117 Talbot Lab.

University of Illinois
Urbana, Illinois

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION

Circular Series No. 64

WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT DIAGONAL TENSION

AND WEB REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE?
A Historical Study

Eivind Hognestad

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN

 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
Circular Series No. 64

WHAT DO WE KNOW ABOUT DIAGONAL TENSION

AND WEB REINFORCEMENT IN CONCRETE?
A Historical Study

EIVIND HOGNESTAD

R esearch Assistant Professor of

Th eoretical and Aj1plied M ec hanics

Price: ll'i/111 aem.

Published by th e Uni versity of Illinois, Urbana
U N I V E R SIT Y 0 f I LLI N 0 I S BU L LET I N
Val- 41. 11~ SO; llarch. 1952.. Pubu.laed - timel moll ~ bF the Ulliftr-
• of lllfDa6e. - u ->nd...._ matter n-ber 11 1111, at the 11119& olllae _at
L~!. IlliDolll, UDller U. Aat of Aqufi M, 191J. 08lce of ~. 18 ~
........._,Urbana,lllinoia.
 CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION 5
1. Purpose of the Study 5
2. Acknowledgment 5
3. Notation 5
II. EARLY STUDIES OF RESISTANCE TO SHEAR 7
4. Horizontal Shear 8
5. Punching Shear 10
6. Diagonal Tension 11
III. DEVELOPMENT OF GERMAN SPECIFICATIONS AND DESIGN 17
IV. Tr-rn DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES 24
v. SOME BRITISH STUDIES 32
VI. SPECIAL PROBLEMS 34
7. Combined Shear, Bending and Axial Load 34
8. Punching of Slabs 34
9. Footings 35
10. Walls 35
11. Construction Joint;; 35
12. Theories of Failure 36
VII. CONCLUSION 37

VIII . BIBLIOGRAPHY 39

FIGURES
1. Free-Body Diagrams 13
2. German Specifications 18
3. American Specification s 25

3500-3-52-48362
J
I. INTRODUCTION
l . Purpose of th e Study
A study of present American specifications for reinforced concrete
may give the impression, through a number of detailed design stipu-
lations, that the behavior and strength of reinforced concrete subject
to shearing forces are known in detail. The present German specifica-
tions, even though considerab ly less detailed, give a similar impression.
However, these two specifications are different in some important re-
spects, a fact which contradicts the impression that detailed knowledge
is avai lable.
The problems related to the resistance to shearing stresses of concrete
and reinforced concrete members have received considerable attention
in the li terature. A large number of field and laboratory investigations
containing well over 1000 beam tests have been reported, on the basis
of which qualitative as well as quantitative knowledge has been gained.
It is the primary purpose of the present review to study the historical
development of the basic concepts involved in specifications pertaining
to reinforced concrete subject to shear , in this country and elsewhere.
Such basic concepts have generally been related to an idealized behavior
referred to as the "truss analogy,'' although so me attempts have been
made to explain the actual mechani sm of failure in reinforced concrete
subject to shear. Such basic studies of the behavior of reinforced con -
crete are believed to be important indeed in improving present specifica-
tions and broadening our knowledge of this construction material.
2. Acknowledgment
The historical study presented in this circular was made in connec-
tion with an experimental investigation pertaining to shear in reinforced
concrete beams carried out in the Engineering Experiment Station in
cooperation with the United States Bureau of Public Roads and in coop-
eration also with the Reinforced Concrete Research Council of the En -
gineering Foundation.
3 . Notation
While the letter symbols used in the li terature discussed herein vary
considerably, the following notation is used throughout this circular:

5
6 ILLI N OI S ENG INEERING EXPERIMEN T STATIO N

A, = area of tension reinforcement

rl ,. = a rea of web reinfo rceme nt
a = a ngle between web bars and axis of beam
b = width of beam
{3 = angle between opposite faces of a beam wi th variable depth II. EARLY STUDIES OF RESISTANCE TO SHEAR
C = in te rnal co mpress ive fo rce in concrete
d = di stance from centroid of tension reinforcement to compression Like ma ny other enginee ring st rnctures, reinforced co ncrete struc-
face of bea m tures were built in con:-iderable numb ers befo re rat ional design pro-
f' c = compressive streng th of 6- by 12-in. concrete cy lind ers cedu res were developed. Thi s ea rly use of reinforced concrete was
!'cu = compressiv e streng t h of concrete cubes characte rized by a la rge number of patented "systems," the design
f't = tensile strength of concrete methods of whi ch were ge nerall y not brought to publi c atten tion. It
f v = allowable tensil e stress in web reinforcement is reasonable to be li eve, h owever, that the co ncepts of dowel action
fuv = yield point stress of web reinforcement formed the basis for ea rl y designs of web rein forcement.
I = moment of inertia It may be noted in t he hi sto ry of conc rete a nd reinfo rced concrete
jd = internal moment a rm that basic concepts were at times und erstood co rrectly, even though
K = (sin a + cos a) sin a in completely, by ea rly pioneers. Such correct co ncepts were occasionally
L = spa n length not generally und erstood by other engin ee rs of th e t ime and hence not
!YI = bending mom ent accepted. Th e develop ment of thought a nd prac ti ce t herefo re followed
n = modular ratio oth er t rends for a numb er of years until a red iscove ry was made, t hus
o = perimeter of reinforcing bar returning attenti on to the ea rly findings.
P = load The design of cen t ri call y lo aded rei nforced co ncrete columns is an
p = ratio A./ bd exa mpl e of such a development. Th e design eq uat ions used a bou t 1900
Q = first moment abo ut neutral axis considered allowable column loads as t he sum of a ll owable st resses in
R = reaction at support of bea m concrete a nd steel multiplied by t he respective a reas . As t he "standard
r =ratio A ,,j(bs sin a) straight-line th eo ry" was introduced, howeve r, the "transfo rmed sec-
S = force in one stirrup t ion" was used for many years un t il most spec ifi catio ns ret urn ed to
s = spaci ng of web bars along axis of beam t h e original conce pt, t he addition Jaw, fo ll owin g t he ACI Column
T = force in longitudin al tension reinforcement Investigation in t he 1930's.
t = total depth of beam Th e development of design procedures for web reinforcement fol-
V = shearing force lowed the same peculiar t rend . Th e first published study of web rein-
V' = excess sh earing force over t h at assumed carried by t h e concrete forcement known to th e wri ter appeared in 1899 C2 l *. In this paper
v W . Ri tter presented the "truss analogy" in a basically so und manner.
v = nominal shearing stress in concrete, generally = bjd H e suggested t hat vertical stirru ps be designed by means of t he equation
Vmax = ceiling value of n omin al shearing stress in beams wi th web
V = Av f ,. jd (1)
reinforcement
vp = shearing strength of concrete in punching s
v, = sh earing stress
in which Vis the sh earing force, A v is the a rea of one stirrup, f " is allow-
v., = nominal shearing stress at ultimate load
able tensile stress in stirrups, jd is the internal moment a rm , and s is
V11 p = nominal shearing stress at yielding of web reinforcement
the sp acing of stirrups along t h e beam axi s.
*Parenthesized superscripts refer to correspondingly numbered entries in the Bibliography.

