Analysis of ¢ Bolted Joints ining Course andbook This document forms part of a training course that was delivered by Bolt Science Limited. Bolt Science Limited, 16 Isleworth Drive, Chorley, Lancashire, PR7 2PU, United Kingdom Tel: +44 1257 411503 Fax: +44 1257 411650 Email: trainina@boltscience.com URL: www boltscience, com © Bolt Science Limited 2002 - 2004 - All Rights Reserved 1d by Bolt Science Limited from sources creitored to be ralable. However. nother Bolt Science ror ils authors guarantee the accuracy or compioteness of any ffformelion published hersia and nelthar Bolt Scones nor is euthors shall Be tesponsibio for any eirera, omssions, oF ‘damages areing out of tie use of his informetin. ‘This document has been designod os an integral part of the training presentation solely for the benefit of detogates ‘nding the presanfation. The material does not nécessarly stand on iis own and Is nol intended to be raed upon for ‘lh specie advice No part of this document may be reproduced In any form without the prior permission of Bolt Sciance Limited.Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes e Contents Bolt and Thread Terminology... Bolt Terminology... Thread Terminology Coarse and Fine Threads... “ ‘The Strength of Bolts and Nuts and their Markings. Terminology used to Describe Bolt Strength.. Property Class and Strength Grade ...... Matching the Bolt Strength to the Nut Strer Markings on Fasteners . ‘The Stress Area of a Thread. ...nn Preload Variation in Threaded Fasteners. ‘Aa Introduction to Design Related Fastener Faure Modes.. Background. - Manufacturing Qui Design Quality Defects . Insufficient Clamp Force. Overloading of the Bolt. @ Fatigue Failut....n.m Excessive Bearing Stress... Thread Stripping... ‘The Basios of Bolt Loa wormnadrhooee Simplified Design Formula for Bo 11 Introduction 11 Derivation of a Design Formula... M4 Tightening Factor neem 12 Exampte Caleulatio 13 Consideration of Fatigue Failure wn... Example in using the Fatigue Formula Fatigue Failure of Threaded Fasteners .... Bearing Stress acting on the Joint... Introduction and Background... Bearing Stress Calculations Example Bearing Stress Calculation 1 Example Bearing Stress Calculation 2 ‘Thread Stripping ... ‘Shear Strangih of Materials e ‘The Maximum Tensile Strength of the Bolt Example Thread Stripping Calculation... ‘The Strangth of Worn Fastenets Example Catulation on Worn Threads.. : Analysis of Combined Tension and Shear Joints Location of the neutral axis of the bolt group Example Joint ‘Appendix 1 - Thread Shear and Stripping ‘Appendi 2 - Key Mechanical Properties of Bolts and Fa ‘Appendix 3- Key Mechanical Properties of Nuts Appendix 4 — Glossary of Terms ... © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www. boltscience.com Page 2 of 40 eeeAnalysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Bolt and Thread Terminology Bolt Terminology ‘A bolt is the term used for a threaded fastener designed to be used in conjunction with a nut. A screw is the term used for a threaded fastener designed to mate with a pre-formed internal thread or forming its own thread. Names are given to specific parts of a bolt, the head, shank and thread being the three main parts. The size of a bolt is a Sinanaton a here dt ard mtr erat) Toed! nen ATE) oso the thread. For example a bolt designated 'as M12 x 100 indicates that the bog bolt is a metric thread of 12 mm diameter and of 4100 mm Tength. A full designation of the bolt usually includes the head type and the standard that the bolts made to. For example: Hexagon head bolt DIN 6914 - M12 x 100 indicates that a standard hexagon head form is to be used, DIN 6914 refers to the standard that the bolt is to be made to (the German standard on high strength hexagon head bolts) and M12 x 100 is as per the previous: explanation Ina similar manner, a bolt designated as 1/2 x 4 indicates that the bolt has a 1/2 inch thread diameter and the bolt is 4 inches in length. Head forms that are commonly used are the hexagon head, flanged head, socket head and 12 point head. The size of the hexagon head on a bolt is defined by the aoross flats (or A/F) dimension of the hexagon. Typically the AIF size Is approximately 1,5 times the bolt thread dimension, Thread Terminology A thread is a groove that in the case of fasteners is typically of a vee form. Enlarging a section of a thread it can be observed as a series of ridges and hollows. Specific names are given to parts of the thread, The crest is the top most section of the thread, The root is the bottom of the thread. The thread flanks lie between the roots and crest of the threads. The major diameter of a thread Is, for an external thread, the diameter over the crests of the thread. For an internal thread itis the diameter over the thread roots. The pitch diameter cannot be directly measured since there is no marking or indication on the thread to measure. To explain the pitch diameter, itis first necessary fo understand what the pitch js. The pitch of the thread is the distance befween successive points on the thread form as illustrated in the diagram. For inch threads, the pitch is defined as the number of threads per inch - or toi, With metric threads the pitch is directly specified, The pitch diameter = diameter on the thread that the space between the threads is equal to the space across the thread, The| pitch diameter is a critical dimension in determining the acceptabilly of threaded eonnections. Its sometimes fefarred to as the effective diameter, The minor diameter of an external thread Is the diameter of the roots of the thread. For an internal thread it is the diameter over the thread crests. Most thread forms have a radius at the root of en external thread. The radius improves the fatigue resistance of the thread, Coarse and Fine Threads Threads are often referred to.as coarse or fine. This has nothing to do with the thread quality. A coarse or fine thread refers to the pitch size, a coarse thread having a larger pitch than a fine thread for the same thread diameter. There are thread series for both coarse and fine threads. For example the UNF thread refers to @ Unified National Fine thread, UNC to a Unified National Coarse. For a given thread diameter, a UNF thread has a smaller pitch - that is, a latgor number of threads per inch - than a UNC thread. A standard metric thread is 6 coarse thread. There is a metric fine thread series but it i¢ normally only specified for specialised applications. © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www boltsci \oe.com, Page 3 of 40 eeeAnalysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes ‘There are advantages and disadvantages in selecting a coarse thread compared to a fine thread. 2 Size for size a fine thread is stronger than a coarse thread. This is both in tension (because of the larger ‘stress area - this term is explained later in this tutorial) and shear (because of the larger minor diameter). a Fine threads have also less tendency to loosen, since the thread incline is smaller and hence so is the off torque. The off torque is the torque thal tends to undo the fastener and is present because of the preload (that is, the clamp force provided by the bot) 2 Because of the smaller pitch, fine threads allow finer adjustments in applications that need such a feature. Fine threads can be more easily tapped into hard materials and thin walled tubes. Fine threads require less torqué to develop equivalent bot preloads, Fine threads also have a number of significant disadvantages: 1 Fine threads are more susceptible to galling than coarse threads. Galling is a type of thread seizure, 2 Fine threads need longer thread engagements and are more prone to damiage and thread fouling, 2. Fine threads are also less suitable for high speed assembly since they are more likely to seize when being tightened. a Akey point is that normally @ coarse thread is specified unless thore is an overriding reason to specify a fine thread. Certainly for metric fasteners, fine threads are more difficult to obtain, The Strength of Bolts and Nuts and their Markings Terminology used to Describe Bolt Strength When a force is applied to a bolt, one factor that determines ‘what load will be required to break the bolt, is the strength of the material that the bolt is made from. Two key properties that are discussed in relation to the strength of a material are the yield strength and the tensile strength, These are shown in the Load-Extension diagram. Up to the yield point, the material responds to a loading in an elastic manner. That is, if the loading is released the part will rotum to its ‘After the yield point, plastic deformation is occurring and if the loading is released, the part will not return to its original dimensions - a permanent extension, or set, will have ‘occurred. The tensile strength corresponds to the maximum {oad that the material can sustain. Continued loading will result Infallure of the par. , ‘With high strength materials, the point that yield bee ion occurs cannot be readily identified from the stress-strain curve. ‘This is because In many materials, the load extension line is a curve rather than a straight line. To overcome this problem, standards typically specify a proportional limit at which to measure the stress. In metric standards 2 0.2% non-proportional elongation of the gauge length is specified. The gauge length is the distance on the lest Specimen that deflection is measured. if the gaugo length is 50 mm and the 0.23% value is used, then the equivalent yield point is taken when 0.1 mm (that is 0.002 x 50) deftection ‘occurs relative to the original tangent of the load elongation curve. Punt Dtormaion Elongation Property Class and Strength Grade Six billion bolts are made each year. You could specify a bolt material by defining all the properties that you wish the bolt to have, however this would lead to milions of ‘specials’ that would be very expensive. Bolt strength for steel bolts is usually specified by means of a property class (metric) or grade {inch threads). By specifying a property class, all the key mechanical and physical properties are defined together with the appropriate test methods. For metric fasteners, ISO 898 is the key standard that defines property classes for bolt, screws, studs and nuts made of carbon and alloy steel. For bolts there are defined 10 property classes, 3.6 to 12.9, for nuts there are 7 property classes, 4 to 12. Typically a bolt of property class 8.8 is used with a nut of property class 8. © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www. boltsciance.com Page 4 of 40 eesAnalysis| of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes @ The ISO 898 standard applies to bolts between M1.6 to M39, made from carbon or alloy steel to be used within fa temperature range of -50C to +300 (250C for 10.9). The national standards, such as DIN, ASTM, SAE and BS, for motric fastener materials aro based upon the ISO standard. A property class for a bolt consists of two figures: ‘The first figure indicates 1/100 ‘of the nominal tensile strength in Nimm?. The second figure indicates 10 times the ratio between lower yield strength (or the 0.2% limit) and the nominal tensile strength. For example the bolt shown has a property class of 8.8. The first figure 6 Indicates that the nominal tensile strength is 800_in Nirman? fe. 8 x 100. The second figure indicates that the lower yield strength is 640 in Nimm*i.