series of uniform relationships among the personality traits.
At the time when the studies presented in this book were conducted, it was not
possible to predict these relationships from a theoretically derived set of if-then
statements. While in many cases hypotheses could be developed based upon
past empirical studies by researchers, a solid theoretical rationale for why the
relationships exist could not be generated.
In this author's judgment, the inability to link personality traits to a
rigorous set of theoretical relationships is a major problem for the entire field
of personality research. With a few notable exceptions, personality traits have
not been systematically integrated into theories that meet Hunt's (1976) criteria.
Two of the exceptions are the work of Zuckerman (1979) on the need for
arousal and of Petty and Cacioppo (1981) on the need for cognition. In
particular, the work on the need for cognition explicitly describes why the
construct moderates the effects of communications. That is, high need for
cognition individuals systematically engage in greater cognitive processing of
information, which in tum leads to a focus on the quality of the arguments in
the message. As described in Chapter 5, the need for cognition is related to the
need for learning (a compound trait) and to the openness to experience
construct (an elemental trait). Thus, the set of theoretical relationship found in
the need for cognition work may be subsumed within the theoretical structure
of the 3M. Indeed, this is the very essence of the meta-theoretic content of the
3M.
Beginning with Chapter 3, each chapter in the book identifies a set of
empirical regularities in the data. Many of these represent new findings,
whether in consumer behavior or personality psychology. Table 18.3
summarizes twelve new findings that emerged from these chapters.
Table 18.3
Selected New Empirical Findings and Relationships Identified by the 3M
1. Identification of the need for body resources and the constructs it

predicts.
2. Identification of the elemental traits predictive of and the constructs
predicted by the compound trait of the need for competition.
3. The development of the bargaining proneness surface trait and of the
elemental and compound traits predictive of it.
4. The development of the task orientation compound trait, the elemental
traits predictive of it, and the situational and surface traits predicted by
it.
5. The development of the need for learning compound trait, the elemental
traits predictive of it, and the situational and surface traits predicted by
it.
6. The development of the sports interest situational trait and the
compound and the elemental traits predictive of it, as well as its strong
relationship with sports participation.
7. The development of the need for play compound trait, the identification
of the elemental traits predictive of it, and the situational traits predicted
by it.
8. Low agreeability is associated with higher levels of electronic
innovativeness and can be employed as a message variable to influence
attitude-toward-the-brand and buying likelihood.
9. The identification of the elemental and compound traits predictive of
tightwadism and frugality.
10. The elemental, compound, and situational traits predictive of healthy
diet lifestyles.
11. The elemental and compound traits predictive of compulsive buying.
12. The finding that by cluster analyzing the elemental, compound, and
situational traits linked in a motivation network with a surface trait, it is
possible to develop a motivational profile of consumer segments.
In order to move these empirical findings from the status of interesting

empirical regularities to the level of lawlike generalizations, it is necessary to
be able to derive the relationships from theory. The findings were obtained
because the 3M provides a means of identifying personality traits that are likely
to be linked hierarchically. However, it currently does not provide a means of
making a priori predictions of the relationships. This is perhaps the most
critical next step in the development of the theory.
In summary, this subsection sought to answer the question of whether
findings new to the literature emerged from the investigations of the 3M.
Because a large number of interesting and novel empirical relationships were
obtained, the question can be answered in the affirmative. These findings
provide an additional indication that the 3M has made a contribution to the
literature.
Does the 3M Account for High Levels of Variance in Behavior?

A third criterion for determining whether the 3M has made a contribution
to the literature is based upon whether it can account for high levels of variance
in behavior. Because surface traits represent enduring dispositions to behave
within specific contexts within situations, they are closely related to behavior.
Thus, the ability to predict surface traits provides a gauge of the ability of the
3M to account for high levels of variance in behavior.
As described earlier, the mean level of variance accounted for in the
surface traits investigated in Chapters 10-14 was 44 percent. Variance
accounted for ranged from a high of 62 percent for sports participation to a low
of 28 percent for bargaining proneness. These results are far higher than the 5
to 10 percent that Kassarjian and Sheffett (1991) described as commonplace in
personality research. Importantly, the measure of sports participation was a
direct measure of behavior. That is, it asked respondents to indicate the
number of times that they compete in sports, attend matches/ games, and watch
sports on television. Another direct measure of behavior was obtained in
Chapter 16 with the measure of the number of times that respondents had seen
the movie Titanic. In this instance variance accounted for in the single-item
measure was 25 percent. In sum, the hierarchical model employed in the 3M
accounts for very high levels of variance in measures of behavior.
Does the 3M Have Parsimony?

A third criterion for the evaluation of the 3M is that it should add
parsimony to our understanding of the impact of personality on behavior. The
identification of a set of eight elemental traits that act as references for behavior
across all situational contexts provides a high degree of parsimony for the meta-
theory. In addition, the proposal that situational traits represent the general
situational display of category-specific behaviors provides a parsimonious

means of identifying the situational traits. For example, health motivation
represents the general situational context within which the surface trait of
healthy diet lifestyles emerges.
Within the theoretical structure of the 3M, it is proposed that hundreds of
situational traits and thousands of surface traits are likely to exist. Some critics
may contend that this prediction decreases the parsimony of the model. On the
contrary, however, it is the very existence of large numbers of surface and
situational traits that gives the 3M its power. Because of the specificity of
surface traits, it is straightforward to develop measures for them. That is, the
researcher identifies the behavior of interest and asks a series of questions that
tap the extent to which the person engages in the behavior across time and with
respect to various ways in which the behavior could be manifest. For example,
sports participation is measured with regard to competing in sports, attending
games, and watching sports on television. In sum, the prediction that thousands
of surface traits exist and that hundreds of situational traits exist is necessary
if one is to identify the underlying dispositions that account for such enduring
tendencies to behave.
At the present time, however, one component of the 3M clearly lacks
parsimony-the identification of the compound traits. It is predicted that dozens
of compound traits are likely to exist. The 3M Model, however, provides little
means for the a priori identification of these enduring dispositions to act across
situations and time. Early indications are that compound traits may deal with
various elements of how programs of behavior are executed. A number of
compound traits investigated in this book fit this criterion. For example, task
orientation describes the tendency of consumers to set high expectations for the
quality of how a task is to be performed. Similarly, impulsiveness (Puri 1996)
describes a rash and hasty approach to selecting programs of behavior. The
need for activity describes the tendency to desire to be constantly engaged in
tasks. Despite these indications that compound traits may be related to the
general area of performing programs of behavior, much more work needs to be
done in order to provide a parsimonious means of identifying and delimiting
compound traits.
In sum, this author suggests that the 3M adds parsimony to the study of
how personality influences consumer behavior. First, the Model identifies a
limited set of elemental traits that are employed across contexts. Second the
3M provides a means of identifying the surface traits and situational traits to
investigate. Additional work, though, is required to further explicate the
function of compound traits and of how one identifies them.
Does the 3M Have Practical Value?

Early indications of the practicality of the 3M are found in the profiles of
consumer segments that can be developed by cluster analyzing the network of
elemental, compound, and situational traits predictive of surface traits. By
identifying the motivational network of traits associated with behavior, it may
be possible to develop communications that influence consumers. The findings
from Chapter 17 that message themes can be developed from elemental traits
predictive of surface traits support this potential practical application. In
addition, the high levels of variance accounted for in the surface traits provide
indirect evidence that such efforts are likely to be successful.
Five Criticisms of the 3M

A number of criticisms can be justifiably leveled at the 3M. Five of these
criticisms are identified in Table 18.4. This section identifies each of these
criticisms and responds to it.
Table 18.4
Five Criticisms of the 3M
1. Have the measurement properties of the scales employed in the 3M Model been
adequately tested?
a. Can personality traits be adequately measured by three- and four-item
scales?
b. Have the traits developed for the 3M been shown to have validity and
reliability?
c. Could methods variance account for the high predictive validity of the 3M
Model in the studies presented?
2. Can one a priori derive from the theoretical structure of the 3M predictions
concerning which elemental traits predict which compound traits, and which
elemental and compound traits predict which situational and surface traits?
3. How can the 3M claim to have parsimony when four levels of traits are
proposed and thousands of enduring dispositions are suggested?
4. What is the evidence for schema theory acting as the theoretical mediator for
how communications impact behavior?
5. Is the 3M Model a theory?
Criticism 1
Have the measurement properties of the scales employed in the 3M been
adequately tested? This criticism has three components. First, can the traits in
the 3M be adequately measured by three- to five-item scales? Second, have the
traits developed for the 3M been shown to have adequate validity and
reliability? Third, could methods variance account for the high predictive
validity of the 3M Model in the studies presented?
Can Traits Be Adequately Measured by Three- to Five-Item Scales?