_-1
8 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EX PERIMENT STA TION Circ. 64. DI AGO N AL TENSION AND W EB REINFORCEMEN T 9

Ritter made it completely clear that in hi s oprn1on the stirrups
were stressed in tension, and f v above was presented as an allowable
ten;;;ile st ress.
The well-known engineers of that time, however, soo n formed a
different school of thought. At the turn of the century, schol a rs and
engineers were indeed familiar with the action of web-rivets in steel
girders and shear-keys in wood en beams. The shearing stresses in the
cases mentioned were computed by means of the well-known equation
for the shearing stress in a homogeneous beam:
VQ
(2)
v. = lb
This equation and the corresponding concept of horizon tal shear were ap-
plied to reinforced concrete beams. An authority of that day, P . Chris-
tophe <~>, computed the horizontal shear by means of Eq . 2 and recom-
mended: " Thi s stress (horizon ta! s hear) divided by the sectional area
of the metal (in stirrups) gives the unit resistance of the reinforcement
which mu st be below its limit of resistance to shearing." At this same
time the views appeared that the concrete alone can safely resist low
horizontal shea ring stresses a nd that concrete and steel act together
for high er shearing st resses.
The first laboratory tests specifically dealing with sh ear in concrete
beams were repor ted by E. ~forsc h in 1902W. Th ese tests, which were
made with pl a in concrete speci mens , appear to have been inspired by
the school of thought concerned with horizont a l shear. Only one year
lat e r, however, ~Ii:irsch reported tests of four reinforced beams designed
to st udy the ac tion of vertical a nd inclined stirrups as well as inclined
bent-up bars <10 >. Thi s paper indicated diagonal tension as the cause
of s hea r failures in reinforced concrete beams, and presented the trnss
analogy for the action of web reinforcement.
For nearly a decade horizontal s hear versus diagonal tension was
s ubject to considerable discussion. The literature indicates that the
spok es men for diagonal tension permitted the d efenders of horizontal
shear to change their opinions without directly admitting d efeat. About
1910 t he peculiar trend of development was complete: a return to
Professor Ritter's pioneering conceptions had been made, though hori-
zontal shear reappeared periodically in the literature.
4. Horizontal Shear
The sc hool of thought asserting that horizontal shear is the cause of
shearing failures in reinforced concrete beams appears to have been
founded and d eveloped in Europe. Its views seem n ever to have been
widely accepted in this country. Such outstanding early American in-
vestigators as A. N. Talbot and ~1. 0. Withey hardly even considered
horizontal shear in their test reports. A few Am erican authors, how-
6
ever, defended these European concepts. In 1903 E. Thacher <> claimed
that sti rrups and bent- up bars in reinforced concrete beams are "utterly
useless." C. F. Marsh , whose book (l 5 > largely is a translation of Chris-
top he(3), presented Christophe's recommendation s as quoted above.
In 1903, iVI. R. v. Thull ie <8l and L. A. Sanders <9> made theoretical
st udies of the distribution of horizontal shear in reinforced concrete
beams. These studies, which were a lgebraically rather involved, were
based on various flexural stress distribution s, and Sanders developed
the following formula for the maximum s hearing stress to be used for
design purposes
1.5 l1
v = ---- (3)
bt
in which tis the total depth of the beam. These authors also gave some
consideration to the resistance of stirrups and bent-up bars to hori-
zontal shear. Simi lar studies were made by P. \ ¥eiske< 12 >, who arrived
at the following equation:
1.5 l1
v = (4)
bd
The first official German s pecifications for reinforced concrete struc-
tures appeared in 1904 <13 l . These s pecifications adopted the "standard
straight-line" method of analysis. Nominal shearing st resses were com-
pu tee! as suggested by E. l\Ii:irsch <10 >, after the formula universally
used today
l1
(5)
v = bjd
These specifications avoided the question of horizontal shear versus
diagonal tension and stipulated a maximum v after Eq. 5 of 64 psi. If
web reinforcement was provided, this stress could be exceeded by 20
percent. H owever, no method for the design of such web reinforcement
was indicated.
S. Zipkes <18 > brought the studies of horizontal shear to a peak of
development. For beams and slabs without web reinforcement he recom-
mended Eq. 5. For beams with web reinforcement, however, he de-
veloped t h e following equation :
l1
v=------ (6)
1'd
bjd + n- - Av
s

____...__

10 ILLI N OIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
In this equation n is the ratio b e twee n the shear moduli , which Zipkes
assumed equal to 15.
Equation 6 seems to have appealed s trongly to designers who
blindly used tb c " tran sformed section ," and the equation was used in
many early German textbooks. Thi s erroneous concept of horizontal
shear appeared as lat e as 1908 <34 l_ Then it gradually di sappeared,
mainly because of the effo r ts of E. ~forsch.
Theo;e concepto; reappeared in the literature about 1920 in the form
of di sc ussions by E. Godfrey, who presented the opinion <57 • 61 · 67 • 73 , 75, 1031
that vertical Rtirrups arc useless as web reinforcement. As late as 1949.
in a Rt udy of " Plastic Th eo ri es in Reinforced Concrete Design " by
F. Gcba u e r<165 l, it was stated that "the purpose of st irrnps is simil ar
to th e purpose of sh ear-k eys in composite \\·ood en beams, to resist a
rec iprocal movement of the compression and t he tension zon e. Hen ce,
the st irrnps act in shear, a nd it is therefore nece,;sa ry to consid er the
shearing strength of s teel in sti rrnp design. "
5. Punching Shear
A number of tests of mortars and concretes s ubj ect to "pure" shear
we re made as part of the v e ry early foltuclies of these m a terial s. Since
concrete a ppears to be weak e r in tension than in shear, the res ult s of
such sh ear tests vari ed considerably according to the test method used ,
as it is difficult indeed to produc e pme punching sh ear without d e-
veloping critical tcn,;i If' stresses.
R. Feret's tests of 1897 0l were m ad e by o;h ea ring off a cantil evered
beam . High bearing press ures and so me tensile bending stresses 'yere
probably present. Nevertheless , shearing strengths from 46 to 97 per-
ce nt of th e compressive strength were found.
E. ~lorsch < rn and S. Zipke,; <18 l used unrestrained s impl e beam speci-
mens. Th e tensi le s tresses clue to bending were prob a bly considerable,
and r a ther low sh earing strengths we re found. The res ult s were in gen-
eral agree ment with a theory advanced by ~Iorsch to th e effec t that the
sh earing strength of concrete is the geometric m ean of its compressive
and tensile strength , Vv = Vf' cu f' i. This equation for the shearing
s trength was defended by ~forsc h as late as 1928 <99 >.
A ve ry comprehensive series of punching tests on plan e and recessed
plates as well as rest rained beams was reported by A. N. Talbot in
1906<2 1l. Reinforced recessed plates were found to be th e mos t sati s-
factory s pecimens for punching tests. With such specimens a shearing
strength from 67 to 90 percent of the cube s trength was found , while
the res trained beams gave 44 to 59 percent. Punching tests on re-
11
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TENSION AND WEB REINFORCEMENT
strained 5-in. cylind e rs at the ~Iassachusctts In stitute of Technology < l
25
gave r-; hearing st rengt hs from 63 to 88 perce nt of the cube strength.
Another series of punching tests on unres train ed beams was reported
by ~f. Huclcloff a nd ~!. Gary in 1912<m . Shearing strengths from 16 to
68 percent of t h e cub e s trength we re found.
The writer b eli ev es that the most reliable valu es of the resistance
to punching sh ea r a rc indicated by the American tests on restrained
specimc ni-;. Hence it may be concluded that the s hearing strength of
concrete subj ect to punching :;;hear is abo ut two-thirds of the com-
pressive st rength.
ll sho uld be noted , however, that th e s trength of unrestrained
;. pecimcns m ay be as low as 15 percent of ih c compressive strength,
99 121 26
depending on the amount of bending involved in the (ests < • m, • 1 • 121 i.
6. Diagonal Tension
The li tcrat m e gives no clear indication of the origin of diagonal
tcn:<ion as a criterion of s hear failur es in reinforced concret e members .
This is reaso na ble since th e early designe rs of r einforced concrete
s truct ures did not pub li s h their design meth ods.
True, in 1899 <2l \\' . Ritt er pointed out the concepts of diagonal
tension, but hi ;; findings were soon forgotten in favor of horizontal shear.
In 1903 the American J. S. Sewell suggested th at te,;t s indicat ed a
formatio n of cracks along the lin es of principal tensile s tress in rein-
forced co ncrete hea ms <5l. He reques ted a rational met hod for d esign of
~ lirrn ps to resist these principal st re,;ses, which lat er become kno\\·n as
diagonal tension.
Three month s lal c r, J. \\". Schaub prese nted such a d es ign formula
fo r uniformly loaded s impl e beams <7 l :
4A s 2.r + 1
(7)
Av perft = - - (1
L L
in which A . per ft = st irrnp a rea
A . = a rea of longitudinal reinforce men t
L = s pa n, in fee t
x = di stance from s upport , in feet
Schaub's formula was based on the assumption that the force in the
longitudinal tensi le r einforcem ent varies parabolically from midspan to
th e s upports. Thi s change in force was further assu m ed to be t rans-
ferred to the compress ion zone of the beam t hrough compressiv e web
s tresses inclined 45 deg to t he horizontal , the vertical t ensile component
 12 ILLI N OI S ENGINEERING EXPE RI MENT STATION 13
Circ . 64. DIAG O NA L TE N SIO N AN D W EB REI N FORCEM ENT