¢, 8/10 x 800 . Full details about property classes for metric bolts are shown in Appendix 2. ‘The intention of matching the property class of the nut to that of the bolt is to provide an assembly that is capable of being tightened to the bolt proof load without thread stripping occurring. A nut is largely subjected to tensile stresses. A property class for nuts consists of single figure indicating 1/100 of the minimum tensile strenath in Nimm? . The mode of failure of nuts is typically by the thread stripping, This is an undesirable mode of failure in that it is gradual and can result in partially failed fasteners being left in assemblies, To prevent this, the nut height is selected so that thread stripping will not occur when a ‘proof loac! is applied to the nut. Details about property classes for metric nuts are shown in Appendix 3. ‘Ensuring that @ bolt of nut meets all the requirements of the specification js a time consuming and difficult operation. By specifying a proof stress and the corresponding proof load - a quick and simple check can be made fo assess that a batch of fasteners is likely to be satisfactory. The proof load of a nut is the axially e applied load the nul must withstand without thread stripping or rupture. The proof load of a bolt, screw or stud Is the specified load the product must withstand without permanent sot. The proof load typically Is between 88% to 94% of the yield strength for the property class. After applying the proof load for some 15 seconds and then releasing, there should be no permanent extension of the bolt (to within +/- 0.0125mm). A male mandral is used for the proof load on nuts. Following the test the nut should be capable of being removed by hand. Matching the Bolt Strength to the Nut Strength It is important to ensure that the appropriate strength of nut is matched to the property class of the bolt. Normally a property class @ nut is matched with a 6.8 bolt, a 10 nut with a 10.9 bolt etc. ifa tightening method is tusod that results In the bolt reaching yield, then there is the possibllity of thread stripping occurring, In such ‘cases, nuts of a higher property class can be used to eliminate the problem, for example a nut of property class {2 used with 10.9 bolts. Thread stripping is when the internal thread is shaared off ending up embedded into the bolt thread. / ‘Most fastener standards do not directly specify an upper limit on a properly class strength. The upper value of tensile strength is usually indirectly controlled by the standard specifying a maximum hardness valus. Completing 2 hardness test can be quickly and cheaply completed, For stasis, a hardness value can be equated to @ tensile strength by a lookup table. (For example SAE 417 and DIN 50150 include such tables.) Standard bolts can be used up to 300 C, hgyeyer significant property changes will occur including a drop in the e tensile strength. aa Ie Markings on Fasteners Most of the standards used to specify bolt strength also specify that markings should be placed upon the bolt head. Typically two such marks are required. A ‘strength grade mark, such as the 4.8, and a mark to indicate the manufacturer, for example LOBO to indicate that the bolt was made by LOBO S.P.A of Italy. Markings are important in quality assurance. You can see the grade of an installed bolt and who manufactured it if there are subsequent concerns or problems. Most bolts have the marks raised so that they can only be produced during the primary manufacturing process. The disadvantage of indented marks is that they can be added later in the supply chain and so are easier to falsity, ‘Thera are hundreds of strength grade markings that oan be applied to a bolt head. There is no central resource that lists them all. There is presently no world-wide fisting of manufacturer marks, However there is a fisting maintained in the US by the Patent ‘and Trademark Office for Fastener Quality Act. US standards bodies such as SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers} and ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) publish metric fastener standards. The SAE matric fastener standard (SAE J1199) Specifies head markings es per the ISO standard, ASTM standards are marked with the ASTM standard such as A 326M. Inch based US standards tend to use radial markings to indicate the strength grade. For ‘example, the photo shows an SAE Grade 8 bol, the tiangle is the manufacturer's mark. ‘As previously explained, it is important ‘that the grade of nut is matched to the ‘strength of the bolt to e ‘eneure that'thread stripping does not occur. Markings on nuts tend to be more indistinct than those on bolls Marking is by indenting the ‘bearing surface, the side of the nut or by embossing on the chamfer. One approach © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www. boltseience.com Page 5 of 40 eeAnalysis| of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes with US Inch based nuts is to use a line marked on the nut at a specified angle from a circular indent in the nut face. For example, an SAE Grade § nut has a line 120 degrees from the circular indent. The Stress Area of a Thread When 2 bolt is loaded what are the factors that determine its strength under direct tensile loading? The strength of the material that the bolt is made from is one obvious factor. The size of the bolt itself is the other obvious factor. The thread is normally the Weakest fink of a threaded fastener. That ie, tensile fallure normally occurs in the threaded region. The thread itself has a complex for strength calculations. cl | rm and there are obvious difficulties in deciding whal area of the thread to use for Detailed tests were completed in the 1930's! to establish the equivalent diameter of bar that could be substituted for the thread. The stress area is the term used for the Diameter?| ‘aroa of this equivalent section, Carefully conducted tensile tests were performed Using plain bars and threaded bars that had been machined from the same bar of oo steel. Using the major diameter of the thread as the bar diameter resuited in the bar strength being significantly higher than the thread strength. Using the minor diameter of the thread as the bar diameter resulted in the bar strength being approximately 18% weaker than the thread strength. Romwenn = 278632 ta Using the pitch diameter of the'thread as the bar diameter resulted in the bar strength being approximately 15% stronger than the thread strength. Using a diameter that was halfway between the pitch and minor diameters as the bar diameter gave results that were within 3%. The area of bar based upon this mean diameter is known a8 the stress area. Tables giving the stress area of @ particular thread are available. The stress area of a particular sized thread can be determined by caloulating the area of section that is the mean of the pitch and minor thread diameters, sornndg aon Preload Variation in Threaded Fasteners wae wm cian » In general terms, a bolted joint relies upon its structural integrity by virtue of the clamp force, or preload, that is generated when the bolts are tightened. ® Controlling the torque that @ fastener is tightened to is the most popular means of controling preload, The nominal torque necessary to tighten the bolt to a given preload can be determined either from tables, or, by calculation using a relationship between torque and the resulting bolt tension. Friction that acts in the threads of the bolt and under the bolt head dissipates the majority of the tightening torque. For a free spinning thread, typically only about 15% of the torque is actually used to extend the fastener. The majority of the torque is used to overcome friction under the bolt head and in the threads. ‘When a prevailing torque nut or bolt is used (the prevailing torque is the torque needed to run a nut down a thread ‘such as |s the case when a nylon insert is used), the torque distribution is changed. With the maximum prevailing torque present, the proportion of the:applied torque that is actually used to extend the bolt is typically about 10%. Friction In the thread typically absorbs) 29% and underhead friction 33%, Up to 29% af the torque Is used to run the ‘nut down: the thread (the prevailing torque) Because of the variation in the prevailing torque, significant variation can occur in these ratios between balches of fasteners and is dependent upon the number of fimes the fastener is used. ‘Tests on Threaded Sections’ by E M Slaughter, Metal Progress, March 1933 © Bolt Science Limited 2003 + All Rights Reserved wwwboltscience.com Page 6 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes TR = My fete | “Wis fe ten The clamp force (or preload) provided by a bolt is crucial in ensuring that the joint can sustain the forces placed upon it. With joints that are loaded by direct forces itis crucial that the clamp force is sufficient to prevent a gap from forming within the joint. As soon as a gap forms, the bolt will be subjected to the full bolt loading causing probable fatigue failure. Frotting will also occur that will lead to subsequent preload loss. Bolts are often used in joints that contain gaskets. The clamp force from the bolis is used to seat the gasket properly and to prevent gasket blow-out. Ifthe preload provided by the bolts is insufficient, leakage can occur that can be considered as a joint failure. Bolted joints loaded in shear are very common. In most joints the shear is transmitted by friction between the surfaces. The frictional resisting force that is generated is proportional to the clamp force created by the bolt. If tho clamp force Is insufficient then joint movement can oacur. Transverse movement has been shown to be the major cause of vibrational loosening of join. Commonly, there are two ways to account for preload variation at the design stage. 1. By using an empirically determined factor (known as the tightening factor) that allows for the typical variation in the preload for various tightening methods. The tightening factor is the ratio of the maximum preload to the minimum aero preload in the bol! for the tightaning method being Used. A large lightening factor indicates a large om oe variability in the bolt's preload. | 2. By calculating the preload variation based upon See the torque specification and the variation in the friction values and prevailing torque (if present) rarer | The lable of tightening factors presented can bo of ere assistance in establishing the likely scatter to be anticipated from an assembly method. The chart illustrates what effect using a particular assembly method will have on the minimum bolt preload. 