The 3M Model measures traits with scales consisting of three to five items. In
contrast, traditionally developed scales employed by psychologists typically
consist of ten+ items. For example, the short form of the need for cognition
scale (Petty and Cacioppo 1981) consists of 18 items. The question naturally
arises as to whether the much shorter scales found in the 3M possess sufficient
reliability and validity to be useful.
The adequacy of short personality trait scales was addressed by Burisch
(1997). After a series of studies, he concluded that if the item pool has been
prescreened, " ... even extremely short scales of two to four items ... suffered
hardly any loss of cross-validity" (p. 303). In the third of his three studies,
Burisch (1997) found that a set of short scales actually outperformed standard
scales eight times as long. Burisch's goal was to cross-validate similar results
ofPaunonen (1984), who found that across a set of scales, on average just three
items were required to reach a validity asymptote. Thus, previous empirical
work on the measurement properties of short scales supports their use.
In the research presented in this book, additional evidence was found that
short scales can be employed to measure the personality constructs. First, the
high internal reliabilities found for the scales (high coefficient alphas) suggest
that the items are measuring the common core of the domain of each construct.
Second, the predictive validities of the traits were high. As shown earlier in
this chapter, each of the elemental traits was predictive of multiple compound
traits, which in tum were predictive of multiple situational and surface traits.
It should be noted that the ability of short scales to effectively measure
constructs is inconsistent with the domain sampling model so eloquently
described by Nunnally (1967). The domain sampling model is based upon the
concept that any particular measure is " ... composed of a random sample of
items from a hypothetical domain of items" (p. 175). A key component of
estimating the internal reliability of the set of items developed to measure the
domain is coefficient alpha. Based upon the mathematics of estimating the
coefficient alpha of a scale, the longer the test the higher the internal reliability-
regardless of the average correlation among the items in the test. In sum, built
into the mathematics of measuring coefficient alpha is the assumption that more
items result in higher internal reliability.
As stated by Nunnally (1967), the only assumption of the domain sampling
model is that " ... the average correlation of each item with the others is the same
for all items" (p. 186). Within this critical assumption, the reason may exist for
the ability of short scales to work effectively and to have adequate internal
reliabilities as measured by coefficient alpha. That is, in the real world the
average correlation of each item with the others is not the same. Thus, by
eliminating items that have lower item-to-total correlations, one is left with a
smaller number of items that measure the core of the construct.
A pragmatic reason for employing three- to five-item scales relates to the
use of structural equation modeling. In order to investigate the four-level
hierarchical model proposed in the 3M, one frequently will employ as many as
twel ve or thirteen personality traits (eight elemental traits, two compound traits,
two situational traits, and one surface trait). If each construct is measured by
an average of four items, this means that a total of only 52 items is required.
As a result, the number of degrees of freedom in the structural model is kept to
a manageable number and multiple-indicator latent modeling can be employed
with sample sizes that are practical to obtain. Employing long scales of 10+
items each would result in a hopelessly large number of degrees of freedom and
would necessitate sample sizes in the thousands.
In summary, for four reasons the use of short three- to five-item scales in
the 3M is justified. First, the empirical work of Burisch (1997) and Paunonen
(1984) reveal that if properly developed such scales can adequately measure the
constructs under investigation. Second, the empirical findings supporting the
3M model reveal that the scales have good internal reliabilities and predictive
validity. Third, a theoretical reason for the adequacy of short scales was
identified. That is, the core assumption of the domain sampling model is false
(i.e., that the average correlations among the items is the same). As a result, by
including only a limited set of items shown to have the highest item-to-total
correlations, one obtains an internally reliable scale that adequately measures
the construct of interest. Finally, the use of short scales allows the researcher
to employ multiple latent indicator structural modeling techniques in order to
model the for-level hierarchy of the 3M Model.
Do the Traits Have Adequate Validity and Reliability? The response

to the first criticism partially answered this question. The results of the studies
presented in this book demonstrate that the traits have good internal reliability
and good predictive validity. However, other forms of reliability (e.g., test-
retest) and validity (e.g., construct, discriminant, nomological, etc.) also exist.
The results have shown evidence of the nomological validity of the overall
structure of the 3M. For example, good evidence exists for a four-level
hierarchy. The measurement models developed for the studies reveal that the
constructs do have discriminant validity. Clearly, however, much more work
is required in order to assess reliability and validity issues. For example, the
convergent validity of the 3M's traits needs to be assessed along with their
discriminant validity in order to assess their overall construct validity. In
addition, systematic efforts to investigate test-retest reliabilities should occur.
Could Method Variance Account for the Predictive Validity of the

3M? If method variance is a significant problem within the 3M Model, one
should find evidence of it in the intercorrelations of the elemental traits. As
described in Chapter 3, the mean correlation of all elemental traits with each
other was r = .094. As described by Nunnally (1967), squaring the correlation
provides an estimate of the shared variance of the constructs. Thus, the
maximum level of shared variance among the 3M traits that could be accounted
for by methods variance is 0.88 percent.
This estimate of methods variance assumes that no super-global personal-
ity trait exists that may cause this common variance. An interesting speculation
is that such a "grand" trait may be present. A distant metaphor is found in
physics. Just as a small level of background radiation resulting from the "big-
bang" is still present, the small shared variance among the elemental traits may
represent a force toward life present in all organisms. As described previously
in this chapter, many of the elemental and compound traits have an underlying
drive to action that is required for survival. Indeed, as shown in Chapter 7, six
of the eight elemental traits had significant relationships with the need for
activity, which may be considered to be a surrogate measure of this underlying
desire to do things in order to survive.
In sum, a maximum level of methods variance among the elemental traits
is 0.88 percent. If one assumes that this is the maximum level of shared
variance in the relationships among other traits, one must conclude that
methods variance has a negligible effect on the overall results of the research.
Despite this conclusion, however, future research should perform appropriate
studies and statistical analyses to specifically assess the effects of methods
variance.
Criticism 2
Can one derive a priori from the theoretical structure of the 3M predic-
tions concerning which elemental traits predict which compound traits, and
which elemental and compound traits predict which situational and surface
traits? In the section in this chapter entitled "Do New Findings Emerge from
the 3M?" the point was made that as currently specified, one cannot derive from
the meta-theory a priori predictions concerning the relationships between