of which mu st be canied by the st irrnps. Schaub's eq uation was recom-
mended in so me early American textbooks <16 • 39 >. A number of rein-
forcing systems using Sewell's and Schaub's id eas also appeared in
these early years, of which the Kahn bar is an example <11 >.
:.\Iea nwhile E. Morsch prepared to defeat the concept of horizontal
shear in Europe. His 1903 paper <10 > pointed out that if a pure shear
state of st ress exists, in which equal horizontal and vertical shearing
st resses are present, then a tensile stress of equal magnitude must
exist on a 45-deg plane. Tests of reinforced concrete beams were
presented which showed a pat tern of diagonal cracks indicating diagonal
tension failures. Furthermore, Eq. 5 was developed on the basis of
the assumptions of the stand a rd straight-line theory.
generally takes place at abo ut 60 percent of tho ultimate load. No ten-
si le stresses can ex ist ac ross tho crack, and h ence the free body mu st
be in equilibri um und er the action of the forces V, C, and T. The ten-
sile force. T , may be so mewhat inclined to the horizontal in accordance
with the observed tearing failures. Since this inclination is small , how-
ever, duo to the relatively small tensile strength of the concrete, the
compressive force, C, must be considerably inclined. The final failure
~-'-+'-_L_.41
t _______ f
_-- _-
IX
I

- I
:
_r___
C
:

1 Oiaqoncrl
' '
---~~~~-1
1.
J
TI I 11 11
p
' ' ' ' j
I I I I
It

_ .I. __ l'.,. __'(__.J:: __

~ #tv:' '-1- -- --~ --1

5 Jd

v=I~~- -t----~:~~~~~~::~_1 1
Anoth er paper by :.\forsch a ppeared in 1906 <22>, as a discussion of I
'~ t "'
1·

Zi pkes' Eq. 6. A clear picture of diagonal tension and several arguments
against horizontal shear wore presented. First, it was a rgu ed that values
of the ultimate nominal sh earing st ress , v, determin ed from tests of
beams without web reinforcement by means of Eq. 5 wore close to
tho tensile st rength of tho concrete used , f' t, whereas tho shearing
st rongth as determined from punching tests was over 3f't· Hence the
shear failure had to be duo io diagonal tension, not horizontal shear.
Secondly, it was shown that sti rrnps acting in shear cannot transfer
st ress to the concrete by bearing pressures. Th erefore, :.\f 6rsch argued ,
s hea r can only be transferred to the concrete by bond. Finally, he
showed t hat the sh earing st ress in tho steel, T , mu st he less than 1.5
times th e bond st rengt h, 11. Since t he observed effectiveness of such
st irrups as web reinforce ment far surpasses that corresponding to
T = 1.5 u, tho stirrups cannot act in horizontal shea r in a mann er
simil a r to keys in wood en beams.
Tests by F. v. Empergor <23 l and E. Probst< 24 > wero in general agree-
ment with :.\forsch's findings. A paper by l\Iorsch published in 1907
presented further developments pertaining to diagonal tension <21 >. Very
simil a r concepts were presented in the English translation of hi s text-
book on reinforced concreto <40 >:
(a) A st udy of stress trajectories indicated that diagonal tension is
the cause of shear failures in reinforced concrete memb ers.
(b) Equation 5 was developed for computation of the nominal shear-
ing stress as a measure of diagonal tension.
(c) It was shown, as indicated above, that stirrups cannot act in
horizontal shear.
(cl) The action of a beam fai ling in diagonal tension was explained
by means of free-body diagrams. In Fig. la the left part of a beam is
considered after the formation of a diagonal tension crack, which
........., >--<>--¥-"Is
y Ix
1-------------T ----1.
~ .LS=V=R-ZP t
(aJ (bJ
Fig . 1. Free-Body Diagrams
of the beam may be caused by a failure of tho compression zone duo
to the force C. Another mode of failure may be due to tho fact that
the horizontal component of T depends on the momen t at section :r- x,
not at y-y as was the case before formation of tho diagonal tension
crack. This redistribution of stress leads io increased bond stresses
near the suppo rt , which may cause failure.
Co nsidering a beam with sti rrups (Fig. lb ), equi librium is possible
with horizontal action of C and T due to tho tensile forces in the stirrups.
Equilibrium of tho free body then gives
jd AJ,.jd
V = L.S = S - = ---
s s
which is Ritter's Eq. 1. Due to the presence of tho sti rrups, the tensile
force T may also be smaller than the value corresponding to the moment
at x-x, which means that the presence of the stirrnps reduces the danger
of a premature bond failure. In later years a number of authors< 59 • 83 •
103, 141 • 152 • 15 3) have presented similar discussions.
(e) The truss analogy for the design of bent-up bars was presented.
(f) The spacing of web reinforcement according to the shear dia-
gram was indicated.
(g) Formulas for computing nominal shearing strel'ses, v, in beams
with variable depth were developed:

14 lllll'lOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
M 29
V +
- -d tan (3
v= - - - - - (8)
bjd
If JV! increase,.; in numerical Yaluc as d increases, the minu,; sign ,;hou ld
be used ; othenvi;-;c the plus ,; ign.
(h ) It was recommended that slir rnps should not he used alone lo
carry hca vy shear, hut al way,; t ogct her with bent-up longi tuclin al bars.
These recommendation;.; \rrre clear and complete inclrccl , considering
the time at which they were ]Hcc;cntcd. :\[i:irsch's first tec;h on di agonal
tension were concerned only with the etToncou,; concept of hori zontal
shea r, hut it was neYer ncccc;;-;ary for him to changr hi s opinions again
as more experimental eYidcncr appeared.
The German sprcificalion:-: of 1907 <28 >, followed ::-Iorsch',; poin t,.; of
vie,,- and eslah\i,;}1cd diagonal tcn;;i o n as a criterion of ;.;hear failures in
rein forcrd concrete member,;. Gc rm~tn specifications con l in ucd to folio\\·
the op ini ons of this great cngincrr until hi" death in 1950 , though -
as will appear from Chaplrr Ill not without considerable discussi on.
A la rge number of tes t,; 011 beams failing in diagonal tension were
also mad e in the United Stale;; in these early year,;. One of the first
laboratory studies \Ya,; reported at the University of \\' isconsin in
1906 <17) . The author. E. A. ::-I o ritz , presented a bas ically ,;ound di,.; cu"-
s ion of " inclined tension failure,.;." The first study of diagonal tension
by A . N. Tai hot wa" abo prc,;cntrd in 1906 <20 1 . The oulc;t anding value
of thi s report and o th r r:-; ,,·h ich followed was largely du r to the fact
that the tests were planned "with a view to getting data bearing on
the establishment of principle,.;." Thus , as early a,; 1906, Talbot de-
sc ri heel the variou,; mode,; of fail u rc of reinforced con crcle beam:-:
" l. T ens ion of s teel; 2. Compression of concrete; 3. Shea ring of con-
crete; 4. Bond or "lip of bars; 5. Diagonal ten sion of conc rete ; 6. ::-Iis-
ccllancous methods, like t hr s plit ting of bars away from the concrete,
the effect of bearings , etc." Because he had such an int erest in th e
basic beh avior of bea m,; , it is natural that Talbot saw from the begin-
ning t he importance of diagonal t ension. H e d eveloped Eq. 5 and
point ed out that the diagon a l tension stress equals the horizontal
sh ea ring s tress if no ten,.;ion is taken by the concrete as ass umed in
th e standard theory.
Further tes ts were reported by Talbot in 1907 <26 l . Nine T-beams
with s tirrups as web reinforcement were tested , a ll of which failed by
yielding of the longitudin a l stee l. N ev e rtheless the test s indicated that
s tirrupR a re a very cffectivr web reinforcement: nomin a l s hea ring
l.J
Circ. 64 . DIAGONAL TENSION AND WEB REINFORCEMENT
streRse:;, t', a:; high as 600 psi were developed without the occurrence
of diagonal tc n;;ion failures . Later testR by Talhot < l indicated that
the re:;istance of the concrete to diagonal tension increased from 68 to
139 psi on the average as the mix ratio was improved from 1:5:10 to
1:2:4. These test;; also indicated that v decreased cons id erably with
increasing span length of the beams.
;.I. 0. \Yith ey <30 · 33 1 introduced Ritter's Eq. 1 into the American
lit eratu re . He found that this equation gave too high sti rrup stresses,
and indicated that th e concrete of the comprcs,.,i on zone may carry con-
siderable shear even after the wch below the neutral axis is cracked
in diagon al tension . He also indicated a pos,.;ihlc dowel action of the
longil udinal reinforcement.
In 1909, Talbot presented a study of web strcs,.;e,.;, including tests
of 188 heams <36 l . The conclu sions of this report arc indeed important:
A. Beams \Yithout web reinforcement.
1. The nomin al shearing ;;trength v increase:; wi t h cement con-
tent.
2. It increases with the age of the concret e.
3. It increa:-;cs with the amount of longitud inal reinforcement.
-±. It increases with decreasing :-;pan of beam for the same cross-
section.
5. The strength v is of the order of 6 perce nt of the compressive
,.;trcngth of 6-in. cubes.
B. Bea ms wi t h bent-up bars.
It was found to be mos t advantageous lo carry so me b a rs s tra ight
through the bea m ancl distribute th e bent-up b a rs over the
region of high sh ear.
C . Beams with stirrups.
1. Stirrup ;;tres,;e;; computed by Eq. 1 appear to be too high.
2. It is recommended that sti rrnps ])(' dimensioned for two-
third s of the external shear, the rcmaininii; one- third being
carried by the concrete in the comprc;.;,;ion zone.
All Talbot's writings p ert a ining to diagonal tension includ ed a
\Yarning <351 :
Diagona l tension weakness is part icularly undesirable because of t he po~si-
bility of sudden fa ilure and of injury after repeated applications of load. and
because of t he difficulty of detecting incipient fa ilure when the sides of t he
beam arc not available for inspection. Am ple safct~· aga inst these condi tions is
important and means should be proYided to resist t he di agonal tension.
These concepts of th e action of sheari ng stresses in reinforced con-
38
crete m e mbers were recommended by the First Joint Committee C l .
Equations 1 and 5 were used , and for bars bent up at 45 deg the fol-
lowing formula was presented:
 16
ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
A vf v = 0.7 V s
J'd
Th ese all owa bl e stresses were give n: f ,. = 16,000 psi ; horizontal bars
only, v ~ 40 psi ; so me ben t-u p bars, v ~ 60 psi ; wi t h stirrups and / or
b en t-up ba rs designed on t he ass ump tion t hat t he con crete takes one-
t hird of t he vertical ::; hear, Vin''"= 120 psi.
Thus by 1910, in t hi s co un t ry as well as in E urope, diagonal
tension was est a blished as th e cause of t he shear failures in normal
reinforced concrete bea ms. \Y. Ri tte r's pi onee rin g v iews h ad been
generall y accep ted .
(9)
111. DEVELOPM ENT OF GERMAN SPECIFICATIONS
AND DESIGN
German t hough L pert aining to di agonal te nsion a nd web reinforce-
ment has been different in several resp ects fro m t he co rres ponding de-
velopments in t hi s co un t ry. Th e most imp ort a n t reason is probabl y
the difference in relat ive co:;ts of steel, con crete, a nd la bor. Th ese costs
will obvio usly have a decisive bearing on whi ch ty pes of stru ct ures can
be built with econo mi c success. Th e d etail s of such st ru ctures, h ow-
ever - amo ng th e m t he design of web rein fo rce ment - will also be
inAuenced. Ge rm a n develop men t fur t hermore h as p robably been con-
siderably affected by the fact th a t one of t he world 's greatest concrete
engineers, E. l\forsc h, devoted a li fe time to rein fo rced co ncrete in t h at