100 represents maximum preload that can be obtained. Another way of determining the preload scatter is to calculate the preload directly for maximum and minimum conditions. The graph illustrates this approach for a M10 bolt. The tightening torque specification states that the torque must be between 34 and 46 Nm. The prevailing torque can vary between 1.1 and 14 Nm. The top line is for the ft minimum fiction value of 0.12, the lower fine for the | # | eee Propet Class 83 Bot maximum friction value of 0.18. For the tightening condition defined, the torque-preload combinations can be any value in the shaded region. In summary, of crucial importance to the structural | integrity of a bolted joint is the magnitude of the bolt preload, idl Fee Re Belek ket 2 [fa reliable bolted joint is to be achieved then account must be made of the ggaijer in the bolt preload. a design on an average or maximum preload will load to a proportion of j s failing, UW To design a safe joint, the design should be based upon a minimum anticipated bolt preload. © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www boltscience.com Page 7 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes the high stress gradient that occurs in this region, A fully tightened bolt can sustain forces that a loose bolt cannot, subsequently. fatigue failure commonly occurs after the bolt has loosened because of another mechanism. typically because it feiled to provide sufficient clamp force. Excessive Bearing Stress Bolts are typically made from high sirength steels. When fully tightened, a bolt exerts a high clamp force onto the joint. The area directly under the bolt head or nut face sustains a high bearing stress. If a maximum stress. limit for the joint material is exceeded, then plastic deformation occurs over time, leading to extension being lost in the bolt and subsoquently its clamp force. Once the clamp force is lost, or partially lost, the joint can move, leading frequently to the bol falling because itis sustaining a higher loading. veiw sur se fsnuend —eaysu Thread Stripping ‘When two threads are mated together and tightened, a shear stress acts across the thread section. Ifthe stress Is too high the section will shear, this type of failure is known as thread stripping. If the intemally threaded part strips, part of the internal thread ends up being embedded around the extemal thread. If an external thread strips, the tops of the thread are stripped off. The process is gradual in nature and can take a number of hours {or the stripping process to complete. Ifa bolt is over-tightened, tensile fracture occurs that is immediate and also readily apparent, Because thread stripping is gradual, if the force causing thread stripping is less than that ‘causing tensile fracture, then partially failed parts can enter service. Hence itis normal practice to ensure that the force that results in thread stripping Is greater than that to cause tensile fracture, Det asco me © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www. boliscience.com Page 9 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes The Basics of Bolt Loading Its not widely understood how a bolted joint carries a direct force applied to the joint. A fully tightoned bolt can survive in an application that an untightened, or loose bolt, would fail in matter of seconds, When a load is applied to a joint Cconteining a tightened bolt, it does nat sustain the full effect of the load but usually only a small part of it This seems, at first sight, to be somewhat contrary to ‘common sense. The diagram shows a bolt and nut securing a bracket to a support plate. With the nut loose on the bolt, if a weight of 1 unit fe added to the bracket, then the force in the bolt shank wil increase by 1 unit, However, if the nut is now tightened and the weight applied, the foree in the bolt shank will not increase by 1 unit but usually by only a small fraction of this amount. An Understanding as to why the bolt does not sustain the full effect of the applied load is fundamental to the subject. ‘A model can often be of help in understanding why the bolt does not sustain the (ull effect ‘of the applied load. The special fastenar shown here has a spring pushing up against the head of a bolt head. By pulling the threaded end of the bolt down, the spring is compressed. @ ‘The markings on the side of the fastener will indicate the force in the shank of the bolt. ‘Consider the special fastener passing through a support plate and secured to a bracket, The nut is tightened to compress the spring so a force of 2 units is present in the bolt shank. ‘Aweight of 1 unit is now placed on the bracket, The bolt does not move relative to the scale. Hence the force in the bolt shank remains at 2 unit. To help visualise why this is the case, consider whet would happen if the force in the bolt shank did increase. This would mean that the spring would compress ‘more and a gap would occur between the support plate and the bracket. If this ‘was to happen then a force imbalance would result. There would be two plus ‘units of force acting up as a result of the spring force and one unit of force acting ‘down due to the weight. The effect of applying the 1 unit of weight is not to increase the force in the bolt shank but to reduce the clamping force between the support plate and the bracket from 2 units to 1 unit. Ha weight greater than 2 units of force was. to be added to the bracket, for example 3 units, then @ gap between the support plate ‘and the bracket would occur. The force that was acting between the support plate and the bracket has now been completely removed. The e head of the bolt would move down to the 3 unit mark indicating that there ‘were 3 units of force in the bolt shank. In this example, the load in the bolt will not Increase until the external force applied exceeds the preload induced into the bolt Older design procedures proposed calculation methods based upon the idea that the bolt will not ‘feel’ any of the applied toad until it exceeds the polt's clamp force. That is, the bolt should be sized so that its clamp force is equal to the external load after a factor of safety has been included. In practical situations there will be a slight increase in the bolt tension as @ result of an applied force. This is because the joint will compress whan the bolt is tightened. As the applied force unloads the Joint, the plate and bracket thickness will expand and the bolt will stretch. This will add a small proportion of the applied force to the bolts preload. teslfe vee 3 Pein tao er eae satan! © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www.boltscience.com Page 10 of 40 eeeAnalysis) of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Simplified Design Formula for Bolt Sizing Introduction ‘The clamp force (or preload) provided by a bolt is crucial in ensuring that the joint can sustain the forces placed upon It. If there is insufficient preload then the joint itself can fail (as in the case of a gasket failure) or the bolt Itself can fail (by fatigue, direct overload or other mechanism). From a design perspective, when the boll fails to provide sufficient proload, it can be deemed to have falled. Hence to determine the size of bolt needed in a particular application it is necessary to establish how much preload is required, “The ultimate failure may be from fatigue (because the bolt is subsequently sustaining a large proportion of the alternating stress), fretling (because of joint movement) etc, The key requirement is that the clamp force provided by the bolt must be greater than the forces acting on it plus any force it is required to provide for function reasons, that is: ‘The clamp force provided by the bolt > Force directly acting on the bolt + Force needed to prevent movement from shear forces + Force lost as a result of embedding or gasket creep Derivation of a Design Formula In terms of a design formula this can be presented as: Frm = (Fa (1 =) + Fx + Fe) where Fumin = Minimum initial clamping force F, = Axial force acting along the bolt axis Load factor (the proportion of the applied force sustained by the bolt) Mt, F, = Clamp force required fram the bolt for functional reasons - such as gaskat sealing or preventing joint cay; ‘movement from shear forces. F, = Bolt preload loss as a resullt of embedding or gasket creep. ‘The term Fa(1 - ©) represents the amount of the applied force unloading the joint interface. A typical value for > 13 0.05 - the worst case is when @ = 0 which simplifies the equation to: Fain = (Fa + Fi Fe) Iffzis the amount of embadding then this can be related to the preload lost from embedding by the equation: F.=f,(AxE/L) where A is the bolt area, E is the modulus of elasticity and L is the clamp length. The clamp force generated by the bolt can be derived from Fuamin = Goa Ay! K ‘Where Ge2= Yield strength of the bolt ‘A, = Stress area of the bolt K= Factor to allow for the bolt not being torqued to yield. For typical thread coefficients of au ote friction 1 < 0.16, then assuming that the bolt is torqued up to 90% of yield allowing for torque and tension, a typical value of K = 1.5 © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www boltscience.com Page 11 of 40Analysis! of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Because of scatter in the preload as a result of dimensional variations of the fastener, frictional scatter and the ‘accuracy of the tightening method, then the minimum Initial clamping force can be linked to the maximum intiak clamping force by: Fumae= 4 Funin where cp is an empirically determined factor known as the tightening factor. Tightening Factor ‘A table of tightening factors is given below (from VDI 2230"), Tightening Tightening Details Factor, 4A ‘Angle of rotation controlled tightening 42 ‘Tightening by measurement of the elongation of a calibrated bolt 1.2 Hydraulic tightening with control by length measurement and/or pressure measurement. Long bolts. 14 Torque controlled tightening using dynamic torque measurement. Experimental torque value - small scatter, 16 Hydraulic tightening with control by ‘ength measurement and/or pressure measurement, Short bolts. 76 “Torque controled tightening using dynamic torque measurement, Exoerimental torque value. 16 Torque controlled tightening using dynamic torque Measurement and precision tools, Torque value theoretical, 17 Torque controlled tightening using a nutrunner. Torque determined theoretically. Tool calibration tested. 18 Torque controlled tightening using @ ‘signalling of automatic tripping torque ‘wrench, Torque value theoretical. 2.5 Torque controlied tightening using a nutrunner. Torque: determined theoreticall 25 ‘Momentum controlied tightening via an impact wrench calibrated to a torque value. Tool calibration tested. 40 Momentum controlled tightening via an impact wrench calibrated to a torque. value. ‘The design formula can now be represented as: Fumae = Oa (Fa + Fe + Fe) Substituting Fymax = Gaz X As! 1.5 and Fr = fe (Ax E/L) gives: Goa X As! 1.5 = as (Fa + Ft (AX ESL)) ‘Substituting into the above formula the boll area A by the stress area of the thread A, and f. = 0.008 as the ‘amount of embedding allows'a formula to be transposed that will allow a bolt size to be calculated when the other variables are known, (On solid joints, the amount of embedding f, is usually below 0.008 mm - from VDI 2230), So the final form of the equation is presented on the following page: 2 D1 2230 ‘Systematic Calculation of High Duty Bolted Joints’. © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www. bottscience.com Page 12 of 40 eeAnalysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Design Formula for Bolt Sizing Purposes censemanee ‘Stress area of the bolt thread. Axial force acting along the bolt axis (Fa + Fi) Clamp force required from the bolt for As = functional reasons - such as gasket sealing or Ov E preventing joint movement from shear forces. —— — 0,008— Yield strength of the bolt material. 