specific traits. While one can find consistent relationships among constructs
(e.g., compulsive buying is associated with impulsiveness, high materialism,
and low emotional stability), there are no theoretically justified reasons for
these relationships to occur. This problem is not unique to the 3M. With but
a few exceptions, theories of personality cannot make such a priori predictions.
In sum, this is a valid criticism, and much additional conceptual work is
required to solve this problem.
Criticism 3
How can the 3M claim to have parsimony when four levels of traits are
proposed and hundreds of surface traits are suggested? This criticism was
addressed earlier in the chapter in the section that answered the question of
whether the 3M has parsimony. First, hundreds or even thousands of surface
traits are required because human can engage in th0usands of different types of
behaviors. One must have a good measure of the enduring tendency to engage
in a behavior before any appreciable variance can be accounted for. Second,
because behaviors occur within situational contexts, one must measure the
enduring tendency to behave within the situational context. Again, hundreds
of situational contexts may impact people. Thus, in order to account for the
effects of the many situations that exist, a large number of measures is required.
In sum, for the surface traits and the situational traits, the fact that many such
traits are necessary does not reduce parsimony. It merely represents the reality
of how the world is structured. By proposing the existence of only eight
elemental traits that are used across all situations and contexts, one gains a high
degree of parsimony.
As described earlier in the chapter, the identification of compound traits
represents the area of the 3M with the least degree of parsimony. Future
conceptual work is required to more clearly delineate the characteristics of
compound traits and provide a theoretically developed means for identifying
them.
Criticism 4
What is the evidence for schema theory acting as the theoretical mediator
for how communications impact behavior? One of the practical application
areas of the 3M was the proposal that communication themes could be
developed by identifying the network of traits that influence surface traits and
behavioral tendencies. The theoretical explanation of this proposal was that the
personality traits in the motivational network provide self-schema that guide the
interpretation of communications (Fiske and Taylor 1984). This hypothesis is
supported by the control theory basis for the 3M. That is, because the traits act
as reference values for interpreting outcomes, they will guide the reactions to
communications that provide information about outcomes. However, none of
the studies presented in this book specifically test this explanation. As a result,
Criticism 4 is valid, and future research is required to test the proposal that
schema theory is a process that explains how communications themes that are
based upon the motivational network influence consumer reactions.
Criticism 5
Is the 3M Model a theory? In Chapter 1 of this book, three characteristics
of meta-theories were identified. First, they act to connect theories that
researchers had previously thought were discrete. The 3M accomplishes this
goal by showing how control theory, hierarchical trait models, and evolutionary
psychology could be integrated into one wholistic approach for understanding
motivation and personality. The second characteristic of a meta-theory is that
it improves parsimony. Earlier in this section, the parsimonious features of the
3M were assessed. Finally, meta-theories generate new knowledge. Earlier in
this chapter, the new findings emerging from the 3M were discussed. Thus, the
3M fits the characteristics of a meta-theory.
While the 3M can be shown to be a meta-theory, a tougher criterion
concerns whether the model represents a theory. Hunt (1976) defined a theory
as follows: "A theory is a systematically related set of statements, including
some lawlike generalizations, that is empirically testable" (p. 104). As
previously described in this chapter, lawlike generalizations can be derived
from the 3M. Further, as shown in Chapters 3-17, the 3M is empirically
testable. In addition, the 3M contains classification schema (the eight elemental
traits and the four levels of the hierarchy of traits), which Hunt (1976) proposes
is another attribute of theories.
The arena in which the 3M falls short of being classified as a theory is in
the "systematically related" criterion. That is, a formal language system has not
been developed that contains definitions, axioms, and rules of interpretation
(Hunt 1976). Still, a start has been made. Foremost, a set of definitions for the
key concepts in the 3M has been developed. These definitions are found in
Appendix A. The other components of developing the formal language system,
however, have not been initiated in a methodical manner. Indeed, systematizing
the 3M by developing the axioms, rules of interpretation, and formation rules
is beyond the scope of this book.
The 3M has a number of the attributes of a theory. However, it cannot be
described as a theory because it does not fulfill one of the three requirements.
The Model has not been formalized so that it contains a systematically related
set of statements along with axioms and rules of interpretation.
Future Directions for Research
Throughout this book, areas for future research have been identified.
Table 18.5 identifies eight research arenas that I believe are particularly
important for further investigation. The first two arenas are conceptual and
theoretical in nature. As acknowledged above, if the 3M is to attain the status
of a theory, it must be formalized such that it meets the "systematically related"
criterion identified by Hunt (1976). Further, as proposed in Arena 2, efforts are
needed to develop a theoretically sound means for identifying which elemental
traits predict which compound, situational, and surface traits. This goal will be
particularly difficult. It may require creating a mid-range level theory for each
of the elemental traits. A starting point is the work by Petty and Cacioppo
(1981) on the need for cognition and by Zuckerman (1979) on the need for
arousal. The work on the need for cognition may provide a theoretical structure
for understanding the effects of openness to experience. (Alternatively,
empirical work may reveal that a shortened version of the need for cognition
may replace openness to experience as an elemental trait. See Chapter 5 for a
discussion of this possibility.) Similarly, the theoretical work on the need for
arousal may provide a basis for deriving its effects on more concrete traits.
The third arena for future research involves investigations into the validity
of the elemental traits. In addition, the eight proposed elemental traits should
be compared against competing models. An approach to doing this would
involve comparing the predictive validity of the elemental traits versus one of
the Five-Factor Models (e.g., Costa and McRae's 1984 model). In particular,
the models can be tested in their ability to account for high levels of variance
in the compound traits.
As described earlier in this chapter, a weakness of the 3M Model is in the
delineation of the compound traits, and this represents the fourth arena for
future research. In a similar manner, the fifth arena proposes that a set of rules
should be developed for generating the items to assess situational and surface
traits. If a base set of items were developed that could be used across situations
and specific contexts, it would increase the parsimony of the model. A starting
point is to investigate the work on the involvement construct in which a base set
of statements can be employed to which the product category is added. For
example, the involvement scale developed by Zaichkowsky (1985) employs this
approach.
Table 18.5
Eight Arenas for Future Research
Arena 1. Formalize the 3M Model in order to meet the "systematically related"

criterion of a theory.
Arena 2. Perform the conceptual work to develop a theoretically sound means for
identifying which elemental traits predict which compound, situational,
and surface traits.
Arena 3. Refine the elemental traits, assess their validity, and compare them
against competing approaches.
Arena 4. Investigate the compound traits to more clearly define them and delimit
their characteristics and number.
Arena 5. Generate a clearly specified set of rules for developing situational and
surface trait measures.
Arena 6. Employ experimentation to test the ability of the 3M to provide an
empirical basis for developing strategies to influence consumers via
mass communications, counseling, product characteristics, and pricing.
Arena 7. Identify additional surface traits and the motivational network of
situational, compound, and elemental traits predictive of them.
Arena 8. Perform the survey and experimental work required to determine
whether the 3M's traits can be employed to delineate the situational
context of behavior as well as organization and brand personalities.
The sixth arena for future research focuses on using experiments to

investigate the ability to employ the 3M traits to develop communications,
counseling techniques, product attributes, and pricing strategies. A critical
issue is that survey research must be performed first in order to identify the
motivational network of traits associated with the surface trait of interest. In
addition, the cluster segments of consumers should be identified. In the process
of performing the experiments, efforts should be undertaken to identify the
theoretical explanations for how communications influence consumers.
A seventh arena for research is to continue the process of identifying
additional surface traits for investigation along with their situational trait,
compound trait, and elemental trait precursors. Basically, this arena continues
the process employed in Chapters 10-14 in which a series of surface traits were
investigated (compulsive buying, healthy diet lifestyles, sports involvement,
bargaining proneness, and modest living). Because hundreds, perhaps
thousands, of surface traits are likely to exist, this process should be guided by
the practical significance of the behavior under investigation. For example,
from a corporate perspective the involvement in a product category could serve
as a surface traiL Indeed, the traits of healthy diet consciousness and sports
participation investigated in earlier chapters of this book could be considered
product categories in the food domain and in the sports marketing domain. One
example of a "new" surface trait that may have practical importance is "charity
donation propensity." That is, by identifying the motivational network of traits
and the cluster segments associated with charity donation propensity, nonprofit
organizations may be able to develop communication themes and charitable
products that maximize giving behavior.
The eighth, but by no means final, arena for future research involves
investigating the possibility that the 3M traits could be employed to develop
motivational profiles of organizations and of situations. First, consider an
organization such as a university. It is a straightforward process to evaluate the
culture of a university or organization on the elemental and compopund traits.
For example, consider the university where I teach (Oklahoma State Univer-
sity). Based upon my subjective evaluations, using the OCEANMAP acronym,
the university culture is: high in openness to experience, medium in conscien-
tiousness, medium in extraversion, high in agreeability, medium in emotional
stability, low in materialism, low in need for arousal, and high in body
orientation. Of course, this process could be performed empirically by asking
respondents to rate the organization on the same scales that are employed to rate
individuals. Second, in a similar manner, individuals could be asked to rate a
situation based upon the extent to which it encourages behavior consistent with
the eight traits. That is, to what extent does the situation encourage extraver-
sion, conscientiousness, etc.? Third, the 3M can also be employed to identify
the motivational profile of employees. Work is already underway by Mowen
and Licata (1999) to investigate the elemental and compound traits predictive
of the surface trait of "customer orientation."
I hope that the explication of the 3M Model of Motivation and Personality
in this book will spur researchers to explore one or more of the eight arenas for
future research. That will be the real test of the success of the meta-theory.
Appendices
Appendices 281
APPENDIX A
KEY DEFINITIONS
Activities Activities are the behaviors that take place in order to

perform tasks, achieve goals, and fulfill values.
Cognitive Appraisal After an interrupt is experienced, cognitive appraisal
occurs, resulting in thinking, planning, and attribu-
tional processes.
Comparator The comparator compares outcomes with the referent
values/goals resulting from the traits of the person. It
is the locus of feelings and emotions. Emotions result
from the comparison of desired outcomes to actual
outcomes. When the difference between the desired
and actual state becomes sufficiently large, the
emotions result in an interrupt, which activates the
cognitive appraisal process.
Compound traits Compound traits are the unidimensional predisposi-
tions that result from the effects of multiple elemental
traits, a person's learning history, and the cultural
environment.
Elemental traits Elemental traits are the unidimensional underlying
predispositions of individuals that arise from genetics
and early learning history and represent the broadest
reference for performing programs of behavior.
Environment The environment is everything outside of the person
that impacts his or her outcomes.
Outcomes Outcomes represent the results, both good and bad, of
the activities of an individual in running programs of
behavior to complete tasks.
Resources The four fundamental resources (social, information,
body, and material) are required for species survival
and represent assets that have value, can be accumu-
lated, have some degree of fungibility, and can be
transferred via exchange relations.
282 Appendices
Situational traits Situational traits are the unidimensional predisposi-

tions to behave within a general situational context
and result from the joint effects of elemental traits,
compound traits, previous learning history, and the
situational context.
Surface traits Surface traits represent enduring dispositions to run
programs of behavior and occur as a result of person,
by situation, by product category interactions.
Tasks A task is a program of behavior that is run in order to
achieve an immediate short-term objective.
Traits The elemental, compound, situational, and category-
specific traits form a hierarchy of personality; act as
reference points for the comparator; represent endur-
ing dispositions; and are inextricably intertwined with
needs, values, and goals.
Appendices 283
AppendixB
FINAL ITEMS FOR THE EIGHT ELEMENTAL TRAITS
OF THE 3M MODEL
A. Openness to experience
1. Frequently feel highly creative 3. Imaginative
2. Find novel solutions
B. Conscientiousness
1. Orderly 3. Organized
2. Precise 4. Efficient
C. Introversion
1. Bashful when with people
2. Shy
3. Quiet when with people
D. Agreeable
1. Kind to others 3. Sympathetic
2. Tender hearted with others
E. Neuroticism/Emotional Instability
1. Moody more than others 4. Emotions go way up and
2. Temperamental down
3. Testy more than others
F. Need for Material Resources
1. Enjoy buying expensive things
2. Enjoy owning luxurious things
3. Acquiring valuable things is important to me
4. Like to own nice things more than most people
G. Need for Arousal
1. Drawn to experiences with an element of danger
2. Like the new and different more than the tried and true
3. Seek an adrenaline rush
4. Enjoy taking risks more than others
H. Physical Resources/Body Needs
1. Focus on my body and how it feels.
2. Devote time each day to improving my body.
3. Feel that making my body look good is important
4. Work hard to keep my body healthy
284 Appendices
Appendix C
METHODOLOGIES OF THE FIFTEEN STUDIES
Appendix C-1
Pilot Study 1, Spring 1997
Subjects were students enrolled in introductory marketing and introductory