country. l\forsch was a brilli an t builder, t eac her, a nd scien tist wh ose
dynamic perso nali ty often carri ed hi s views to v icto ry even wh en he
stood almost alon e.
The early Ger man work on diagonal tension, most promin en t of
which '"ere t he stud ies of ::.lbrsch, h as been out lin ed in Cha pter II .
During the late r develop ments, atten t ion was foc u;;ec\ on t he investi-
gations cond ucted by t he Germ a n Co mm ittee on R ein fo rced Concrete,
the D eutscher Aussclwss fiir E isen beton. ::.r ost of t hese investigations
were planned by subco m mittees un de r ::.Hirsch 's chairm ans hi p a nd were
carried out by 0. Graf and C. Bach at th e St uttga rt In st it ute of T ech-
no logy.
At t he t ime t hese experim ents we re started t he Prussian Co de of
1907 was in effect< 28>. Th e Code specifications were con cern ed wi th a
structural concrete of a minimum cub e st rength, !'cu, a pproxim ately
1500 psi. In acco rdance wi t h E q . 5 a n omin al shearin g st ress of 64 psi
was allotted to t he conc rete. Any excess stress u p to t h e ceiling valu e
of 77 psi was p rovid ed fo r b y web reinforcement. This provision , whi ch
is simil a r to past a nd presen t Ameri can pract ice, is schematically in-
dicated in Fig. 2.
Th e first and second series of tests of the D eu tscher Ausschuss fi.ir
E isenb eton (D .A.f.E.) concerning T -bea ms loaded at t he t hird points
of a 10-ft spa n were publish ed in 1911. Th e first seri es< 44 > of 69 b eams
was plann ed m ainl y to study t he act ion and effectiveness of stirrups.
Th e second seri es< 45 >, whi ch con tain ed 87 beams, was devo ted mainly
17
 18 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
~v=64ps1.
'~
"i;j
~~
~ I-bea m:< and T-beams \\·it h thin web;; wa,.; presented by .:\I. Brunkhor,.;t
)~
190? Web l?einf"orcement Concrete Alon ..
1916
·~~
~~
1925, 1932
In 1943 v,.,, 0 ,,.. and v varied with t;,~
Fig . 2 . Germon Specifications
Lo a study of bent-up bars. A third ;;erie;.; (481 of 51 T-IJC'ams lo aded a t
8 points over a 13-ft length and containing stirrups as well as bent-up
bars followed in 1912.
These three series of tests gave much evidence to the effect that
sti rrups and ben1-up bars act essentially in accordance with the truss
analogy. Another important conclusion was that a saving in steel weight
as well as a high shearing strengt h was obtained by bending up and
anchoring most long i tu di nal bars in the compression zone.
Another important series of 40 beams was reported by the Austrian
R. Saliger in 1913 (49 ! , and some tests by A. l\:leinlogel (54l followed in
1914. These tests verified the findings of the D.A.f.E.
As a result of these experimental studies, the German specifications
of 1916 were considerably revised as far as web reinforcement is con-
5
cerned ( S) . For struct m al concrete with f' cu = 2100 psi, the ceiling value
of t he nominal shearing stress was raised from 77 to 200 psi. The shear
allotted to the concrete, however, was decreased from 64 to 57 psi, and
i t was stipulated that, wherever the nominal s hearing stress exceeded
57 psi, all shear was to be carried by web reinforcement alon e (Fig. 2).
Thi s specification gave no eq uation s for t he design of web reinforce-
ment; the truss analogy see ms to have been taken for granted.
Though much st rict er t han the 1907 one, t he 1916 s pecification
seems to h ave been received with satisfaction by t he prnfession. At any
rate, no serious objections to the stric te r rul e for t he dimensioning of
web reinforcement appea r in the literat ure .
(ire. 64. DIAGONAL TENSION AND W EB REINFORCEMENT 19
X en •rt heless, te;.;ts and st udi es were co ntinu ed. A se ri es of tests on
in 1917 rn~ 1 • The fourt h se ri es of tests conducted by the D.A.f.E., which
had a profound effect on later discussions, wa;.; reported in 1921 C71 1•
Thi ,.; ,.; cries consisted of five T-beams load ed al 16 points over an 18-ft
sp an . All beams had a conc rete ;.;trength of about 4000 psi, and the
sa nw a mount of longit udin al reinforceme nt at midspan. One beam was
madt' \\·ithout web reinforcement , and another wa,; cJe;.;igned after t he
1907 code with two 1-in. bar,.; bent up n ear eac h end. Both these beams
fail ed in diagonal tension at relatively low load s. A third bea m was
des igned after the 1916 code with fiv e 1-in. bent-up bars di st ribut ed
in ea ch half of the beam. Th e fourth and fifth beams were very si milar
ex cept that the fiv e bent-up bars were of ~ .i-in. a nd % -in. diameter
resprctively. Of these t hree latte r beams, only the one with % -in. bcnt-
up hare; fai led in diagonal tension , which indi cated that the web rein-
forcement of 1-in. bars designed in accord ance with the 1916 code was
about twice as effect ive as necessa ry to produce a failure in bending.
The expe rim ent al ap proach of this invest igat ion is as significant as
t he results . .:\f ost ea rli er tests to d ete rmin e the effectiveness of web
reinforcement had been made with beams heavi ly reinfo rc ed with longi-
tudinal stee l in ord er to sec ure diagonal te nsion failures. Du e to s uch
heavy reinfo rcement, ma ny of t he earl y beams were not represen tative
of practical design. Th is fourth se ries of t he D. A.f. E., on l he other
hand , used beams with practical amounts of longitudin a l reinforcement,
the amo unt of web reinforcemen t bei ng varied in order lo determine
the percentage of web reinfo rce ment above whi ch diagonal tension
fai lmes will not take plrtce at a ll.
Tests of 15 haun ch ed ;; impl c beams were repo rted by K .:\l orsc h in
1922C72 l . Th ese expe rim ents verified Eq. 8 for the red uced nomin a l s hear-
ing stress due to ha unch es which had been devel oped by ~Iorsc h in 1908.
After a noth er study published in 1924 by 0. Hausen c7si , a rev ision
of the German specifications appeared in 1925 <~ 1 · 10·11. Thi s r evi;.; ion
call ed for even heav ier web reinforcement than the 1916 code. If the
nominal sh earing stress computed fro m Eq. 5 exceeded 57 psi, a ll shear
in t he corresponding h alf of t he span was to be carri ed by web rein-
forcement a lon e, without any contribution by the concrete (Fig. 2).
Though the 1916 specificat ions had been accepted sil ently, t hi s new
restriction caused a sto rm of protest. So many outstanding engin eers
criticized the provi sion that it is rema rk able t hat it received a ma jori ty
vote by the Co mmittee, even t hough it wa;.; sponsored by an a u t hority
of Marsch 's standing.
Th e protests were started by L. D avid a nd H . Per1 cs 4 ) a nd were
continued by A. Troch ecs 5> as well as by A. Zcnn s, E. Probst, NL .:\f ayer,