15a L Tightening factor Modulus of elasticity for the bolt Clamp length of the joint. Important: The formula is an approximation and care and engineering judgement should be exercised in its use. If there is excessive embedding or a gasket present in the joint - the formula will underestimate the bolt size required. The basis of the formula is for solid joints subjected to direct axial loading or sheer loads. Example Calculation It is required fo determine the bolt size for the joint shown at the side, It is required to use bolts of property class 10.9 ie. cap = 940 Nim? and tightening wil be completed by a torque wrench (aa 1.6). pans Lg To prevent movement, the bolt must provide a clamp force oft | F, = 5000/0.2 = 25000 N In this example there is no direct force F, acting. Substituting values into the equation gives: (25000) A BT ag ZOROTT ~ 76,9 mm’ \sel.6 08 TS gti Pen eat ABbATie Mae 97 aheear Mn mine Bar AM12 bolt has 4 stress area of 84.3 mm? and so is an appropriate size for the application. Noa 7 oe, Ssgee time acca Consideration of Fatigue Failure Re pre eae {Fan alternating force is acting on the joint of that varies between Fana« and Fann then the alternating stress in the bolt is given by the equation: HF soo — Fs 24; Where Ga = Alternating stress in the bolt = Load ratio - the proportion of the applied force sustained by the bolt Famae= Maxitnum bolt force F rnin = Minimum bolt force ‘As= Root area of the thread ‘The rect area, rather than the stress area is used, since the fatigue crack normally starts in the root radius and propagates through the section and into the thread root opposite. © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www.boltscience.com Page 13 of 40 eeeAnalysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes e@ ‘The proportion of the applied force sustained by the bol! is typically less than 10%. For joints comprising ‘hin tubes. because of the low joint stifiness the bolt sustains significantly larger proportion of any applied force. For the majority of joints, the proportion of applied force will be less than 20% i.e. # = 0.2. For the bolt to survive indefinitely, the calculated alternating stress must be ower than the fetigue endurance fim for the thread. The vast mejorty of threads are rolled before heat treatment, VD! 2230 gives the endurance strength of such threads to Cenauraves 2 0.75 (180/d +52) where d is the thread diameter. For large values of the thread diameter, this equation tends towards a fatigue endurance limit of 38 Nimm’, hence if fatigue failure is not to occur then «, < 39 Nim? ‘Substituting the values of 6 = 0.2 and og = 39 N/mm? and re-arranging gives: Ag= 0.2 (Faman- Fanin)/ (2 x39), hence Bolt Sizing Formula based upon Fatigue Important: Like the preload formula this is an approximation ‘and care and engineering judgement should be exercised in its use. The formula makes the assumption that the joint surfaces are fiat and there is no angularity present. Secondly it assumes that no prying occurs. Prying forces would have the effect of inducing bending stresses into the thread and significantly reducing the fatigue life. e ‘As = 0.0026 (Fane Fann) Where ‘A= Root area of the thread Fawax® Maximum bolt force Fane = Minimum bolt force © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www. boltscience.com Page 14 of 40 neAnalysis of Bolted Joints ~ Training Course Notes Example in using the Fatigue Formula In the example shown, if the direct force varies between 0 and 20 kN what thread root area Is needed to prevent fatigue failure? Substituting values gives: A ‘As = 0.0026 (20000 - 0) = 52 mm? a 3 The M16 bolt determined has a thread root area of 144.1 mmfand hence will give a satisfactory fatigue performance. a Fatigue Failure of Threaded Fasteners Direct Fatigue is the commonest reason for bolls to fall in service. It is Force = 204M trolknown that a part subjected to a varying load wil fall at a significantly lower loading than ane that has been siatcally loaded. Fatigue is a progressive cracking of a part under the action of altemating forces. Fatigue fallure can take from thousands to milions of load cycles to occur, dependent upon the stress level in the part @ atigue sractures occur without appreciable. ductity. The falure surface usually has two zones. One zone is smooth (the fatigue zone) and the otner is frequently coarse and crystalline (the final fracture zone). The fatigue crack usualy Initiates in the root of the thread and propagates across the section. The thread root is a severe stress concentration and is normally the weakest part of the fastener. After many cycles of loading and crack growth, the remaining uncracked section can no longer sustain a single load application and so ruptures suddenly. It is well known that as the Prananity of Fetiare altemating stress increases, the number of cycles to failure, decreases, This is represented by an S/N diagram as shown here. The S stands for SIN Diagram tress and the N for the number of cycies. Most materials exhibit Cimjy a knee in the S/N diagram. Beyond this knee failure will not occur jurve) _| no matter how great the number of cycles. The strength oe 7] Mi Level, Alternating Str E ee corresponding to this point is known as the endurance limit. For a fatigue failure to occur the force acting on a bolt must vary ia iD such dynamic loading the applied force can vary ate © sorrcon ever and per ints SR OS The variation in toading does not introduce any compression into the bol. any epplied loading results in & fluctuating tension load inthe bolt. An intial tension load is created when the bolts tightenad, the load variation being due to forces applied to the joint. When a dynamic load acts upon @ bolted joint, the bolt usually only sustains a small proportion of the loading. it Is for this reason that bolts can sustain relatively high dynamic toads. There are two common ways of determining an appropriate endurance i Goodman Diagram limit for a bott 4, Using @ Goodman Diagram to establish the endurance limit by i allowing for the mean stress resulting from the preload. 2. Using a Haigh Diagram to experimentally plot the effect of mean stress on the endurance limit. aon S086 “The Goodman Diagram allows an ondurance strass at a zero mean stress to be converted to one adjusted for the effect of a mean strass such as that present in a bolt due to a preload. ‘© Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www. boltscience.com Page 15 of 40 (= = =oe teste ae, BY Us Is ye Me setae hE Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes 7 4 - fe Because there is an initial stress in the bolt asa result of it being tightened, the fatigue endurance limit is needed for this initial or mean Jw —ypenmerriwe stress. A'Haigh Diagram plots the effect that the mean stress has upon 4 the fatigue endurance limit for the fastener. le Tests have indicated, and practical # experience backs up, that any EE” angulary ofthe joint surface has a #2” significant effect on the endurance # ”| limit of a bolt, There is significant ae ese reduction in the bolts endurance Moen Sean Om, e \ strength when the angularity of the joint face is greater tha 2 degrse’. To’ ia ensure that a bolted joint experiences a long life, it is at ary rng angularity of the joint face is minimised so that it does not exceed being { ‘vad one degree out of square with the boit axis. as Anon Haigh Diagram weve DE" Shar ebnee? tie Most bol fatigue failures occu in the thread area close to the bearing surface of the nut. This is because there rsa are several adverse factors present in this area. ‘ena ‘Where the thread runs out into the bolt shank is an area of high stress concentration. Itis preferable to have at least two unused threads pass’info the bolt hole, rather than have the nut threaded completely on the bolt. It has been known for over a hundred years that the load Th distribution in the threads |s non-linear. The first few threads fae nearest the nut bearing surface take the majority of the loading. Because the rate of change of the load distribution and hence: ” stress concentration, is highest in the first few threads, it is in ar this region that the majority of fatigue failures occur, ee Fase Changes in the design of ‘the nut can improve the load Letts distribution in the threads and subsequently the fatigue life. ene Reducing the nut stiffness near the joint face by use of a groove ome results in a more uniform toad distribution in the threads. This is. law used successfully on large fasteners. Having a slight bevel on the nut face of about 2 degrees also improves the thread stress unengaged thresas| OF oes distribution. Research info nut design indicates that such neface. Orener ‘modifications can reduce the maximum stress in the threads by up to 74% by adopting changes to the nut destgn. ce the majority of fatigue failures occur In the thteaded section of @ fastener, improving the fatigue strength of the thread gives a direct improvement to the fastener fatigue strength. By rolling the thread after heat treatment, compressive residual stresses are present at the root of the thread that have a beneficial effect on fatigue life. Most threads are rolled (before heal treatment). This is beneficial in itself since it gives @ smooth surface when compared with thread cutting methods. Increasing the thread pitch of the nut slightly, in comparison to the bolt thread, has been shown to Improve the load distribution in the threads. Tapering the nut thread has also been shown to improve the load distribution. ‘One report states that a reduction of the maximum stress of 41% was achieved by this technique, | Asymmetric thread profiles such as the Spiralock profile is known to improve the load distribution. | ‘The Spirelock thread profile is applied to @ nut or other internal thread and has been shown to improve the load distribution as well as vibration, loosening resistance. Spiralock is a trademark of the Spiralock ~N Corporation, further details on this thread form are available from the company's web site at spiralock.com Sted « There Is a size effect with the fatigue endurance limit. The larger tt jolt diameter, the lower is the endurance tes strength Forder Weert "J “Cposs ye oam sa CR an © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www. boltscience.com Page 16 of 40@ [Additional Reading sims Nn Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes" “fom taveany l 0 een Ory The radius at the root of the thread has an important effect on the fatigue endurance limit of a thread. As the — OP presentation shows, the slight se in the curve when the radius to pitch ratio (the rfp ratio) Is greater than 0.21 eo due to the stress distribution for large values of the r/p ratio becoming less uniform due to the lower flexibility of the threads. A standard metric thread has a radius to pitch ratio of 0.125 minimum. ‘The location within the joint that the load can be considered to act upon can have a significant effect on the proportion of this load that the bolt sustains. Moving the load introduction to well within the joint reduces the amount of the loading that the bolt sustains, In the examples shown in the presentation, the bolt in design B will sustain less of the loading than design A and hence would give a better fatigue life. The reason for this is that any material between the load introduction point and the face of the nut or bolt is compressed by the application of the load, The nearer the application af the load is to the joint interface the larger is the amount of material that is compressed. The effect of this compression, in addition to that provided by the preload, is to reduce effectively the stiffness of the bolt and increase the stiffness of the joint. As a result the bolt will sustain less of the applied load and will subsequently experience a better fatigue fife. x Aches it ote Increasing the joint stifiness afd reducing the bolt stiffness, such as using a long bolt, reduces the amount of | any applied load that the bolt sustains and hence improves the fatigue performance of the joint. 