psychology classes at a southwestern university. In the data collection effort
311 students answered a self-administered, 134-item survey. After deleting
respondents who did not complete all of the questions or who revealed high
levels of yea-saying, 304 acceptable questionnaires were retained. In the survey
respondents completed the scale developed by Saucier (1994), which is a
shortened version of Goldberg's Five-Factor Model. On Saucier's (1994)
scale, respondents rated the extent to which 40 traits accurately describe them.
Nine-point scales bounded by "extremely inaccurate" to "extremely accurate"
were employed. Additional items were generated by the author to assess the
Five-Factor constructs, the need for activity, arousal needs, body needs,
material needs, information needs, and task orientation.
Appendix C-2
Pilot Study 2, Mall Intercept Study, Summer 1997
Data were collected by a professional marketing research firm in two malls

in Tulsa, Oklahoma over a three-week period. Subjects were paid $1 for
participating in a consumer motivation study. Subjects were brought into a
research center and answered a 72-item questionnaire that was developed to
measure the constructs found in the 3M Model. In an attempt to improve upon
the scales, new items were added to a number of the constructs. In addition,
items developed to measure task orientation/achievement motivation were
collected. Two-hundred sixty-five respondents completed surveys, and of these
253 completed questionnaires sufficiently for analysis. Among the respondents,
57 percent were women; 51 percent were 16 to 21, 27 percent were 22 to 29, 13
percent were 30 to 39, and 8 percent were over 40; 49 percent had a high school
education, 26 percent had some college, 20 percent had a college degree, and
4 percent had some graduate school.
Appendices 285
Appendix C-3
Student Study I, Fall 1997
Students in five different marketing classes at a midwestern university

participated in the study as part of a class assignment. Data were collected in
two sessions that took place approximately six weeks apart. In the first session,
respondents completed a questionnaire in which they answered the 3M scales
along with a number of existing scales. Items designed to measure the eight
elemental traits, the need for arousal, task orientation/achievement motivation,
and the need for information were included in the survey.
At the second session the respondents completed a general innovativeness
scale that was based upon items employed by Raju (1980) and Wells and Tigert
(1971). In addition, the respondents completed two scales that assessed the
respondents' domain specific innovativeness for electronic products and for
food products. The scales were based upon research by Goldsmith and
Hofacker (1991).
A total of 278 respondents completed questionnaires. However, because
students were absent from one or the other class sessions, a final sample of 176
respondents who fully completed both questionnaires was obtained. All
coefficient alphas for the scales were above. 79.
For the constructs that compose the 3M Model, respondents were asked to
indicate "How often they feel/act this way." Nine-point rating scales were
employed, and they were anchored by "never" and "always." For the general
innovation and the category specific innovation items, seven-point Likert scales
were employed.
Appendix C-4
Student Study 2, Fall 1997
Respondents were students in consumer behavior and promotional strategy

courses at a southwestern university. As part of a class exercise, 185 students
received a questionnaire that contained the revised scales that operationalized
the eight 3M traits, the compulsive consumption measure developed by Faber
and O'Guinn (1989), the need for arousal, competitiveness, and the need for
information. Average age of the students was 21.5 years.
In this study, the scale development efforts of the Five-Factor traits
continued. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed on the Five-Factor
traits. Items that loaded poorly in the confirmatory factor analysis were deleted
from the Five-Factor scale developed by Saucier (1994). In addition, items
were added that were obtained from other Five-Factor models developed by
286 Appendices
Trapnell and Wiggins (1990) and by Duijsens and Diekstra (1995). Coefficient
alphas for the 3M traits and for compulsive buying were all above .82.
Appendix C-S
Arkansas Household Panel Study, Fall 1997-Winter 1998
Respondents were members of the Arkansas Household Research Panel.

Data were collected in two phases. During the fall of 1997, 600 members of the
Arkansas Research Panel received a "Consumer Motivation" questionnaire.
This questionnaire operationalized the eight cardinal traits and the central traits
of need for activity and competitiveness. During the winter of 1998, a second
wave of questionnaires was sent to the same set of respondents. In this survey
measures were taken of compulsive buying (Faber and 0' Guinn 1989), need for
information, competitiveness, and effectance motivation. In addition,
situational trait measures of health product innovativeness and health
motivation were taken. Finally, measures assessing healthy diet behaviors
were collected.
Individuals in the panel have an option as to which of several surveys to
complete. As a result, not all respondents answered each questionnaire. In the
first wave, responses were obtained from 311 individuals. In the second wave
responses were obtained from 295 individuals. The final consisted of 226
respondents who completed both questionnaires and who answered sufficient
questions for their surveys to be usable. The average age of the respondents was
55.1 years, and 74 percent of the respondents were married. The annual
average income range of the respondents was $40,000-$50,000.
Appendix C-6
Student Study 3, Spring 1998
Respondents were students in introductory marketing and consumer

behavior classes at a large midwestern university. Among the 218 respondents
participating in the study, 54 percent were female.
Respondents completed a ten-page questionnaire titled "Consumer Needs
Analysis." Students received extra credit in the course for completing the
survey.
The directions on the front page stated: "Part I of the survey begins on the
next page. For each item, please circle the number that indicates how
accurately the phrase or adjective describes how you feel or act. Circle the
Appendices 287
number that describes how you actually act in your daily life, not how you wish
you could act."
After the cover page, the first three pages contained measures of the
elemental and compound traits investigated in the study. The next page
contained the Saucier (1994) version of the Five-Factor Model. Measures of
product innovativeness, electronic innovativeness, value consciousness, and
need for cognition were also taken in the study.
Appendix C-7
Consumer Credit Counseling Service Clients, Spring 1998
A known group of 281 individuals with credit card problems was obtained
from clients participating in programs of the Consumer Credit Counseling
Service of Central Oklahoma. These respondents completed the questionnaire
after an initial screening session with counselors or as part of four evening
seminars for program participants. Among the 281 respondents, nine failed to
complete the questionnaire and were excluded from subsequent analysis. Mean
age of the CCCS group was 36.7 years, 55 percent were married, 87 percent
were Caucasian. The modal yearly median income was between $30,000 and
$40,000, with 45 percent renting and 47 percent owning their places of
residence. The respondents completed the eight 3M elemental trait scales, a
compulsive buying scale (Faber and O'Guinn 1988), and scales designed to
measure the need for activity, competitiveness, and effectance motivation.
Finally, a measure of credit card problems was obtained.
Appendix C-8
Bank Employee Study, Summer 1998
Data were collected from 253 employees at two banks in a midwestern

city. Of these, 249 were adequate for analysis. Questionnaires were distributed
via the human resources manager to department heads, who in turn handed them
to employees. The questionnaires contained no means of identifying
employees, who gave them back to a designated individual at a central
collection point. The survey contained 161 items as well as basic demographic
questions. The survey contained items that operationalized the eight elemental
traits of the 3M Model. Measures of competitiveness and need for activity were
also obtained.
This study was employed in this book for the purpose of refining the
elemental traits and investigating the compound traits of competitiveness and
288 Appendices
the need for activity. In cooperation with Professor Jane Licata at Louisiana
State University, the study also investigated the service orientation of bank
employees. These results are reported in papers that are not included in this
book.
Appendix C-9
Hospitality Employee Study, Summer 1998
Respondents were front-line employees and managers working in firms in

the hospitality industry located in a mid-sized community dominated by a large
university. Managers in the 50 firms were contacted by a MBA-level research
assistant who solicited their participation in a study of employee motivation.
Of the 50 firms, 35 agreed to participate.
Employees completed a survey in which the elemental traits, the measure
of customer orientation, and self-ratings of performance were assessed via
multi-item scales. The manager of the restaurant or hotel rated each employee
on the same multi-item performance scale as completed by employees. From
the 35 firms, 353 surveys were completed by employees. Of these, 27 surveys
were deleted because of missing data. In addition, manager ratings on an
additional 72 employees could not be obtained. As a result, the final sample size
was 254 sets of matched responses across 28 firms. In order to maximize
privacy and minimize bias, employees placed their surveys in sealed envelops
identified by the last five digits of the social security numbers. Managers rated
each of their employees, and these results were matched to the social security
numbers. All coefficient alphas of the 3M elemental traits were over .80.
The average age of the employees was 24.6 years. Their average tenure
on the job was 24.2 months. Among the respondents, 62.2 percent were female,
32.2 percent worked in some type of supervisory capacity, 43.7 percent worked
full time, and 37.7 percent had access to a health insurance plan.
This study was conducted in cooperation with Professor Tom Brown at
Oklahoma State University. For the purposes of this book only, the data on the
elemental and compound traits are reported.
Appendix C-10
Sports Study, Summer 1998
A convenience sample of 325 individuals participated in the questionnaire