2D ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
and E. Rau sch <B 7J. Th ese men a rgu ed that th e n ew specification was
too conservative and hence un economical. Th e results of the fourth
t es t se ries of the D.A.f.E.<7 1l (out lin ed on page 19) were quoted as proof
of such conse rvati ti m .
E. ::.\forsc h a nswered this criticism in 1927 <88 !, indicating that he
was the major sponsor of the 1925 specifications. Hi s primary argu-
ment was that web reinforce ment should be strong enough io prevent
diagonal t ension fai lure from ever a ppearing. Beams should fail in
b ending, since the latter type of fai lure is far more gradual and permits
a favorab le redi st ribution of stresses, the ben efits of which were con-
sidered wh en allowable fl ex ural stre,.,ses were stipul ated. Secondly,
Morsch argued that th e concrete mus t crack before the web reinforce-
ment can transfer st resses of importance and that cracked concrete
cannot contribute to the shea ring st rength of beams. Thirdl y, Morsch
showed that the use of a great number of bent-up bars as demanded
by the 1925 specification leads to a red uced total steel weigh t , which in
the German eco nomic environment of th e time was considered synony-
mou s with economy. With respect lo the fourth test series of t he
D.A.f.E ., ::.\forsch cal led atte ntion to the fact that these beams were
made with a 4000-psi concrete, wh ereas the 1925 sp ecifications con-
sidered a st ructural concrete with a minimum st reng th of about 1500 psi.
Th ese arguments, though very well presented, did not satisfy the
opposition; nin e more criticisms appearec1 <87 · 89 l . Only K. Schacchterle
and A. Ritt er defended ::.\forsc h 's views <s 9 J.
In 1927 the only man in Europe who cou ld challenge i\Iorsch 's pro-
fess ion al standing , F. v. Emperger, indicated that uniform specifications
in Central Europe were desirable indeed. Even though uniformity was
d esira bl e, t he Au st ri a n specificat ions adopted the German 1916 speci-
fication in 1927, wi t h Emperger's consent <92 l . The Austrian Commi ttee
could not accept the German 1925 specification.
A year late r E. Probst <96 l presented the results set forth in Bulletin
166 of the University of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station <93 l as
evidence against t he 1925 specification. ::.\lOrsch answered that these
American tests were made on rectangular rath er than T-beams. Th e
specimens, he asserted, were over-reinforced eith er in tension or in
diagonal tension. Finally he felt that the low web stresses found as
compared to the truss analogy were clue to the fact that strains were
measured over so me length rather than at a diagonal tension crack,
indicating that the local st resses at such cracks could have been much
larger than those observed.
Morsch presented hi s views again in a brilliant paper read to the
Second Intern ational Congress for Bridge and Structural Engineering
in 1928 <99 l . He outlined two basic philosophi es:
21
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TENSION AND WEB REINFORCEMENT
A. Diagonal tension failures should n ever occur in reinforced con-
crete
B.structures.
Minimum steel weight and economy are sy nonymou s t erms.
The following conclusions were a mong those which he presented:
1. Stirrups or bent-up bars should never be used alone. A proper
web reinforcement consists of a combination of th ese two elements.
2. No reinforce ment should b e anchored in a region of tension.
Hence the use of shor t b ent-up b ars anchored in the compression and
in the t en=-ion zone is no t safe practice.
3. No shear should be considered to be taken by the concrete except
in some types of slabs.
4. The beneficial eff ect of h a unches in reducing sh earing stresses has
been estabfo;hed.
5. In continuous beams, web reinforcement strong enough to carry
the total shear is essential to develop the full strength of such beams
through redistribution of moments.
During the discussion following this paper 0 . Graf , who had con-
ducted most of t he D .A.f.E. investigations, expressed agreement with
Morsch. E. Probst, however, continued hi s part as the leader of the
opposition, a rguing:
1. The 1907 and 1925 specifications are unsafe and uneconomical,
respectively. Th e 1916 specifications, on the other hand, a re satisfactory
indeed.
2. Even though the specified minimum strength of structural con-
crete is about 1500 psi, such low-strength concrete should not be used .
H ence t he concrete will be able to contribute considerabl e sh earing
strength .
3. V1Theth er failure takes place in bending or in diagonal tension is
irrelevant.
4. Objections were raised to the stipul a tion that all T-b eams shall
have so me stirrup reinforcement throughout their length regardl ess of
the magnitude of shearing stresses.
The fifth investigation sponso red by the D .A.f .E. was reported by
0. Graf and E. Morsch in 1928 <102 i . Four large T-beams were tested,
which were haunched and cantilevered at one encl to simulate the ac-
tion of continuous beams. In Morsch's interpretation of the tests,
failure of these beams by moment rather than diagonal tension was
possible only if the web reinforcement consisting of stirrups and b ent-up
bars was d esigned for the total sh ear.
E. Probst <101 l , however, taking the point of view that failure in
diagonal tension is no worse than failure by moment , used the 9 fifth
series of D .A.f.E. tests and University of Illinois Bulletin 175<7l to
argue in favor of the 1916 specifications.
 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
22
The sixth edition of :\Ibrsch's Der Eisenbetonbau appeared in the late
twenties. This monumental work devoted 256 pages to tbc problems
related to web reinforccment C104 >, defending the author's points of view
brilliantly. About the sa me time the fourth edition of Handbuch fiir
Eisenbetonbau appeared, containing some 50 pages of discussion per-
taining to shear and web reinforcementc 108 >. 0 . Graf C105 > discussed and
re-evaluated the American tests C86 • 93 • 97 >. Though he agreed with most
conclusions reached by the authors , he could not accept the measured
strain s in web reinforcement as proof that the stresses in such reinforce-
ment in normal reinforced concrete beams are much less than the values
computed from the truss analogy. His reaso11 was that st rains were
m eas ured over so me length, 11ot locally at a crack. Furthermore, mos t
beams were abnormal as compared to practical design.
The sixth investigation by the D .A.f.E., reported in 1931 <ll6>, con-
tained nine T-beams wbich were made with the minimum concrete
strength permitted for structural concrete in Germany at the time,
about 1800 pr:;i. These tests showed very clearly that web reinforcement
designed for the total shear was necessa ry to develop the full flexu ral
strength of the beams by failure clue to moment, and that such web
reinforcement gave the lowest ratio between steel weight and ultim ate
load. Th e tests also proved that several design methods wbich used
a nchorage of longitudinal or bent-up barfi in a region of concrete tension
led to reduced strength s.
0. Graf wrote three papers (lo 5 • 107 • 112 > using these tests to justify
the 1925 specifications. By this time the extensive di sc ussion as to
whether or not concrete s hould be counted on as resisting di agonal
tension in bea ms seems to h ave reached an encl. Only E. Probst C111 >
and K. Hager C110 > continued t he argument on the basis that the mini-
mum allowable concrete strength should not be used in practice.
The German specifications for reinforced concrete were revi sed in
1932<11 8 >; the essential features of the 1925 specifications pertaining to
shear and web reinforcement were maintained.
Some details of web reinforcement were studied and analyzed in
the 1930's. E. Rau sch mad e a st udy of web reinforcement in short canti-
lever beams and beams loaded very near a support <74 • 113 l. He concluded
that stirrups are not effective in such cases and that bent-up bars
should be designed for the full shear after the following formula:
v (10)
A vf v = V 2
In accordance with tbese findings the 1932 specification s reco mmend ed
"special precautions" in such cases. Rausch's findings were verifi ed by
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TENS IO N AN D WEB REINFO RCEMEN T 23
experiments in 1935 Cl27), and the German specifications of 1943 cu 6 J con-
tain a r eference to Rau sch's Eq. 10.
The 1925 specifications called for a radius of bend for bent-up bars
of 10- 15 bar diameters. In 1933 this variable was subj ected to a seri es
of testso 21 J which indicated that a radius of 5 diameters was sufficient.
This latter value was recommended in the 1932 and 1943 speci fications.
Th e 1929 edition of l\Iorsch's book ooo contains so m e study of
diagonal tension in memb ers subject to combined bending and a xi a l
load. As far as the writer knows, this study presents the results of the
only laboratory test ever reported regarding this problem. Some further
t heoretical studies were presented by F. DiscbingerCl-14 1, but no specifi-
ca tions have so far appeared.
The German 1943 specifications0·161 again m aintained the basic con-
cepts of the 1925 specifications as far as web reinforcement is concerned .
\Yhile earlier sp ecifications referred to only one grade of st rnctural con-
crete, however, the 1943 specifications permit four qualities of concrete
ranging from about 1700 to 4300 psi cube st rength . The corresponding
ceiling valu es of nominal shearing stresses in beams as well as the
stresses below which no web reinforcement is required in b eams range
fro m 11.6 to 6.7 and from 3.3 to 2.7 percent of t he cube strength , re-
:-;pectively, the percentage dec reasing with increasing concrete strength .
It may be concluded t hat present German specifications pertaining
to diagonal ten sion and web reinforce ment are based on three fund a-
mental concepts:
A. Any properly design ed reinforced concrete m emb er should fail
by moment r ather than by diagonal tension.
B. Stirrups or bent-up bars should n ever be used alone to carry
heavy shear. The t wo elements of web reinforcement should be used
in co mbination, the b ent-up bars taking the major part of h eavy shear.
C. In the German construction industry, beca use of the relative
costs of steel, concrete and labor, minimum total weight of the rein-
forc ing steel is generally associated with economical design solutions.
On t he basis of these concepts, the writer feels that the present
specifications calling for web reinforcement designed for the total shear
are a logical a nd so und consequence. H e further feels that present
American specifications could not s uccessfully be applied to German
econo mic conditions and design practices. Whether so me German con-
cepts cou ld be successfully applied to American conditions, however, is a
question deserving careful study. .
I t may finally be noted that most present European codes follow the
German 1916 code, according to which web reinforcement, wh en neces-
sary, is designed to carry the total shear. Examples of such codes are the
British crn 3 J, D ani sh <152 J, Norwegian <135 J, Spanish c166 l, and Swedish C164 l .
 Circ. 64. DI A GO N AL TENSION A N D W EB REI N FORCEM ENT 25