7 (ditional Resources/References related to the fatigue of threaded fasteners 1, “Effect of Manufacturing Technology and Basic Thread Paramaters on the Strength of Threaded Connexions" by A Yakushev, published by Ths Macmillan Company, 1964 2. "The Effact of Nut Design on the Fatigue Life of internal Wrenching Bolts" by J Viglione, US Naval Air Engineering Center, 17 June 1964 3. VDI 2230 - Systematic Caloplation of High Duty Bolted Joints, . "Stress Analysis of Some Bbit- Nut Connections. with’ Modifications to the Extemal Shape of the Nut" by E ‘A Patterson and B Kenny, Journal of Strain Analysis Vol 22, No 4, 1987 ‘The Optimisation of the Design of Nuts with Partly Tapered Threads" by E A Patterson and B Kenny, Journal of Strain Analysis Vol 21, No 2, 1986 Test Standards DIN 969 Axial load fatigue testing of threaded fasteners © Bolt Sclence Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www.boltscience.com Page 17 of 40 ssAnalysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes M0 ene & SO VG Bearing Stress acting on the Joint yi... nti. aut OSES, Oe GGT Introduction and Background When a bolt and nut clamp a joint together, a bearing stress exists under the bolt head and nut face. The cause of the bearing stress is the clamp force provided by a tightened fastener. The magnitude of the stress is highest at the joint surface néarest the hole. The stress reduces as the distance from the hole Increases. The compressive stress within the joint under the bolt head and nut face forms a conical shaped region within the Joint, representing the section of the joint under stress and compression. Although it is known that the stress distribution is non-linear, it is the standard practice to determine the bearing stress based upon the clamp force divided by the bearing area. ifthe bearing stress is excessive, the joint material will plastically deform. This will result in the bolt losing preload and potentially failing. Normally the limiting stress is taken as the yield strength for the joint material. However because of work hardening - itis known that the bearing stress can exceed yield and still not result in plastic deformation. For example, it is known thet for aluminium, the bearing stress can be approximately 1.3 times the yield value before plastic deformation will occur. With a joint comprising different materials, itis possible that the critical bearing stress is within the joint rather than being at the joint surface. The. pressure on surfaces midway through the joint can be calculated based upon the area of t section at that surface. peer teen , ‘Another common problem Is that the use of elongated soles’ can algnificantiy reduce 2, the bearing area and increase the hearing stress. When using elongated holes itis at advisable to use either flanged bolts or standard bolts with hardened washers. The bearing stress can be reduced by the use of washers or by the use of flanged fasieners. Standard hexagon headed fasteners will result in the bearing stress being typically beyond the acceptable limits for mild steel and aluminium. To limit excessive embedding as a result of the fastener’s clamp force, it is necessary to keap the bearing stress below the maximum permissible for the clamped material. Normally this is taken to be the material's compressive yield strength, which, if ‘no other information is available, is taken as being equal fo the tensile yield strength. ‘The pressure on surfaces SY imigwny throsghthegoint YSN ‘can be calculated based WS Upon the aren ofthe pressure cona section at that surface, If the joint is made up of differing materials, it is possible that the bearing stress acting on the interfaces within the joint can exceed the material strength. To determine the bearing stresses Canjeat atfective clamped. region based! upon a 30 degree pressure cone. Bearing Stress within the Joint, a 30 degree cone ii it principle has been used to calculate within the Joint es the bearing areas. "onagetees "> elton emda Ont Yrae @ Goer dimtan Bearing Stress Calculations OCS oe soa. po For standard holes, the bearing area can be determined from the bearing diameter of the fastener and the clearance hole. The maximum clamp force oan be established from the product of the stress area for the fastener’s thread and the fasteners yield strength, © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘waww.boltscience.com Page 18 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes ‘When slotted holes are used, the calculation of the bearing area is not straight forward. The calculation depends upon how long the slot is relative to the bearing diameter of the fastener. Assuming that the bearing area will be ‘as shown in the diagram, then Bearing Area = dbearing?/4 x (@- sin @) Note: radians (and not degrees) must be used in this formuta, where @=2 arocos(dH / dbearing) dbearing = Bearing diameter of the bolt head/nut DH = Width of the slot. Example Bearing Stress Calculation 1 In the joint shown, a M12 bolt of property class 8.8 clamps two mild steel & plates together, The yield strength of the mild steel is 350 N/mm?, the bearing diameter of the bolt is 16.6 mm, a clearance hole of 13 mm is used. ‘What is the bearing stress? Is it acceptable? ‘The bearing area is: Area = 3.142/4 x (16.67-13%) = 83.7 mm? Bolt maximum. clamp force = Stress Area x Yield Strength = 84.3 x 640 = 53952 N ‘The bearing stress Is then: Bearing Stress = 63952 /83.7 = 644.6 Nimm? — fate SnBArH Bas werhirlag me tane | Nao Fran? "Sie, ‘The bearing stress is significantly higher than the yield strength of the clamped material, hence flanged fasteners or washers are needed to reduce the stress. Example Bearing Stress Calculation 2 J tenon You have an M10 screw and washer assembly i.e. a sems unit, with a washer assembly of 31 mm and slot width of 17 mm, the area needs to be determined. KGS ‘The screw is of property class 8.8 and the joint material is aluminium and has a — yield strength of 200 Nimm? - is the bearing stress acceptable? Aw Calculating the bearing area: =.Q(y> @ = 2 arceos(17/31) = 1.9807 radians o IN /4 =7 (23 Bearing Area = 31/4 x (1.0807 - sin 1.9807) = 255.52 mm? Ov @ a) = a. 2 Maximum clamp force = 58.0 x 640 = 37120 N 7 4g =f Bearing Stress = 37120 255.52 = 145 Nimm? - which is acceptable. = L 2) BA = (g-sm p)F 2 TK €L0nG HOLE : L 2 (¢-sngy 3 The formula shown is based upon the article “Fastener Area Against Clearance Slots for Bearing Surface Pressure Evaluation" in Fastener Technology International - June 2000 © Bolt Science Limited 2008 - All Rights Reserved www. boltscience.com Page 19 of 40: the EN Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes 6 SSE 9H Thread Stripping When an internal thread strips it generally fails along the cylindrical plane generated birth "cr damser fo otal DPDIY aoe ager anon mas ws ey WL te, Thread stripping is a failure mode that is best avoided since it may go unnoticed at the time of assembly. It starts at the first engaged thread, due to thread deformations causing it to carry the highest load and successively shears off subsequent threads. This may take several hours to complete and so may appear fine at the time of assembly. The risk is therefore present that a defective product may enter service. ‘Thread stripping strength depends upon the area of the thread being stripped and the shear strength of the thread material. The stripping strength of the external thread is in general different to the stripping strength of internal thread. The thread stripping strengths are: theere, O78 Stripping strength of the External Thread = ASs x UTS x Shear Ratio eFturs Seon. Dane ‘Stripping strength of the Internal Thread = ASn x UTS x Shear Ratio Where UTS = Tensile sirength of the thread Titec ASs = Shear area of the external thread sheer — bolgrus ASn = Shear area of the internal thread dee ‘Shear Ratio = Ratio of the shear to tensile strengths. Ditee ot arate ‘The shear areas can be calculated using the equations: ASS = 3.1418 / PX LE x Dinax (0.5 x P + 0.87735 X (Canin = Dins)) and ASn = 3.1416 / P x LE x dyin X (0.5 x P + 0.57735 X (nin = Damar)? Where: P thread Pitch mm, Le ingth of Thread Engagement mm Dimes = Maximum minor diameter of the internal thread mm deni inimur pitch diameter of the external thread mm nin inimum major diameter of the extemal thraad mm Dayar = Maximum pitch diameter of the internal thread mm In use, it is easy to mix up the various thread dimensions, tables of thread stripping areas can be more convenient and less prone to error - a table of thread strip areas Is given in Appendix 1 Shear Strength of Materials ‘The shear strength of materials is not normally specified in standards, the following table presents typicel values {or the ratio of the shear strerjgth to the tensile strength: Material ‘Shear Ratio, Steel 06 Vowmner OSS ‘Cast iron 1.0 ‘Spheroidal Graphite Cast iron 0.9. ‘Aluminium, 06 © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www.boltscience.com Page 20 of 40 eeeAnalysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes e The Maximum Tensile Strength of the Bolt Bolt material standards, such as the ISO 898 standard (‘Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and alloy steel’) specify minimum tensile strength values. The upper strength limit for a fastener of a particular property class is specified indirectly by the standard specifying a maximum hardness value. For steol, a hardness value can be converted to a tensile strength value. The maximum tensile strength can be significantly above the minimum specified strength value. For example for a property class 8.8 fastener the maximum strength can be 1.28 times greater than the minimum. Hence if the tule that the bolt should always break before the thread strips, the upper tensile strength should be used to caloulate the force fo cause tensile fracture of the bolt. The table in Appendix 2 gives values for the maximum tensile strength based upon the maximum hardness specified in the ISO 898-1 standard. Example Thread Stripping Calculation In this example an M12 bolt (property class 10.9) is used to secure a bracket to a casting that is made from spheroidal graphite cast iran of tensile strength 500 Nimm’. The tolerance class of the boit thread is 6g and that of the internal thread is 6H. A tapping drill of 10.2 mm diameter was used to form the internal thread. The nominal length of thread engagement is 15 mm. Because of a chamfer at the end of the thread (taken as e 2mm) the actual thread engagement length will be taken as: Engagement Length = 15-2 = 13mm. Taking values from Appendix 1 of 19 mm per mm for the external thread and 26.1 mm? per mm for the internat thread, then: ‘Shear Area of external thread = 13 x 19 = 247 mm? Shear area of internal thread = 13 x 26.1 = 339.3 mm” ‘Taking the ratio of shear to tensile strength for the extemal thread to be 0.6 and with a minimum tensile strength of 1040 Nimm*, then the Bolt Thread Shear Strength = 0.6 x 1040 = 624 Nimm* For the internal thread, taking the ratio of tensile to shear strength as 0.9, then the Internal Thread Shear Strength = 0.9 x 500 = 450 Nim? Hence the force needed to strip the threads is @ seme Tied supp Fore = 247 x 924 = 154128 N Internal Thread Stripping Force = 339.3 x 450 = 152685 N From appendix 2, the maximum tensile strength of the bolt is 1230 Nimm*, $0: Force needed to break the bolt = 1230 x 84.3 = 103889 N The critical length of thread engagement = 13 x 103689 / 152685 = 8.8 mm, hence an overall thread engagement length of 8,8 + 2 (for the bolt thread chamfer) = 10.8 mm would be satisfactory. Because the tapping drill diameter that is used Is below the maximum minor diamster of the intemal thread, the actual stripping strength of the bolt thread will be slightly greater than the figure calculated above. The Strength of Worn Fasteners When threads are tightened, high loads and subsequently high contact pressures are generated on the thread flanks. Repeated lightening and e loosening will lead to thread wear. The tensile fracture strength of the bolt is usually litle affected by wear since the core diameter of the batt is not worn, © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www. boltscience.com Page 21 of 40hwo, Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes jess longs Ie seve ( h, 1 Sibel dg ON CAE ‘treads are toleranced s0 that there Is clearance betbecn the internal and exipal threads Make hed, 4 ag “a easy {0 assemble, Besides causing a strength reduction, thread wear also increases the clearances, an subsequent backlash in the threads. ‘Thread wear is dependent upon several factors, however in general terms, the harder the thread material, th” cle Jess wear it will sustain in a given set of circumstances. If the intemal thread is harder than the external thread, | then the most significant wear will occur on the external thread, ' ‘A more common situation is when the internal thread is softer than the extemal thread, This results in the majority of the wear ‘occurring on the internal thread. Standard bolts mated with matching standard nuts (such as @ property class 8.8 bolt with a class 8 nut) have a similar hardness. Hence wear will occur on both the threads. When an intemal thread strips it generally fails along the cylindrical plane generated by the major diameter of the external thread - line A. When an external thread strips it usually fails at @ the cylindrical plane generated by the minor diameter of the ternal thread - tine B. Initially, wear will occur on the thread flanks with the major diameter of the external thread and the minor diameter of the internal thread not being significantly affected. When wear occurs on the flanks of the external thread, the shear area of the threads will be reduced. If the amount of wear is t on each thread then’ piercing 1s, rrensiains, oi ow me tontie ao Ne tas ten ASsw = ASS -Dimax x 3.1416 xtx LE/P. crm Where Saket Famous shear Area of Worn External Thread 9 py ASs = Shear area of the extemal thread = un Dimax = Maximum minor diameter of the intemal Hurceapen Ohh thread Aan feta {t= The amount of thread wear, wea ie Cte, LE = Length of thread engagement A rine — Seece P = Thread Pitch Danan Mint Orrete omer wie Bhenetns @ core: this equation appies unt the amount of wear Is such thet the diameter ofthe minor diameter the area internal thread is increased. This occurs approximately when t> P/ 8 “ Teens Ina similar manner, if thread wear occurs on the internal thread, if the amount of wear is ton each thread then: sway, ASnw = ASn - dmin x 3.1416 xt x LE/ P Where ASnw = Shear Area of Worn Internal Thread ASn = Shear area of the Internal Thread Wear t. min = Minimum major diameter of the extemal thread The amount of thread wear, LE = Length of thread engagement P= Thread Pitch Ifa lerge amount of wear occurs (approximately greater than t> P 18), then a decrease of the major diameter of the external thread and an increase in the minor diameter of the intemal thread will e ‘occur. This will dramatically affect the shear strength since there willbe a change in location of the shear planes. — otlomes Gu shear altro he uh cat Chad, hei © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved — (oyyya,-e¥ww-boliscience.com Page 22.0f40 teAnalysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Example Calculation on Worn Threads In this example an M12 bolt (property class 10.9) is used to secure a bracket toa casting that is made from spheroidal graphite cast iron of tensile strength 500 Némm*. The tolerance class of the bolt thread is 6g and that of the internal thread |s 6H. The part secured has to be removed and reattached several times and it is noted that thread wear has occurred in the cast Iron of 150 microns (0.15 mm). ‘What effect will this have on the strength of the connection? Taking the ratio of shear to tensile strength for the external thread to be 0.6 and with 2 minimum tensile strength of 1040 Nimm’ . then the Bolt Thread ‘Shear Strength = 0.6 x 1040 = 624 Nimm*. For the internal thread, taking the ratio of tensile to shear strength as 0.9, then the Internal Thread Shear Strength = 0.9 x 500 = 450 Nimm? Hence the force needed to strip the threads is: External Thread Stripping Force = 247 x 624 = 154128 N Internal Thread Stripping Force = 339.3 x 450 = 152685 N The maximum tansile strength of a 10.9 bolt is 1230 Nimm? Force needed to break the boit'= 1230 x B4.3 = 103689 N ‘The nominal length of thread engagement is 15 mm. Because of a chamfer at the end of the thread (taken as 2mm) the actual thread engagement length will be taken as: Engagement Length = 15 - 2 = 13mm “Taking values for the thread shear area from tables for an M12 thread of 19 mm? per mm for the external thread and 26.1 mm* per mm for the internal thread, then: Shear Area of external thread = 13 x 19 = 247 mm? ‘Shear area of internal thread = 13 x 26.1 = 338.3 mm? Determining the effect of 150 micron of wear on the thread stripping strength: ‘Shear Area of Wom Internal Thread = ASnw = ASn - dmin x 3.1416 xtx LE /P ‘Where: ASn = 339.3 mm* dmin = 11.701 mm 015mm LES 13mm P=1.75mm Hence: ASnw = 339.3 = 11.701 x 3.1416 x 0.15 x 13 / 1.75 = 298.4 mm? Internal Thread Stripping Force = 298.4 x 450 = 134280 N Note that this is still greater than the force needed to break the bolt of 103689 N, hence the net strength of the connection will not be affected by this amount of wear. in Summary 1 Wear on the thread flanks will affect the shear strength of the threads. a The tensile fracture strength of the bolt is usually lttie affected by wear since the core diameter of the bolt is not worn. © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www. boltscience.com Page 23 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes 2 A dramatic reduction in the shear strength of the threads will occur once the outer diameters of the threads ‘start to be reduced (in the case of the external thread) or increased (in the case of the internal thread). This is because the location of the shear planes will change. a The amount of wear sustained is known to be related to the friction present. Hence, the higher the friction, the higher will be the wear rate. ‘One way to reduce thread wear is to reduce the friction coefficient by the use of @ specialist thread lubricant such as Copasiip or Molyslip. Using standard machine oil on threads as been shown not to significantly affect the friction coefficient since the oil is displaced by the high prassures in the thread contact regions. Sgr Proms Patan? oe tum fo oFfUT Teeth —srimiiny BE Fe eas Fete Ti Ferecree Jn Seay Thee 70 TES Fe oe Veteone’ Sat Cite © Bolt Sclence Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www-boltscience.com Page 24 of 40 eeAnalysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes e Eccentric Shear Loading Assim sett ‘Cadence When a shear force is applied to a bolt group and It passes dlracly through the centroid ofthe group, then the” force acting on each bolt can be found by dividing the total force by the number of balts (assuming that they are all of the same size). When the force is applied to the bolt group does not pass through the centroid then the: loading is said fo be eccentric. The loading will not be evenly divided between al the bolts but will depend upon the location of the individual bot relative fo the applied loading The eccentric loading will cause a translation of the joint in the direction of the applied load and a rotation about the centroid of the bolt group. The combined effect of these two movements is equivalent to a rotation about a point. This point is known as the instantaneous centre (marked IC in the diagram). The deformation sustained IC by a bolt is dependent upon the distance of the bolt from the instantaneous centre and the load deformation relationship of the individual bot. For bolts in direct bearing, research’ that forms the e basis of most structural engineering codes has shown that the load deformation relationship of an individual bolt is nonlinear. Determination of the instantaneous centre, and subsequently the bolt loading, in such cases requires an iteration approach or looking up the loading from pre-calculated tables. With friction grip bolting (the bolt's clamp force generating the friction grip to prevent joint movernent), it is usually assumed and has been verified by tests’, that the load deformation relationship is linear prior to stip of the highest loaded bolt occurring. In the case of friction grip bolting, the shear loading is not carried directly by the bolts themselves but by joint material surrounding the individual bolt. Research” has shown that there is en annulus of material ‘surrounding each bolt that is clamped by the bolt’s preload. For bolts of the same size that are tightened identically, clamping plates of the same thickness, the diameter of the clamped area at the joint interface surrounding each bolt will be identical. Using these principles It is possible to simpiify the calculation of friction grip connections so that an iterative approach is not @ needed if the applied loading is to be kept below the slip load of the highest loaded Individual bolt. ‘The approach used is a vector analysis method known as the elastic procedure, This involves determining the effect of the applied toad by considering the direct loading on individual bolts and then vectorially adding the effect of the moment loading. +S, F, Crawford and G. L. Kulak, ‘Eccentrically Loaded Bolted Connections’, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 97, ST3, March 1971. ©. G. Gurtuna and F. M. Burdekin, ‘Bolted Joints in Structural Stoelwork: Combined in-plane Shear and Moment for HSFG Bolts’. Metal Construction, March 1988, @ ®M. 8. G, Cullimore and J. B. Eckhart, ‘The distribution of the clamping pressure in friction grip bolted joints” The Structural Engineer, April 1974 No. 4, Volume 62 © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www. boltscience.com Page 25 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Moment Arm L t * f Effect of the Effect of the Applied Moment Direct Force Component y Component Combined Effects Ys 14 of the Moment and| Mite Direct Force were Components In the above diagrams the forces shown are the reactions of the bolts to the applied force. In practice, this method involves: 1. Determining the centroid location for the bolt group. For symmetrical bolt pattems the centroid can be established from inspection, For non-symmetric bolt patterns, if all bolts are the same size then the location of the centroid can be established using: XE t xt xp and Y= (yy tye tn + Ye) IN ‘Where X and Y is the centroid location, the dimensions x , yx etc. are the x and y distances of each bolt from. the datum, {f bolts are of different diameter then the centroid location can be determined from: X= (Arn + Apte +. AG) IEA and Y= (Aiys + Aaya +... + Ayn) PEA ‘Where A, Ay etc, is the cross sectional area of each bolt and ZA is the sum of the bolt areas. 2. Determination of the loads acting on individual bots. |tis numerically easier to consider the load acting on each bolt to comprise three parts. 1. The proportion of the direct force sustained by each bolt, 2, The force acting in the x direction as a result of the applied moment. 3, The force acting in the y direction as a result of the appiiad moment. ‘The three forces can then be added vectorially to determine the resultant force, © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www. boltscience.com Page 26 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes | ‘This approach is presented below: Fiy= Fux ne Where Mis the momant acting on the belt groups centroid (positive being clockwise) F, the force in the x direction acting on bolt n. Fy= The force in the y direction acting on bolt n. 2x = Sum of the square ofthe distances of each bol from the x axis, ‘Sum of the square of the distances of each bolt from the y axis. e Fax = The forge in the x direction as a result of the applied force. F ,4y = The forge in the y direction as a result of the applied force. R= The applied force acting in the x direction. R= The applied force acling in the y direction. ‘The resulting force F, on each'bolt can be determined using the formule: | F, a = (Fort Frac) + Bry + Fray) Example Galcutation In this example a direct force of 43.4 kN is applied to a group of six bolts as shown in the diagram. The task is to determine the load acting on each e individual bolt, Each bott is nlimbered to clarify the calculations. Because of symmetry of the bolt group, there is no need to determine the centroid of the bolt group. + 0 Determining the term (2x? + Ey") ney EX + Ey) = 91900 mmr The applied moment is 850 x/43400 = 23870000 Nmm ‘The foroes acting on bolt 1 are: Fy, = 23870000 x -125 / 91900 = -32467 N e Fry = -23870000 x -70 91900 = 18182 N | {© Bolt Scionce Limited 2003 Al Rights Reserved www. boltscience.com Page 27 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes @ Fu-0 Fray = 43400 / 6 =-7233 N ve. ‘The resultant force on the bolt is Fy = -J {(-32467 + 0)' + (18182 + (-7233)}*} = 34263 N Similarly the forces acting on bolt 2 are: Fax Fay = -23870000 x 70 / 91900 = -18182 N 3870000 x -125 / 91900 = -32487 N ie Fane = 0 Fagy = 43400 16 = 238 N ‘The resultant force on the boit is Fz = +f {(-32467 + 0)’ + ((-18182) + (-7233))*} = 41231 N ‘The forces acting on bolt 3 are: Fax ‘3870000 x0/ 