study. Among these individuals, 130 were from Sweden. Anna Lundstrom, a
player on the Oklahoma State University golf team, distributed the
Appendices 289
questionnaires to individuals while in Sweden in the summer of 1998. The

remaining respondents were individuals sitting in a large student union cafeteria
and students taking a sports marketing class at a Oklahoma State University.
Average age of the respondents was 31.8 years. Fifty-five percent of the
respondents were male. The nationality of the respondents was 40 percent
Swedish, 51 percent U.S. citizens, and 9 percent other citizens.
The six-page questionnaire was labeled "Sports Motivation Study." The
cover stated: "This project is conducted by researchers at Oklahoma State
University to identify the motivational factors associated with being a sports
fan. Your participation in the study is completely voluntary. The survey is
confidential. Your name will never be taken or recorded. The survey will take
about 15 minutes to complete."
you could act."
The first page of the questionnaire contained a set of items designed to
assess the respondents' participation in sports. The next three pages obtained
measures of the elemental and compound traits investigated. The last two pages
contained measures of interest in playing sports, interest in watching sports as
a fan, and tendencies to exercise.
Appendix C-ll
Arkansas Panel Study 2, Fall 1998
Individuals in the Arkansas Household research panel received a five-page

survey entitled "Retirement Planning Survey." Among the 234 surveys
returned, 231 were adequate for analysis. Modal income of the respondents
was $40,000-$50,000. Mean age of respondents was 62.6 years. Sixty-two
percent of the respondents were women. The cover page contained the
following description of the study.
Thanks for agreeing to participate in our investigation of retirement

planning. As you know, a national debate is taking place over
whether to fundamentally change the Social Security system in the
United States. Our research is undertaken in order to understand the
factors that influence the extent to which people plan for retirement.
The survey consists of three sections. In the first we investigate
motivational factors that may influence retirement planning. The
290 Appendices
second section investigates people's attitudes about retirement and

spending. The final section investigates people's knowledge about
financial matters and the extent to which people are actively prepar-
ing for retirement.
you could act."
The second and third pages contained the measures of the elemental and
compound traits investigated. Scales assessing retirement involvement,
retirement knowledge, a measure of future orientation, and financial knowledge
were also obtained. This survey was developed in conjunction with Professor
Douglas Hershey at Oklahoma State University as an investigation of retirement
planning behavior. The results for the retirement questions are published in
research articles. The results presented in the book only concern the compound
and elemental traits investigated.
Appendix C-12
Student Study 4, Fall 1998
This study provided the data for the investigation of Eysenck and
Eysenck's (1985) measure of extraversion investigated in Chapter 15. In addi-
tion, it acted as a pilot study for a larger investigation of movie interest
conducted in the spring of 1999. Respondents were women in sororities at a
large midwestern university and individuals in introductory marketing classes
at the same university. A total of 152 individuals participated in the study.
Among the respondents, 75 percent were women. The modal age was 21 years
old.
The study was entitled "Personality and Movie Interest Study." The front
page included items assessing how many times the respondents had seen the
movie Titanic, how frequently they go to movies, and age/sex.
Directions for the study read:
For the first set of items in the survey, please circle the number that
indicates how accurately the phrase or adjective describes how you
feel or act. Circle the number that describes how you actually act in
you daily life, not how you wish you would act. There are no wrong
or right answers. Just answer each question as honestly as you can.
Appendices 291
In general, it is best just to put down the first response that you feel
or think is best.
The next three pages of the six-page survey contained the elemental and
compound traits investigated. Contained in this section was the measure of
extraversion obtained from Eysenck and Eysenck (1985). The last two pages
contained measures of preferences for various movie genres and a measure of
attitude toward the movie Titanic.
Appendix C-13
Student Union Study, Fall 1998
Respondents were individuals sitting in a large food court at a midwestern

university during the time periods before or after the lunch hour. Respondents
were approached by a research assistant and asked if they would be willing to
answer a IS-minute questionnaire. In return for completing the questionnaire,
the respondents were offered a $3.00 gift certificate to any of the restaurants in
the food court. 204 respondents agreed to complete the questionnaires. Fifty-
three percent were male, and the average age was 23.8 years old.
The survey was entitled "Consumer Motivation Survey." The instructions
read:
Thanks for agreeing to participate in our research on various aspects

of consumer behavior. The survey will take approximately fifteen
minutes. Please be aware that there are no wrong answers. Your
responses will remain strictly confidential and anonymous. All
results will be presented in aggregate form only.
Respondents then read: "Part I of the survey begins on the next page. For
each item, please circle the number that indicates how accurately the phrase or
adjective describes how you feel or act. Circle the number that describes how
you actually act in your daily life, not how you wish you could act."
The survey was six pages long. After the cover page, the next three pages
contained the measures of the elemental and compound traits. The last two
pages contained the measures of frugality, tightwadism, and future orientation.
292 Appendices
Appendix C-14
Tulsa Adult Study, Fall 1998
This study was designed to investigate issues related to consumer privacy.

These findings are currently being analyzed in conjunction with Professor Dale
Lunsford (University of Tulsa). The study operationalized the elemental traits
and several of the compound traits. Results pertaining to the elemental and
compound traits are the only ones reported in this book.
The study was entitled "Privacy Study." Respondents were individuals
who were members of a large protestant church in Tulsa, Oklahoma. The
modal age of the respondents was 31-40 years old. Sixty-one percent of the
respondents were women. Modal income was $50,000-$75,000. A total of212
respondents completed questionnaires sufficient for analysis.
The front page contained a brief description of the project and indicated
that all responses would be confidential. No names were taken. Basic
demographic information was then collected. The directions read:
"The first section of the survey investigates various personality
charcteristics that may be related to privacy needs. There are no right
or wrong answers. In general, it is best to circle the first response
that you feel or think is the best. Just circle the number that indicates
how accurately the phrase or adjective describes how you feel or act
in your daily life, not how you wish you would act."
The next three pages contained the measures of the elemental and
compound traits that were investigated. The last four pages contained a number
of measures of privacy that are not reported in this book.
Appendix C-15
Student Study 5, Spring 1999
Respondents were students in introductory marketing and consumer

behavior classes at a major midwestern university. One hundred seventy-seven
respondents received a questionnaire entitled "Consumer Motivation Study."
Students were given extra credit for completing the survey. Among the
respondents 50.1 percent were male, and the modal age was 21 years.
you could act."
Appendices 293
The next three pages of the survey measured the elemental and compound
traits investigated in the study. A set of items was included to measure
perceptions of consumer privacy. (These data are not reported in the book.) A
set of questions was developed to assess the degree of interest in romance and
chivalry expressed by the respondents. Finally, a set of items was included to
assess the respondents perceptions of the movie Titanic and various movie
genres.
294 Appendices
Appendix D
Coefficient Alphas of Constructs Employed in Eight Studies
Ark. Sprng Tulsa

Fall 97 Panel 98 Bank CCCS Sport Mall Stdnt.
Construct Stdnt. 2 Study Stdnt. 3 Study Study Study Study Union Means
N= 169 249 218 249 273 324 212 204
Openness .81 .86 .83 .89 .87 .80 .86 .88 .85
Conscien-
.86 .85 .86 .85 .86 .82 .92 .90 .87
tiousness
Introversion .84 .86 .74 .91 .85 .82 .86 .80 .84
Agreeable .80 .83 .84 .82 .86 .78 .91 .88 .84
Unstablel
.93 .92 .90 .94 .90 .85 .92 .92 .91
Neurotic
Material
.89 .85 .90 .81 .88 .87 .88 .89 .87
needs
Arousal
.86 .84 .86 .91 .86 .85 .88 .88 .87
needs
Physical
.91 .86 .93 .85 .87 .87 .83 .87 .87
needs
Activity
.89 .91 .83 .85 .89 .64 .87 .86 .84
needs
Need for
.77 .85 .73 .82 .80 .71 .82 xx .79
Learning
Task
Orientation
.88 .88 xx .89 .85 .80 .86 .87 .86
Need
for Play
.82 .86 xx xx xx .81 xx xx .83
Need to
.90 .87 .89 .91 .87 .89 .93 .88 .89
Compete
Note: Means for coefficient alphas are unweighted.