Chapter II, h ad a n important bea ring on the first progress report of

IV. THE DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES
Am erica n specification s pertaining to reinforced concrete h ave been
prepared by two major bodies- Co mmitt ees of th e Am erica n Concrete
Institute, an d the Joint Co mmitt ees.
Th e firs t Co mmi ttee of t he ACI , then th e National Associat ion of
Ce ment Userfi, was the Committee on Laws and Ordinances, which
the first J oint Co mmittee <3sJ . This report clearly indicated the princi-
ples of diagonal tension, an d presented Eqs. 1, 5, a nd 9. These ceiling
values were given for the nomin al shearing st ress, v: horizontal ba rs
only, 0.02f'c ~ 40 psi; so me bent-up bars, 60 psi; st irrups a nd / or
bent-up bars design ed on the ass umption that the concrete res ists t wo-
thircls of the shear, 120 psi (Fig. 3).
The second progress report of thi,., first J oint Co mmittee <46 l retained
the th ree equ ations referred to above. Th e ceiling value of 40 psi was

~~
spo nsored the NACU Standard No. 4 in 1910. Later a Co mmi ttee on
Reinforced Concrete a nd Building La ws was formed, i'i ponso ring ACI
Standard No. 23 in 1920. Committee E -1 followed, ;.; pon soring the
tentative regu lations E-1A-28T in 1928. Co mmi ttee 501 spon sored a
tentative standard 501-36T in 1936. Since about 1940, Co mmi ttee 318
has been in existen ce. c
! .'A. ii SIO'l?dO'rd No. 4, 1g10 J.C Pro9'res s li'2porl; 1909
Th e Join t Co mmittees have consisted of delegates from the ACI,
AIA, AREA, ASCE, AST::\f, a nd P CA. Th e first, second , an d third
J oint Co mmittees were organ ized in 1903, 1919, an d 1930 and s ubmit ted "-"
fin al repo rts in 1916, 1924, and 1940, respectively. !:<l
~ ~ ,.........
~
The work of t hese two bodies a nd that of t he various investigators Ii
have of course been int en ela tecl. It is t herefore convenient to di sc uss t he .,..'
various researc hes and co mmittee reports in chronological order.
A.Cl Report 1916 O'nd 191?
Th e first NA CU repo rt , which a ppea red in 1908 <32 l, was essenti ally
based on wh at h as later become known as Ultimate Load Design. Th e
various sect ions were dimensioned on a n ultim ate basis for a lo ad four