81900 = 0 N Fy = -23870000 x -70 / 91900 = 18182 N Frog = 0 Faxy = 43400 /6 = -7233 N ‘The resultant force on the bolt is Fs = J {0 + Of + (18182) + (-7233)7} The forces acting on bolt 4 are: F,, = 23870000 x 091800 = ON Fay = -23870000 x 70 / 91900 = -18182 N Fase = 0 F ugy = -43400 /6 = -7233 N The resultant force on the boltis Fa = -¥ (0+ 0)? + {-18182) + (-7233))"} = 25415 N Because of symmetty, the forbes acting on bolts 5 and 6 will be as thase acting on bolts 1 and 2. In summary the bolt forces are: en, Denar ov — Sevamey IC Run Witter Pes Tite WAeHbD berg Bolt 34263 N weir Rh fours 126 BoD 41231 N Bolt 10949N -6@* Bolts 25415N > ee™ Bott, sone Ko 0 Bolf_A1231 N . oe ‘© Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www. boltscience.com Page 28 of 40@ cramie2 Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes The part shown at the side sepresents a support bracket for a suspension member. The bracket has clearance holes and the forces are dynamic, The design is based upon friction grip and it's necessary to establish what size of bolts are required. The coefficient of friction between the bracket and the support member itis mounted on is 0.2 5 Answer 125 The centroid location will be it group. the middle of the bolt Calculating the terms Ex? and By? 3x? = 4 x 80? = 10000 mm? and zy = 4 x 62.57 = 15625 mm? Henoe (2x? + 3y4) = 10000 + 18625 = 25625 mm? The moment M acting on the centroid is: M = 10000 x (250 + 50) + 25000 x (75 + 62,5) = 6437500 Nm Calculating the force acting on the bolts as a result of the moment: The force in the x direction is: Fax =M yo (Bx? + Ey) Fig = Fox= M yy / (2x? + Sy?) = 6437500 x -62.5 / 25625 = -15701.22 N Fax Fag M ys / (2x? + Dy4) = 6437600 x 62.5 / 25625 = 15701.22N The force in the y direction is: Fy = -M x,/ (Ex? + By") Fay = Fay® -M Xp / (2x2 + Sy’) = -6437500 x -50 / 25625 = 12560.98 N Fay = Fay® -M Xe f (Ex? + By") = -6437500 x 60 / 25625 = -12560.98 N The direct forces acting on the bolts are: Fair # Ry/n = 25000 / 4 = 6250 N and Fray = Ry /n = -10000/ 4 = -2500 N ‘The table below presents the loading on each bolt and the calculated resultant. The resultant fore was calculated using Fa = xf {(Fact Fras) + (Fry Fron)” } Bolt Forces from the Moment Bolt Foress from the Direct Fores Resultant Fx. Fy. Fx Fy F Boit 7 715701 22N 712560.96 N S250.N 2500 N 13803.94 N Bolt2__| _-16701.22N ~12560.98 N 6250.N -2500 N 1780.85 N Bolt 3 75701.22 N 12560.98 N 6260N =2500 N 2414704 N Bolt 4 5701.22 N 712560.98 N ‘6250 N -2500 N. 2662122 N ited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www.boltscience.com Page 20 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Analysis of Combined Tension and Shear Joints ‘The joint shown is loaded by an eccentric load. This load will produce a moment normal to the plane of the balt ( | group. In this type of joint there is both shear and tension forces acting on the bolts. ‘One of the assumptions made in this type of analysis that the joint is rigid and any deflections caused by the loading are small. Prying is when the bolt head is subjected to a moment because of the bracket or joint deflecting. Prying action is. to be avoided since it significantly reduces the boll's strength, especially its faligue life. The basis of the calculations presented on the La» following pages assume that the dasign of the joints are such that prying e action is minimal. ‘When the joint is toaded, a neutral axis for the small bending deformations will be formad. Below this axis the joint will be in compression. Bolts above the neutral ww axis will be subjected fo a [ tensile load. The ‘compression forces acting on the section below the neutral axis (shown shaded in the diagram) will balance the tensile forces in the bolts. The location of the neutral axis (marked by section XX in ‘the diagram) will be derived by an iterative approach that balances the bolt forces by the compression in the | section. a To locate the neutral axis by the iterative approach can be a time consuming and difficult process for complex @ shaped sections. ‘A simpler approach that produces conservative results is ep to assume that the neutral axis is located at the bolt group's centroid. Bolts above the centroid location will be subjected to tension, those below to compression. ‘The direct shear loading is shared equally by the bolts in the group. In the following analysis it is assumed that the bolt clamp length, diameter and material is the same for all the bolts. The neutral axis is at the bolt group's centroid, bolts above the axis are loaded in tension and those betow in compression, It is also assumed that all the bolts contribute to the bending resistance of the joint. It has been found that these assumptions lead to upper bound bolt load values. © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www. boltscience.com Page 30 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes @ cocation of the neutral axis of the bolt group Based on the diagram shown at the right, the centroid of the bolt group can be determined. Taking moments about the bottom bolt: Ye = 2(y1 + ye yayin Where Y.= Centroid Location — LY Y=" e Bolt Loading ‘The load on an individual bolt wil increase in @ linear manner the further the bolt is away from the neutral axis. Based upon this: Let 2. = l(¥o - Yel Le. the distance of the bolt from the centroid location. Based upon this, Folzo =Fil2y Fal Za Equation 1 Where F, = The force acting on bolt n Taking moments about the centroid of the section: FoZo + F124 ti. + P&Z =PL Equation 2 Where P = @ L From equation 1 F,=Foz:/20 substituting vate of Fy etc. into equation 2. ‘The force acting on the joint ‘The distance of the applied force P from the joint face FyZp + Fo22/2o +... + Foztlzo = PL From this Fo (2.7 + 217 +... +2, 2p = PL Hence Fo =P.L.zozy? + 27 +... +25") In general Where Fy = The direct force acting on bolt n @ M= Moment acting 2, = The distance of the bolt from the centroid © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved www boltscience.com Page 31 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Example Joint In the diagram shown, a bracket supports a load of 100 KV using 8 bolts. What are the loads acting on the bolts and what would be an appropriate bolt size assuming that the friction between the joint faces is 0.2, the joint thickness is 30 mm? ‘The neutral axis will be 150 mm above the bottom bolt and so: ‘Sum of z? = 4 x 60" + 4 x 160? = 100000 mm? The highest loads will be sustained by the top bolls. So: F,, = 250 x 100000 x 160 / 100900 = 37500 N ‘The direct shear force acting per bolt is: F, = 100000/8 = 12500 N If the coefficient of friction between the Joint surfaces then the clamp force required is: Fe = 12600 / 0.2 = 62500 N Substituting the values into. the bolt sizing equation assuming that 10.9 bolts aré to be used and torque tightening is applied: (37500+ 62500) A 40 268000 297.4mm’ 940 ~0.0082 18000 1,5x1.6 30 A bolt of M22 has a stress area of 303 mm” and so is suitable for this application, 250 . © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www. boltscience.com Page 32 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Appendix 1 - Thread Shear and Stripping Areas Thread Diameter | Tensile | Root | Thread Shear Area, _] Internal Thread Minor | Tap Drill and Pitch | Stress | Area mm? pedlmm of Diameter Dia. ‘Area | mmé engaged threads mm. mm mm? | As [extemal] _ Internal Wax. Mir As Thread | Thread ASS ASN ML6 x.0.35 41.27 1.08 1.87 2.65 41.321 1,221 1.26 M2 x 0.4 2.07 4.79 2.48 3.44 1.679 1,567 16 M2.5 x 0.45 3.39 | 2.98 | 3.18 4.54 2.138 2.013 | 2.05 M3 x 0.5 5.03 | 4.47 3.91 5.54 2,599 2.459 25 M3.5 x 0.6 6.78 | 6.00 4.67 6.60 3.010 2.850 29 M4 x0.7 8.78 | 7.75 5.47 7.77 3.422 3.242 3.3 M5 x 0.8 14.2 | 12.7 7.08 9.99 4.334 4.134 42 M6 x1 20.1 17.9 8.65 12.2 5.153 4.917 5.0 MB x 1.25 36.6 | 32.8 12.2 16.8 6.912 6.647, 6.8. M10x1.5 58.0 | 52.3 15.6 216 8.676 8.376 8.5, M12 x 1.75 84.3 | 76.2 19.0 26.1 10.441 10.106 10.2 M14x2 415 104 22.4 31.0 12.210 11.836, 12.0 M16x2 157 144 26.1 35.6 14.210 13.835, 14.0 M20 x 2.5 245 225 33.3 45.4 17.744 17.294 17.6 M22 x2.5 303 281 37.0 50.0 19.744 19.294 19.5 M24x3 353 324 40.5 55.0 21.252 20.752 21.0 M27 x3 459 427 46.2 62.0 24.252 23.752 24.0 M30 x 3.5 561 519 51.6 69.6 26.771 26.211 26.5 M36 x 4 817 759 63.1 84.1 32.270 31.670 32.0 M42 x45 4421 | 1045 74.3 99.2 37.799 37.129 37.5 M48 x5 1473 | 1376 | 85.8 114 43.297 {42,587 | 43.0 M56 x 5.5 2030 | 1905 101 134 50.796 50.046 50.5 M64 x6 2676 | 2519 | 117 154 58.305 | 57.505 | 8.0 M72 x6 3460 | 3281 133 173 66.305 65.505 66.0 M80 x 6 4344 | 4144 149, 193 74.305 73.505 74.0 M90 x6 $591 | 5363 169 217 84.305, 83.505 84.0 M100 x 6 6995 | 6740 189 241 94.305 93.505 94.0 Notes 4. The tensile stress area in the table was computed using the formula: ‘As = 3.14159 /4 x (D - 0.9382 xP? the table.) 2. The tap ail sizes are based upon ISO 2306 ‘Drills for Use Prior to Tapping Screw Threads’. The diameters are within the 6H tolerance class for the internal thread, if a tapping drill diameter is larger than the ‘maximum quoted internal thread diameter then the external thread stripping area will be reduced and the full ‘Where D = Nominal major diameter of the thread. formula must be used to establish the thread shear area. P= Thread Pitch The thread shear areas have been calculated on the basis of a 6g external thread tolerance class and a 6H internal thread tolerance class on the worst case condition, If the threads are made to any different tolerance class, the areas must be calculated using the full formula, (For small diameter external threads a tolerance class of 4g6q is usually specified - the shear areas of the extemal threads will be slightly greater than those shown in. @ Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www boltscience.com Page 33 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes Appendix 2 - Key Mechanical Properties of Bolts and Fasteners Mechanical and Property Class Physical Property| 36] 46] 48] 56] 58] 68 é 98 | 109] 129 date | 16 Minimum Tensile | 330 | 400 | 420 | 500 | 520 | 600 | 800 | 830 | 900 | 1040| 1220 Strength i Minimum Yield | 190 | 240 | 240 | 300 | 420 [480 [~~ -[- 7 - Strength Stress at0.2% [-- | - | - | - | - | ~ | 640 | 680 | 720 | 240 | 1105 proportional limit Stress under proof | 160 | 225 | 310 | 280 | 380 | 440 | S80 | 600 @50 | 630 | 970 toad Percent Elongation | 25 | 22 | - | 20 | - = 2 [2 | 0) 9 e after Fracture Reduction area ~ = = = = ~ e2 | 52 | 48 | 48 [| 44 after Fracture Impact Strengih J [ a ae = 30 | 30 [25 [20 Tis Minimum Rockwell | 62 | 67 | 71 | 79 | 82 | 69 | 22 | 23 | 28 | 32 | 30 Hardness HRB | HRB | HRB | HRE | HRB | HRB | HRC | HRC | HRC_| HRC | HRC Maximum Rockwel| 98 | 95 ) 98 | 95 | 95 | 905 | 32 | 34 | 37 [ 30 | 44 Hardness. HRB | HRB | HRB | HRB | HRB | HRB | HRC | HRC | HRC | HRC | HRC Max. Tensiie | 705 | 705 | 705 | 705 | 705 | a00 | 1020 | 1080 | 1170] 1230 | 1400 ‘Strength based on Mex. hardness Notes 1. The information presented above has been extracted from ISO 898-1: 1999 ‘Mechanical properties of fasteners made of carbon steel and alloy stee! - Part 1:Bolls, screws and studs’. 2. Allstrength and stress values quoted are In Nimm? 3. The ISO 898 standard applies to bolts between M1.6 to M39, mada from carbon or alloy steel to be used within a temperature range of -50C to +300C (250C for 10.9). 4, The bolt head should be marked with the property class that the bolt is made to and a mark or symbol to represent the manufacturer. 5. The proof load can be determined by multiplying the stress under proof load in the above table by the stress area for the thread that is quoted in Appendix 1. DIN STAND SEED Esco. MAtorsn | vowin NaNRb srawnirn Appendix 3 - Key Mechanical Properties of Nuts PATE Hw To TS Nominal Thread Property Clase of Nut Diameter 4 5 6 & 9 40 12 Mating >M16 56,4.6,48 Bolt <=M16 3.6,4.6, 4.8 “<=M39_ i 5.6, 5.8 6.8 8.8 98 10.9 42.9 Proof To M4 520 800 | 800 | 900 1040 1150 Load Over M4 to M7 580 670 | 855 | 915 4040 4150 Stress Over M7 to M10 590, 680 | 870 | 940 | 1040 1160 Nim’ Qver M10 to M16 610 700 | 880 | 950 1050 1490 Over M16 to M39 510 630 720 | 920 | 920 | 1960 1200 Notes 1. The information presented in the table has been extracted from ISO 898-2 ‘Mechanical properties of fasteners Part 2: Specification for nuts with specified proof load values’. 