Appendices 295
AppendixE
Means and Standard Deviations of Constructs Employed
in Eight Studies
Ark.· Fall 98
Fall 97, Panel Spmg98 Bank CCCS Sport Tulsa Stdnt
Construct Stdnt. 2 Study Stdnt 3 Study Study Study Study Union Means
Openness 6.01 5.31 5.90 5.31 5.83 5.52 5.66 5.86 5.67
(1.47) (1.69) (1.64) (1.76) (1.90) (1.64) (1.69) (1.73) (1.69)
Conscien- 6.56 6.24 6.44 6.82 6.08 6.29 6.54 6.25 6.40
tiousness (1.46) (1.52) (1.54) (1.24) (1.54) (1.45) (1.47) (1.70) (1.49)
3.74 4.06 3.89 3.66 4.33 3.51 4.05 3.72 3.87

Introvert
(1.73) (1.75) (1.79) (1.76) (1.86) (1.56) (1.63) (1.68 (1.72)
6.83 6.92 6.82 6.93 7.08 6.55 7.02 7.08 6.90

Agreeable
(1.34) (1.40) (1.32) (1.41) (1.54) (1.37) (1.51) (1.44) (1.42)
4.27 3.71 4.49 3.43 4.40 4.37 3.84 4.24 4.10

Unstable
(1.81) (1.67) (1.89) (1.74) (1.92) (1.79) (1.71) (2.01) (1.82)
Material 5.37 3.63 5.53 3.84 4.16 4.68 3.92 4.65 4.47
needs (1.71) (1.64) (1.79) (1.54) (1.94) (1.86) (1.73) (2.07) (1.78)
Arousal 5.40 3.76 5.82 4.58 4.72 5.11 4.14 4.91 4.80
needs (1.47) (1.56) (1.55) (1.71) (1.82) (1.86) (1.82) (1.71) (1.68)
Physical 6.08 5.20 6.24 5.32 5.21 5.34 5.01 5.01 5.43
needs (1.74) (1.71) (1.82) (1.69) (1.79) (1.91) (1.54) (1.83) (1.75)
Activity 6.23 5.90 6.46 6.77 6.09 6.19 6.40 5.72 6.22
needs (1.58) (1.90) (1.53) (1.48) (1.88) (1.84) (1.56) (1.69) (1.68)
Need for 6.18 6.19 6.12 6.41 6.18 6.30 5.94 xx 6.19
learning (1.14) (1.36) (1.08) (1.16) (1.43) (1.24) (1.37) (1.25)
Task 7.09 6.02 xx 6.67 6.25 5.83 6.21 6.73 6.40

Orientation (1.37) (1.58) (1.42) (1.51) (1.23) (1.41) (1.52) (1.43)
Need for 6.16 5.29 xx xx xx 5.72 xx xx 5.72

Play (1.34) (1.45) (1.51) (1.43)
Need to 5.97 4.38 5.98 4.76 4.96 5.57 4.70 5.14 5.18
Compete (1.66) 0.86) (1.74) (1.83) (1.78) (1.76) (1.93) (1.82) (1.80)
Note: The means and standard deviations of the traits are averaged across the eight studies
and are unweighted.
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Name Index
Alderfer, C.P., 4, 26, 297 Carver, C.S., 6, 12, 13, 14, 15,34,38, 141,
Allport, G.W., xiv, 3, 6, 9, 15, 19,22,98, 298
254,297 Cattell, RB., 20, 208, 209, 216, 217, 298
Alpert, F., 236, 297 Christenson, G.A., 144, 299
Alpert, M.I., 235, 297 Cialdini, RB., 157, 174
Anderson, J.C., 41,163,297 Clark, T., 61, 298
Angelmar, R., 157,297 Cooper, L., 176, 298
Arbuckle, J.L., 41,51,240,297 Costa, P.T. 5,17,20,47,144,208,253,
Atkinson, J.W., 61, 297 275,298,302
Austin, B.A., 220, 297 Cox, K.N., 176
Cron, W.L. , 82, 83, 110, 198
Baccarach, S.B., 7, 297 Crowne, D.P., 195,298
Bandura, A., 2, 31,109,110,297
Barry, D., 82, 297 Dawson, S., 1,49,304
Bassett, R, 157, 174 Deci, E.L., 31, 298
Batra, D., 245, 297 DeSarbo, W.S., 1,4,144,154,299
Baumgartner, H. 28, 305 deZwaan, M., 144,299
Bearden, W.O., 111, 112, 120, 303 Dickenberger, P., 220, 297
Belk, RW., 23, 30, 188,297 Dickerson, M.D., 238, 299
Beltramini, RF., 157, J 58, 299 Diekstra, RF.W., 286, 299
Bern, S.L., 175, 297 Diesing, R., 157,304
Betsch, T., 220, 297 Domzal, TJ., 221, 299
Bettencourt, L.A., 4,187,188,189,191, Dowling, G.R, 237, 302
193,194,195,196,197,200,202,203, Duijsens, I.J., 286, 299
301
Bevan, S., 220, 297 Edwards, E.A., 1,4,143,144,154,299
Black, S.L., 220, 297 Eitzen, D.S., 174, 300
Block, J., 20, 24,46,49, 297 Eliashberg., J., 219, 220, 221, 299
Block, L.G., 110 Elizur, D., 62, 69, 304
Bowen, O.H., Ill, 297 Endler, N.S., 16,299
Bowers, K.S., xiv, 298 Evans, K.R., 157, 158,299
Boyle, G.J., 176, 303 Eysenck, HJ., xiv,9, 15, 17,47,176,205,
Bridwell, L.B., 4, 305 207-217,221,254,256,290,291
Bristow, D.N., 3, 25, 27, 49, 298 Eysenck, M.W., 207-209, 211-217, 221,
Brosius, H.B., 220, 221 256,290,291
Brown, RR, 159, 160, 161, 169,304 Eysenck, S.B.G., 208
Brown, S.P., 82, 83, 119,298
Bruner, G.c., 5, 298 Faber, RJ., 4, 16,50, 143, 144, 145, 149,
Burisch, M., 58, 270, 271, 298 154,189,285,286,287,299
Bums, D.J., 238, 298 Festinger, L.A., 40, 299
Burton,S., 1,4,6, 16,23,67,72,95,105, Fisher, S., 188, 299
160,162,188,301 Fisher W., 188,299
Buss, A.H., 2, 6, 11,24,25,26,27,29,43, Fiske, D.W., 20, 207, 299
47,48,91,92,93,298 Fiske, S.T., 20, 141, 185,235,244,248,
Buss, D.M., 5, 15,254,298 251,273,299
Flaste, R, 31, 298
Cacioppo, J.T., 2, 71, 72, 74, 79,157,174 Foxall, G.R., 236, 300
235,265,270,275,298 Frank-Stronborg, M., 130, 303
Calder, B.J., 250, 298 Frieberg, J., 107,300
Capon, N., 147,298 Freiberg, K, 107, 300
Cassidy, T., 4, 61, 62, 69, 298 Freud, S., 3, 98, 300
Frey, J.H., 174, 300
308 Name Index
Frost, R., 221, 300 Kirton, M., 239, 301

Klein, H., 12,35,301
Gentry, J.W., 238, 299 Knutze, R., 4,187,188,189, 191, 193, 194,
Gerbing, D.W., 41, 163,297 195,196,197,200,202,203,301
Gill, D., 175, 300 Kohn, A, 82, 301
Goldberg, L.R., 20, 43, 47, 48, 57, 284, 300 Koivula, N., 175, 301
Goldsmith, R.E., 129,239,285,300 Kuhlman, M.D., 157,301
Gould, S.J., 128,300 Krampf, R.F., 238, 298
Greenberg, R.P., 188,299
Gross, J., 175, 300 Lamont, L.M., 31, 305
Gutman, J., 31, 220, 300 Lancy, D.F., 97, 301
Lande, R.o., 220, 301
Hamel, J., 176, 176,304 Lastovicka, J.L., 4,6,15, 18, 188, 189, 191,
Harrington, A, 173, 174,301 193,194,19,196,197,200,202,203,
Haskins, c.G., 236, 300 301
Haugtvedt, c.P., 71, 235, 300 Latham, G.P., 12, 302
Helmreich, R.L., 81, 82, 83, 84, 90, 300, Lau, R.R., 128,301
304 Leonard-Barton, D., 189,301
Hensel, P.J., 5, 298 Lennox,R.D.,87,88,96,105,301
Hershey, D.A., 195,202,290
Hirschman, E.C., 28, 97,107,236,238,300 Licata, J., 82,96,277,288,302
Hofacker, c., 129,239,285,300 Lichtenstein, D.R., 1,4,6,16,23,67,72,
Holbrook, M.B., 28, 97, 107,300 95,105,160,162,188,189,301
Hong, J.W., 249, 300 Lindsley, D.B., 99, 302
Huddleston, S., 175, 300 Little B.R., 48,302
Huizinga, J., 97, 300 Locke,E.A,12,302
Hunt, S., 6, 7, 261, 262, 264, 265, 274, 275, Lynn, R.,4, 61,62,69,298
300,302
Hunter, J.E., 4, 303 Maides, S.A., 104, 129,305
Hyland, M.E., 6, 12, 300 Malhotra, N.K., 249, 302
Markus, H., 34, 248, 251, 302
Jackson, D.N., 99, 100, 107,300 Marlowe, D., 195, 298
James, W., 98, 207, 300 Marshello, AFJ., 157,301
Janiszewski, C., 34, 301 Maslow, A.H., xiv, 3,4, 9, 26, 253, 302
Joachimsthaler, E.A 15,301 Mathews, H.L., 159,302
John, O.P., 1,303 Matulich, E., 1,23,95,104,117,118,121,
Johnson,R.S., 173, 174,301 127,128,129, 130
Jones, M.R., 40, 301 McCallum, J., 173,302
Jung,C.G.,207,208,301 McCaulley, M.H., 207, 303
McClelland, D.C., xiv, 3,4,9,26,61,302
Kahle, L.R., 143, 145, 149, 150, 152, 154, McCracken, G., 145, 302
175,176,177,301,304 McCrae, R.R., 5,17,20,47,144,208,253,
Kahn, B.E., 28, 302 275,298,302
Kambara, K.M., 175, 176,301 Mehrabian, A., 27, 28, 49, 302
Kao, C.F., 71, 72, 74, 79, 235, 298 Menon, S., 28, 302
Kaplan, A, 7, 301 Mergenhagen, P., 127,302
Kaplan, G.D., 104, 129,305 Midgley, D.F., 237, 302
Kardes, F.R., 250, 301 Millar, K., 221, 305
Kassarjian, H.H., 1,4,267,301 Miller, J.A., 157, 174
Kelman,H.C., 175,301 Minor, M., 3, 5, 302
Kennedy, J.N., 238, 304 Mitchell, H., 144,299
Kernan, J.B., 221, 299 Monoky, J.F., 159,302
Name Index 309
Moorman, C., 1,23,95,104,117,118,121, Richins, M.L., 1,49, 105,303

127,128,129,130 Ridway, N.M., 189,301
Morgan, R.M., 6, 7, 302 Robertson, T.S., 238, 304
Morgan, W.P., 176, 302 Rogers, E.M., 238, 239, 304
Mowen,J.C.,3,5, 15, 16, 17, 19,20,22, Rokeach, M., 31,143,144,145,149,152,
25,27,49,82,96,143,144,153,154, 154, 304
157,195,202,235,249,277,298,300, Rose, G.M., 175, 176,301
302 Rosenthal, R., 65, 66, 76, 85, 94, 146,230,
Mundorf, N., 220, 221, 305 232,257,304
Murray, A.H., 3, 98, 99, 302 Rubin, 1.Z., 159, 160, 161, 169, 304
Myers, LB., 207, 303 Russell, 1.,27,28,49,302
Myers, J.H., 238, 304 Ryckman, R.M., 175, 176, 304
Nelson, D., 128,303 Sagie, A., 62, 69, 304

Newcombe, P.A., 176, 303 Saucier, G., 15,47-49,57,207,209-212,
Netemeyer, R.G., 1,4,6, 16,23,67,72,95, 214-217,256,284,285,287
105,160,162,188,301 Sawhney, M.S., 221, 299
Nias, D.K.B., 176 Scheier, M.F., 6,12, 13, 14, 15,34,38, 141,
Noerager, J.P., 3, 303 298
Noll, R.G., 173,303 Schmitt, N., 4, 303
Norman, W.T., 207, 303 Scott, J.E., 31,305
Nunnally, J.C., 200, 270, 271, 272, 303 Sechrist, K.R., 130,303
Sentis, K.P., 248, 251
O'Guinn, T.C., 4, 16,50, 143, 144, 145, Sharma, S., 16,304
149,154,189,285,286,287,299 Shaw, R., 4,187,188,189,191,193,194,
Oliver, R.L., 11 I, I 12, 120,303 195,196,197,200,202,203,301
Sheffet, M.l., I, 4, 267, 301
Pajares, F., 110,303 Shimp, T.A., 15, 16,304
Paunonen,S.V., 15, 16, 17, 19,58,217, Shoham, A., 175, 176,304
270,271 Shugan, S.M., 219, 220, 299, 304
Pender, N.J., 130, 303 Sirgy, MJ., 248, 304
Pert, C.B., 99, 103, 105, 106,303 Slocum, J.W., 82, 83, 110,298
Pervin, L.A., 1,303 Smith, R.E., 109, 11,304
Peterson, R.A., 82, 298 Snyder, M., 87,157,304
Petty, R.E., 2, 71, 72, 74, 79, 235, 265, 270, Spears, N., xiv, 15, 16, 17, 19,20,22,143,
275,298 144, 153, 154,235
Phillips, L.W., 250, 298 Spence, J.T., 81, 82, 83, 84, 90, 300, 304
Price, L.L. 16, 305 Spreitzer, E., 174, 175,304
Pride, W.M., 61, 298 Stanford, S.W., 221, 304
Punam, A.K., 1 10 Steele, C.M., 248, 304
Puri,R., 1,4,23,68,86,96,105,106,117, Steenkamp, J.B., 28, 305
121,144,146,153,191,193,268,303 Stephenson, W., 97, 305
Stauffer, J., 221,300
Raju, P.S., 16,23,28, 105, 162,238,239, Stern, L.W., 157,297
285,303 Swann, W.B., 248, 305
Rauschenberger, 1., 4, 303 Swasy, J., 157,298
Ray, M.R., 245, 297
Read, S.J., 248, 305 Taylor, S.E., 20,141,185,235,244,248,
Rosenstein, A.J., 16, 299 251,273,299
Richek, H.G., 111,297 Tedlow, R.S., 235, 305
310 Name Index
Tesser, A., 221, 305

Thorlindsson, T., 174, 305
Thurstone, L.L., 20, 207, 220, 305
Tigert, 285, 305
Trapnell, P.O., 286, 305
Tybout, A.M., 6, 7, 250, 298, 305
Varadarajan, P.R., 61, 298

Veblin, T., 145,305
Venkatraman, M.P., 16,305
Vilhjalmsson, R., 174, 305
Vinson, D.E., 31, 305
Vroom, V.H., 12,305
Wahba, M.A., 4, 305

Walker, S.N., 130, 303
Wallston, K.A., 104, 129,305
Wang, C.L., 235, 249,305
Ward, E.A., 61,87,88,136,150,166,180,
197,305
Weaver, 1.B.I., 220, 221,305
Wells, W.O., 187,285,305
Wiggins, 1.S., 6, 11,20,47, 144,255,286,
305
Wilson, D.T., 159,302
Wolfe, R.N., 87, 88, 96, 105,301
Wu, C.H., 221, 305
Yamauchi, H., 62, 69, 304
Zaichkowsky, 1.L., 275, 305

Zajonc, R.A., 35, 306
Zimbalist, A., 173,303
Zinkhan, G.M., 249, 300
Zuckerman, M., 15,27,28,43,49,99,208,
255,265,275
Subject Index
3M Model Communications, development of, 235-

accounting for behavior, 267 243
and parsimony, 267-268 Comparator, 12, 14,34
components of, 32 Competitiveness, 81-90
components, definitions of, 37 and bargaining, 159
contributions to literature, 265-268 and bargaining proneness, 170
criteria for evaluating, 7 and compulsive buying, 146
criticisms of, 269-274 and sports interest, 87, 177
diagram of, 33 definition of, 81
future directions for research, 275- on the job, 82
277 Compound traits
new findings, 265-266 and elemental traits, 257
scientific goals of, 7 criteria for determining, 55, 59
traits, definitions of, 21 definition of, 21
discriminant validity of, 120
Achievement motivation, 61 distinguishing from elemental, 30
Activities, 35 summary, 259
Age, predicting with elemental traits, Compulsive buying, 16, 143-156
230-233 definition of, 143
Asceticism, 188 Conspicuous consumption, 145
ATSCI,90 Consumer credit counseling, 145
and competitiveness, 87 Consumer innovativeness, 237
and self-efficacy, 118 predicting, 240
and self-esteem, 119 scale, 240
Control model, diagram of three-level,
Bankruptcy, 143 14
Bargaining proneness, 157-171 Control theory, 6, 12-15,254
and competitiveness, 86 and the 3M, 12-15
and playfulness, 104 and hierarchical models, 19
definition of, 158 Criticism of the 3M, 269-274
scale, 161
segments of, 166 Data snooping, 41
Behavior, accounting for variance in, 4 Definitions of key terms, 281
Body needs, 55 Discriminant validity, of compound
Body resource needs, 26 traits, 111
Domain sampling model, 270
Care in spending, 194-200 Dust-bowl empiricism, 48
prediction of, 195-196
Center for Disease Control, 130 Effectance motivation and healthy diet,
Charity donation, 277 132-141
Chick flicks, 219-234 Electronic innovativeness, 235-251
Chick flicks, do they exist, 233 scale, 240
Chivalry, and movie preference, 227 Elemental Traits, 20
Chivalry, scale, 223 and compound traits, 257
Cognitive appraisal, 34 and control theory, 37
definitions of, 29
312 Subject Index
identification of, 27 Healthy diet lifestyle, 127-141