2. The proof load can be determined by multiplying the proof load stress in the above table by the stress area for the thread that is quoted in Appendix 1. 3. The intention of the standard is to provide an assembly that is capable of being tightened to the bolt proof load without thread stripping occurring. © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Reserved ‘www. boltscienoe.com Page 34 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes e Appendix 4 — Glossary of Terms ACORN NUT ‘A-not(s0-alled besause ofits haps) that basa dowed tp that so it prevent eaataet with He exteral ea ANTI-FRICTION COATING [AB coming ave dry lbriants consisting of suspensions of sli lubslesns, such és graph, PTFE or malydbenum disulphide oF ‘all price sizo in a bnder. Such eoatings can be apie to fastener threads to eplace metallic coat ie cadmium snd offer mntenancs free peemenect ibricaton. By ‘careful soleston ofthe lubricans AP coatings canbe designed to ‘eet specific applications. The coatings are perranelly bored wake metlsurtce nd peovideaTebricting i preventing lees metal to metal contact ANTI-SEIZE COMPOUND ‘An anlisscize compound is used om the threads of fseners i some applications. The purpase of the compound depends upon ‘he application Ioan proven gallleg of rating sutaces such compounds are frequently used wit staniess sel festeners to [proven this eeet fom cseuring. 18 some applications itis used {o ingrove corosion resistance 1 allow the pats tbe subseauoty disassembled Thirdly, iteen provie a hare to ‘water penton since the treads are sealed by use ofthe compound ALLOWANCE ‘An intentional cleacance betwoon intra or extemal thre end tne dag fem of tho vad whan he tesa foes i 0 its ‘akimur neta condition, Not all lasses offi ave an allowance. Por meee threads the allowance scaled the fundamental deviation ANAEROBIC ADHESIVE ‘An adhesive that hardens nthe absence oF such adhesives re ‘often sodas head locking medium. ANGLE CONTROLLED TIGHTENING ‘A tightesing procedure in which fastener st ighanod by a pre-selected (rque felled tho snug Torque) so thst te clamped Surfaces ave plod togetter, and eas further tigntened by aiving tho nat an addonal measured rocton.Frequetty bos {ue tphsenedbeyord their yield pont by this method incre to ensue that pevise prenad is eeleved, Boks of stort eng can be clongated to macy kis melhod aso the bat materia est be solic diet cater [ar the plastic dofoation {nyoved, Because ofthe bolt boing ighaned Beyond ye, is e- ss iste. BASIC THREAD PROFILE “This isthe thooretical profile of eterna aed Inter threads with no manufacturing tolerance eppled. BEARING STRESS “The surfce pressure acing ona joint fase dieetly aba result ths free applied by a fisenes, BIHEXAGON HEAD ‘Abit rserew whase cross section ofits head nthe shape oF 12 poled ste BOLT ‘A bol the tr use for @ Urea fester designe tobe used in conjuetion wt a sere. BREAKAWAY TORQUE ‘Tne tree newesary fo pnt revere solution a bol that nas note tightened, BREAKLOOSE TORQUE ‘he tore ried to eft reverse roaion shen a presteesod threaded assembly is Toosene, CADMIUM ELECTROPLATING Coating of thveaded fasteners wit eadewiun can provide te pats ‘wih excelent corrosion resistence. The appearance of te cating fs bright sliver or yl ated with his coating areal om ‘chromate conversion coating is Fequanly applied to the suse {o improve corosioe rsitane>, Ces ist now frequent ‘uscd beens of he environmental and wore: healts problems assoelated with the coating process and sould nt he used in Aapolicstions above 250C oc when contet with food is possible, CLAMPING FORCE ‘The compressive free which Fastener exerts onthe join, CLASS OF FIT ‘The Class of Fits a measure ofthe depreeof fi between mating internal and external threads, Three mtn Classes oF Fit are defined for metric screw treads FINE:"This has a tolerance clas of SH fr internal teas and Tr exenal threads. [MEDIUM This has. a tolerance class of 6 or items heads and 6g for external threads. ‘COARSE: This has 8 tolerance class of 7H for inzenal threads snd 8 for oor dead. Foc ified treads siritar designation os for metric reas Is ‘ued, The head lass used arp TA, 2A and 3A for extemal ‘geads nnd TB, 28 and 38 for Ineral threads, COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION A cimonsionlss number representing he sate ofthe tion {oreo normal Sores. Typically fr threaded! connestions it is hout 0.16 bo: can vay significantly depending upon he ‘materials sed and whether lbriant hss bean Ved. COMMINGLING ‘A term used to describe the undesirable pratie of mixing, fasteners fom diffrent batches hat or the same sie and grade inthe same eontiner. CONE PROOF LOAD ‘This ian axial applod force applied 1o aru when is seated on ‘Leone shaped washer tet bas an included angle of 120 degrees. aire in this oats way de othe nu piling, The itention ofthe est so Freee a et dilation apcration that wil assess the potential dtimental offets of surface discontinuities, This {pe af est which is somednos applied to nuts which are Intended for high temperature sevice. DECOMPRESSION POINT ‘The point at whi ther is zero pressure at the Jon nrc 5 est of forces appliod to the job Ihe applied fore is ineressed neyond the dscomotesion point, a gap will ura athe interface, Aduytoali, a eter af jane hue Son aken a len be applied ore onthe jolt reaches the decompression © Bolt Science Limited 2003 - All Rights Resorved www boltscience.com Page 35 of 40Analysis of Bolted Joints - Training Course Notes oir. This is because Fotces ating op the bolts) oan ‘ramaccallynerese a hs point, Loading beyond this point can also esl a feng a the itera ha wil ead wo bal teason lose that wl subsequently ler the decompression point. Tis roeess can enone ttl bolt falar does occur. The fur can bby fatigue orather mechassm bu the uededying eauso was loading af the cit beyond the devempresson pont. tls fortis reason Ghat iis fequently taken as flute extra in aralysis work DACROMET ‘A tigh performance surttes costing that canbe applied fasteners. The cong conse passivated zine lakes hat is saved ont the meta suneee. The coating canbe coloured ans nats the risk of by eogen embitlement associated with lectoplated etl. DACROMET isa tegstered tema of ‘Maal Coatings Intemational, ne DESIGN FORM OF THREAD “The design form ofan interna rextem! tten isthe thread ‘orm nits maximum metal condones he same a the basic ttre profile excep! hat the teead roots are rounded If einer the ners or extern head form exceeds the design form of. the thea profile then a potential iterfeeree exists. DIRECT TENSION INDICATORS ines Tension caters (DIT) is ter soratimes used to provide this resistance. Alternatively, distorting the threads in the rut can provide the resistance. We The torque needed to run the nut down the thread before clamping occurs is know as the prevailing torque. It is typically between 5% and 25% of the overall tightening torque. To determine the required tightening torque when a prevalling torque fastener is used, it is normal practice to add the prevailing torque onto the tightening torque. So: NPER AE SN Sin on mawntien Total Torque = Tightening Torque + Prevailing Torque Example In the previous example (the M24 thread), it is decided to include a Nyloc nut which has a maximum prevailing torque of 80 Nm; what would now be the appropriate tightening torque? Solution Inthe previous exemple, the tightening torque was determined as 669 Nm so: © Bok Science Limited 2004 - All Rights Reserved. www boltscience. cam Page 3 of §Torque Tightening of Threaded Fasteners Total Torque = 669 + 90 = 759 Nm In terms of the fastener, the effect of the prevailing torque is to increase the torsional stress, present in the thread. Since fastener fallure is a result of a combination of tensile plus torsional stresses, a very high prevailing torque can lead to thread failure during tightening. Hence, if a prevailing torque fastener is to be used then limiting the tensile stress to 70% of the yield strength is recommended to avoid high combined stresses. 3. The Full Torque ~ Tension Relationship Dewte tesa Ga OE areti. ‘Tho full torque — tension retationship is shown below for ISO and unified thread forms (thread penne flank angle = 60 degrees): wt A wut ar P D, Decree ne roF Posy +n | wn irbetom se Where: T Total tightening torque »pracrow fase @ F Bolt preload 1k Caeficiont of fition forthe threads da ‘The basic pitch diameter of the thread (d - 0.6495 p where dis the nom. dia.) Pp Pitch of the thread Un Coefficient of friction for the nut face or bolt head Oo. ‘The effective bearing diameter of the nut or bolt head. The value of D, (according to DIN 948) is taken to bo: D, aid With d, being the outer bearing diameter and 4, being the inner bearing diameter. The bolt preload F is usually established by determining the force needed to result in the bolt yielding and then taking a percentage of this value. ‘There are various ways to da this, one way is to calculate the preload based on a percentage of tensile yield ie. “vets, Preload F = Bolt Yield Strength x Thread Stress Area x Percentage Factor Oe _ The key variables involved in determining the torque value are the values of the coefficient of e heat friclion under the bolt head and in the threads, Significant variation can occur in friction setybd_, between what would appear to be identical fasteners. Typical thread friction values are: 0 ea Black oxide bolt and nut 0.1 t0 0.16 Copasiip lubricant 0.07 to 0.12 Molydbenum Disulphide lubricant = 0.08 to 0.11 Electroplated zinc 0.10 to 0.29 Micro-encapsulated anaerobic adhesive 0.18 to 0.24 Typical values for the under head coafficient of friction is: Black oxide bolt onto aluminium 0.12 00.22 Black oxide bolt onto grey castiron 0.16 {0.0.21 Black oxide bot onto machined steel 0.12 to 0.18 Zinc plated bolt onto machined steel 0.10 10 0.18 1ce aver-tightening thal can lead to fastener failure is undesirable, the tightening torque should be based upon the winimum friction value, The coefficient of friction can also change on loosening and re-lightening the bok. This is particular true of zinc plated fasteners and © Bolt Science Limited 2004 - All Rights Reserved. veww.boliscionce.com Page 4 of 5Torque Tightening of Threaded Fasteners fasteners employing thread lacking adhesive. The debris from previous tightening can result in the friction coefficient increasing resulting in a lower clamp force for a given torque value. ‘AM12 x 1,75 property class 8.8 bolt and nut is lubricated with Copaslip (thread friction = 0.1 and head friction = 0.08) and tightened. If the bolt goes into a hole (diameter 12,7 mm) and the bolt head is 19 mm across fats, estimate the tightening torque required. AM12 bolt has a stress area of 84.3 mm2, utilising 75% of the minimum yield gives: F = 84.3 x 640 x 0.75 = 40464 N ‘The basic pitch diameter is d - 0.6495 P where dis the nominal dia. le. d2 = 12 - 0.6495 x 1.75 = 10,863 mm. ‘The effective head bearing diameter can be taken as (19+12,7V/2 = 15.85mm Ts 4046175 05770 863x0.1+0.09 15:85 dn 2 fe 1270 + 25363 + 28861 = 65494 Nmm = 65 Nm Torque dE ReCrT tms RENeU> Me F pote im BOT Pht tense UP 70 BOY, E> teat op raae wane 7 eR Ceemena fence Got Th “sreerat peut Sane — 2etGuE OST Arak op PaeT oF Totmus geret Ceri be peuED BY oe NEL TO oveturpl wah Aare Cerri Hee FaLcreGyt) Gee ot = Corasu? WE fo > eer Tepes a Peon rat, 10 Necou Te owecerne arta) Rewer NOTIN Mur pede Gece win J ee ee © Bolt Science Limited 2004 - All Rights Reserved. www .boltscience.com Page 6 of 5