items, 283 and playfulness, 103
measures of, 47-58 segments, 136
sources of, 24 Hedonism, 98
summary of research, 255 Hierarchical models, 15-24
Emotional center, 34 alternative views, 16
Employee selection, 277 and Control Theory, 19
Environment, 36 power of, 23
Evolutionary psychology, 12, 24 Hierarchical personality models, 6, 15-
and the elemental traits, 28 24,254
Exercise behavior, 183 Hierarchical regression, 41
Experiential approach to consumer
behavior, 107 Impulsiveness, 143-156
Extraversion, 207-218 and competitiveness, 86
as compound trait, 214, 256 and playfulness, 105
Eysenck's scale, 211 and self-efficacy, 117
predictors of, 216 and self-esteem, 118
Saucier scale, 209 Information processing
Extroversion, 207-218 and cognitive appraisal, 35
Exvia-Invia, 208 preattention stage, 34
Information resource needs, 26
Feedback loop, 13 Innovativeness, 238
Five-Factor Model, 20, 24 scale, 240
biological perspective, 47 Intel, Create and Share Pack", 246
lexical perspective, 47
Frugality, 187-204 Lawlike generalizations, and 3M, 262-
scale, properties of, 194-196 265
LOV Scale, and compulsive buying,
Gender 149
and evolution, 234
and movies, 221 Material resource needs, 26
predicting with elemental traits, 231- Materialism, as a pejorative term, 26
232 Materials needs, 55
General self-efficacy, 109-124 McBeal, Ally, 183
scale items, 113 Measurement properties, of 3M, 269
Goals and traits, 31 Mental accounting, 189
Message themes, empirical
Health, and sports, 174 development of, 243-251
Health care product innovativeness, 129 Meta-theory, 276
Health locus of control, 129, 132 definition of, 6-7
Health motivation, 127-141 Method variance, 52, 54, 272
and need for activity, 95 Modest living, 187-204
and self-efficacy, 118 prediction of, 192, 196
and self-esteem, 118 Motivation, definition of, 40
Health scales, 131 Motivation-personality system, 41, 42
Subject Index 313
Movie clusters, 228 Playfulness

Movie genre preferences, 219-234 and self-efficacy, 118
prediction of preferences for, 219 and self-esteem, 118
Movie industry, 220 Present Orientation, 193-202
Movie hounds, 219-234 Prisoners' dilemma games, 159
Movies, horror, 221
Movies, research, 220 Reference levels, 21
Reliability of scales, 271
Need for activity, 48, 55, 91-96 Resource needs, 25
definition of, 91 Resources, 36
scale items, 92 definition of, 25
Need for arousal, 27, 55 Reticulo-cortical System, 99
and bargaining, 159 Risk taking, 28
and compound traits, 256
Need for cognition, 71, 235, 265 Rokeach Value Survey, and compulsive
as possible elemental trait, 80 buying, 149
compared to need for learning, 74
reduced scale, 74 Saucier's Five-Factor Scale, 48
Need for learning, 71-80 Scales, length of, 270-271
scale items, 73 Schema theory, 248, 273
Need for play, 97-108 Segments, of compulsive buyers, 150
scale items, 101 Self-concept, and sports, 174
Need to compete, scale items, 83 Self-efficacy, 109-124
Need for resources, 26 and self-esteem, 111
Nomological net, and 3M, 261-265 and self-esteem, discriminant
validity, 122
Openness to experience, 72 definition of, 109
Opiate receptors, 99 Self-esteem, 111, 144
Optimum stimulation level, 28 and self-efficacy compared, 116
Organizational personality, 277 prediction of, 115
Outcomes, 36 scale items, 113
Self-image, idealized, 13
Parsimony, 275 Self-monitoring and competitiveness,
PERMS, 235-251, 249 87
Person-by-situation interactions, 16 Self-schemas, 20, 244, 248, 251, 273-
Personality 274
applications of, 3 Sensuousness, scale, 224
definition of, 1, 2 Separateness-Connectedness, 235
hierarchical model of, 15 Situational traits, 125
problems of, 3-5 definition of, 21, 30
Physical resources, 26 summary, 261
Play, need for, 97-108 Social desirability, and tightwadism,
and sports interest, 106 197
as instinct, 98 Social resource needs, 26
definition of, 97 scale, 213
314 Subject Index
Source traits, 210 elemental, 19

Southwest Airlines and play, 107 situational, 22
Sports interest, 173-186 surface, 15, 23
and need for activity, 95 Trait Theory, 2
Sports Utilitarian school, 98
and playfulness, 103 Validity of scales, 271-272
as big business, 173 Value consciousness, 157-171
interest scale, 178 and bargaining proneness, 160
participation scale, 178 and need for activity, 95
Sports participation, 173 elemental traits predictive of, 169
segments, 180, 182 short scale, 164
Structural equation modeling, 41,273 Values, 20
Surface traits, 5 and compulsive buying, 154
definition of, 21, 31, 125 and traits, 31
direct effects of elemental traits on, definition of, 31
260
summary, 261
Task orientation, 61-70
and competitiveness, 66, 87
and healthy diet lifestyles, 67
and impulsiveness, 68
and need for activity, 95
and self-esteem, 118
and sports interest, 177
and sports participation, 67
and value consciousness, 67
definition of, 61
meta-analysis, 65
the items, 64
Tasks, 32
Theory, and 3M, 274, 201-265
Three-Factor Theory, 209
Tightwadism, 187-204
and frugality, compared, 193-197
prediction of, 191-198
scale, 190
segments of, 199
Titanic, 222, 267
predicting liking for, 225
predicting viewing of, 226
Traits
cardinal, 15, 19
central, 15, 19
compound, 22
definition of, 2

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THE 3M MODEL OF MOTIVATION

SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

HF5415 .34 .M69 1999

Copyright ® 2000 by Springer Science+Business Media New York

Printed on acid-Iree paper.

List of Figures .............................................. Xlll

Preface ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. xvii

Part I. The Development of the Theory

Chapter 1. The 3M: A Meta-Theoretic Model of Motivation

Chapter 2. Theoretical Development of the 3M . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11

Part II. The Elemental Traits

Chapter 3. Developing the Measures of the Eight Elemental Traits 47

Part III. Investigating Compound Traits

Chapter 4. Task Orientation ................................. 61

Chapter S. The Need for Learning ............................ 71

Chapter 7. The Need for Activity ............................. 91

Chapter 8. The Need for Play ................................ 97

Chapter 9. General Self· Efficacy and the Discriminant Validity of

Part IV. From Situational to Surface Traits

Chapter 10. From Health Motivation to Healthy Diet Lifestyle 127

Chapter 11. From Impulsiveness to Compulsive Consumption. . .. 143

Chapter 12. From Value Consciousness to Bargaining Proneness . 157

Chapter 13. From Sports Interest to Sports Participation . . . . . . .. 173

Chapter 14. From Frugality to Modest Living ................. 187

Part V. Additional Investigations Into the Hierarchical Model

Chapter 15. What is an Extrovert? They are More Than

General Discussion ...................................... 214

Chapter 16. From Chick-Flicks to Guy-Flicks to Sci-Fi Junkies:

Chapter 17. The 3M and Developing Marketing Communications:

Appendices ............................................... 279

Name Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307

Subject Index ............................................. 311

2.1. The Thermostat: A Basic Control Model ..................... 13

2.2. A Three-Level Control Model ............................ 14

2.3. Traditional Hierarchical Model of Personality ................ 18

2.4. The 3M Model of Motivation and Personality ................ 33

10.1. Path Diagram for Healthy Diet Lifestyle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135

11.1. Path Diagram for Compulsive Buying ..................... 148

12.1. Path Diagram for Bargaining Proneness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165

13.1. Path Diagram for Sports Participation .................... " 181

14.1. Path Diagram for Modest Living ......................... 198

17.1. Study 1: Path Diagram for Electronic Innovativeness ......... 242

17.2. Agreeability Message Theme by Electronic Innovativeness

2.1. Definitions of the Four Levels of Personality Traits ........... 21

Why would anyone attempt to develop a new meta-theory of motivation

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY

This chapter introduces the 3M-a new Meta-Theoretic Model of

One also finds a variety of approaches to the study of personality.

Minor (1998), an understanding of personality, as well as the closely related

Some Problems with Current Approaches to Personality and Motivation

As will be described in the next chapter, however, these constructs exist

The Elements of the Meta-Theory

concept that a goal of science is to parsimoniously explain phenomena with as

The Scientific Goals of the 3M

Criteria for Evaluating the 3M

The Empirical Research

The Book's Organization

It is critical at this juncture not to over-promise the 3M to readers. The

As described in Chapter I, the 3M is grounded upon principles identified

Control Theory and the 3M

Hierarchical Models of Personality

A number of different researchers, including Eysenck (1947), Allport

represent cells in a person-by-situation matrix. They identified a number of