,, ~
times t he total working load. No formulas were presented for the de-
sign of web reinforcement. It was specifi ed, however, that "the shearing ~ ' 'l:i
11. ~",<0
strength of concrete, corresponding to a compressive strength of 2000
psi, shall be assumed as 200 psi" a nd that " wh en t he shearing stresses
~. ______:___
·}
~ ':> \,..." ~/?>:.,'.
~~~
~
1-....

developed in any p ar t of a reinforced concrete constructed building

exceed, und er the multipli ed loads, the shearing strength as fixed in A.CI Report, 1919 A.Cf SIO'l?dard No. 23, 1920
2nd J.C. 1924
this section , a sufficient a mount of steel shall be in troduced in such
a position that the d eficiency in the resistance of the shear is overcome."

~~
This report was revised in 1909 <37> a nd adopted as N ACU Standard
41 ~
No. 4 in 191Q < J. That code introduced the concepts of working stresses '<> , ~

~
<::;
as a design criterion and recommend ed : "In calculating web reinforce-
ment, the concrete shall be consid ered to carry 40 psi, the remaind er to
be provided for by mean s of web reinforcement in tension" (Fig. 3).
:, Normal Anchoroqe
II

.,.~
~
V/////U'l//A I =:.....,,,
Talbot's important study of 1909 <36 >, which has been outlined in
3rd JC. 194 0
24 Fi g . 3 . American Specificat ions
 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
26
removed from t he valu e v = 0.02 f ' c resisted by t he co ncrete, and t he
max imum nominal shearin g stress for beams wi t h web reinforce ment
was ch a nged from 120 psi to 0.06f' c·
F oll owing a paper by C. A. Gil chri st <53l a rguing in favo r of bent-up
bars, the Co mmittee on R ein fo rced Concrete and Building La ws of the
ACI sub mi tted a report in 1916<57 l which introduced a nomin al sh earin g
stress v = 0.02 f' c to b e resisted by lhc concrete, while th e excess shear up
to a ceiling v alu e of 0.075f'c should be r esisted by web reinforcement
(Fi g. 3). In th e di sc ussion of this report E. Godfrey i ni ti at eel a n a rgu -
men t again st the u:sc of vertical stirrnps which was continued for man y
yea rs with out a ny apparent effect o n the clcvelopmen t of spcci fi cat ions.
Th e fin al report of t he first J oint Co mmit tee also a pp eared in 1916<60 l.
Equ at ions 1 and 5 were m a int a in ed , hu t Eq. 9 was modified thus:
3 V's
f cA v = - - (9a)
4 jd
in which V' is the exec;;:; sh ea r ove r that carried by the concrete. This
equa ti on was valid for 20 deg < a < 45 deg. The benefi cial effects of
goo d a nchorage of the longit udin al a nd web reinforcem ent as well as
of low sl re1-;ses in the longitud in al steel in regions of high shear were
men t ioned. Th e following valu es of maximum nominal shearin g stre:;s
were given: no web reinforcement , 0.02f' c; vertical st irrnps or bcnt.-up
bar1-;, 0.045f'c; combined Ycrtical st irrups a nd be nt-up bars, 0.05j', ;
web rci nfo rce ment sec urely at tach cd to t he longi t udina l rci nforcemcn t,
0.06f',. ·w eb reinforce men t should generall y be design ed for two-thirds
of th e sh ear. For combined sti rrups a nd bent-up bars , h o weve r, the
contribution of t he bent-up b ars sh ould first be subtracted from the
total sh ea r ; then one-third of the rema ining shea r should be carried by
t he concrete a nd two-thirds by t he stinups (Fig. 3). Thi s stipulation
means that in the case of combined web reinforcemen t no shear is con-
sid ered to be carried by t h e concrete as far as d esign of t he bent-up
bars is concerned.
Th e 1916 ACI report was submi tted unch anged in 1917 <61 l. Action
was deferred , since the report differed from the 1916 Join t Committee
R epo rt.
Th e 1916 J. C. Code reco mmended a ma ximum allowable nominal
shearing stress in beams wi th web reinforcement of 0.06f'c- G. M .
Beaune a nd C. C. l\1yers< 53 l reported tests of ten T-b ea ms carried out
primarily to show that nomin al sh earing stresses as high as 1300 psi
may be developed wi th good supervi sion and efficient web reinforcement
wi th a concrete strength of 3000 psi. W. P . And erso n <64 l referred to
R. Saligcr's tests<49l, in which nomin al sh earing stres:;es as high as 1270
_____...______________________
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TENSION AND WEB REINFORCEMENT 27
psi were developed , an d And erson reco mm end ed t he use of Vmax = 240
ps i wh ere desired in design. IV . A. Slater C55 l discussed th e first res ult s
of the Emergency Fleet Co rporation tes ts giving nomin a l shearing
stresses at failure a;.; high as 2470 psi and poin ted out that a llowable
st resses "seldom exceeding 300 psi for beams ''"ith t he most effec tive
web reinforcement" a rc very low.
Anoth er ACI r eport a pp ea red in 1919 C66 l, which departed radically
fro m earlier reports . Th e a ll owable nomin al sh earing st ress for beams
without web reinforce ment was maintained at 0.02f', a nd the ceiling
valu e for beams with web reinforcem ent wa s m a in tain ed at 0.075f' c
provided that the longi tudin al b a rs were a nch o red. Equation 9, how-
ever, wa s changed to
2 Vs
3
A vf v = jd (9b )
fo r 30 deg <a < 90 deg, in which V is the total shear (Fig. 3). This
:-;tip ul ation was perh a ps in spired by t he Germ a n 1916 CodeC 5s l (Fig. 2).
A "Special Committee on Unit Values for Yertical Shear in Rein-
force d Concrete D es ign" reported to the ACI in 1920 <67 • 69 l . Th eir recom-
mrndation s were incorporated in "ACI Standard Spec ification No.
23" C68 ' . This second ACI Code permitt ed the following no min a l shearing
stre;.;ses: Bea ms without web reinforce ment , 0.02f'c; but 0.03f'c for
:;prcial an chorage of t h e longi t udin al r einforce ment. In beams with web
reinfo rcement dc:;igncd aft er t he formul a
V's
A~fv = - - sin a (9c)
jd
thr conc rete was ass um ed to carry 0.025f'c up to a ceiling va lu e of the
nominal shearing st ress of 0.06f' c· \Vi th a nchorage of the longitudinal
reinforce ment, the latter values were 0.03f' c and 0.12f'c res pectively
(Fig. 3). F or bars bent up in a single pl a ne, the following equation
was specified:
A ,. f v - V ' sec a (11 )
This specification represe nts a n almost compl ete development of Ameri-
can design of web reinforcement. No basic changes were made after
this ti me, even though the majority of th e avail able experimental
evidence was published later.
The first progress report of the second Join t Co mmittee< 70 l essen-
tially fo llowed the ACI Specification No. 23. Equations 1, 5, 9c, and
11 were used. For beams without web reinforce ment , v = 0.02f'c ;:;; 40
psi, an d 0.03f',., were specified without an d with special a nchorage ,
~
 28 ILLI N OIS ENGIN EERING EXPERIMENT STATI O N
respectively. For beams with web reinforcement the concrete was as-
sumed to carry 0.02f'c ~ 40 psi and 0.025f'c ~ 50 psi with ceiling
values of 0.06f'c and 0.12f'c respectively. The final report of the seco nd
Joint Committee appeared in 1924 <77 l . For beams without special an-
chorage a ceiling value of Vm ax = 0.06f'c was used and the following
design equations were presented:
V = 0.02J'c + f vA v for 45° ~ a ~ 90°
bs sin a
f vAv
v = 0.02f'c + - - (sin a+ cos a) for a < 45°
bs
For beams with special anchorage a value 0.03f'r replaced 0.02f'c in
the equations above, and a ceiling value Vmax = 0.12f' c was recommended.
A preliminary draft of building regulations was s ubmitted by ACI
Committee E-1 in 1925 <80 l . Equation 13 was used for all values of a
with the same ceiling values and the same provisions for special an-
chorage as in the final report of the second Joint Committee. Thi s draf t
was r es ubmitted in 1927 and adopted as a tentative ACI Standard
E-1A-27T <90 l .
In 1926 W. A. Slater, A. R. Lord, and R. R. Zipproclt reported
tests of 172 beams, most of which were I-beams tested in order to
establish a basis for design of concrete ships during World War I <86 >.
It is important to note that "all beams were heavily reinforced for
longitudinal tension and most of them for longitudinal compression.
The effort in the design of the test specimens was to force failure to
occur in the web." According to F. E. Richart <158 > this investigati on
" has had a profound effect upon the design method s now current."
l\luch important and detailed information was presented , most signifi-
cant of which was probably the following empirical equation for the
nominal shearing stress in beams with web reinforcement inclin ed 45
or 90 deg:
V = (0.005 + r) f v (14)
Tests of 139 beams at the University of Illinois were reported by
F. E. Richart in 1927<93l . Most of the specimens were simple rectangular
beams failing by moment or in bond rather than in diagonal tension.
Another Illinois report< 97 l concerning 59 restrained beams followed in
1928. These two reports presented extensive strain measurements, and
much information relative to the effectiveness of web reinforcement in
reinforced concrete beams was obtained even though the ma jority of
beams did not fail in diagonal tension. An observation of major im-
portance was that "measured stresses in the web steel are quite generally
Circ. 64. DIAGO N A L TE NSION AND WEB REINFOR CEM ENT 29
less than those calculated by use of the full s hear." It was found that
relatively high web stresses may be predicted by the following formula
v=Ci+rfv (15)
The constant C1 was believed to depend on the quality of the concrete
as well as on the amounts of longitudinal and web reinforcement. For
(12)
lhe stresses at or near the maximum load, Richart also found a satis-
facto ry agreement with Eq. 14, which for inclinations other than 45
and 90 deg was modified to
(13) v = (0.005 + r) f v sin a (sin a + cos a) (14a)
The tentative ACI Standard E-1A-27T was revised in 1928 after a
cooperative study with the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute. This
new tentative standard was adopted with the designation E-1A-28T <95 >.
The ceiling value of the nomina l shearing st ress, v"'" x = 0.12f'r, was re-
duced to 0.09f'c· Th e use of st resses greater than 0.09f'c but less than
0.12f' c, was permitted , however, if the designer personally supervised
construction. For the design of web reinforcement, Eq. 13 was aban-
doned and Eqs. 9c and 11 were rein stated .
In 1929, T. D. l\Iylrea presented a paper entitled "Studies of Shear
in Reinforced Concrete Bea ms"< 103 >. It was pointed out that, at work-
ing loads, stresses in bent-up bars will be about two times the stresses
in vertical stirrups. At loads near ultimate , however , yielding will
occu r in the bent-up bars a nd both types of web reinforcement will
finally become effective. Free-body diagrams simil a r to those used by
E. i\Iorsch were also present ed and used in developing Eqs. 1 and 13.
It was considered possibl e that web reinforcement must carry the total
shear, clue to creep in shear in the compression zone. Thi s discussion
of free-body diagrams met with so me opposition from cliscussors, who
held the view that first cracking in diagonal tension and failure are
synonymous. Finally, the probl em of s hear in wedged beams was out-
lined. In 1934, Mylrea presented tests of 5 T-beams<123 J with the Scott
System of reinforcement, in which s mall-size longitudinal bars were
bent across the web and back into the flanges. Nominal shearing stresses
of the order of 1200 psi were developed.
In 1931, F. E . Richart and V. P . Jensen prese nted a study of Hay-
clite aggregates<u 4 J. The tests included 18 rectangular beams without
web reinforcement which failed in diagonal tension.
J . T. Thompson, T. F. Hubbard, and J. N. Fehrer reported tests
of 24 beams with web reinforcement consisting of various types of solid
and perforated plates< 130 l . All beams seem to have failed in diagonal
tension, though the sheet steel appeared to cause splitting of the beams,
30 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TENSION AND WEB REINFORCEMENT 31

al ti mes at lower loads t lrnn the ultimate strength of similar beams
without any web reinforcement.
D. \f. \lcC'ain presented in 1939 a st udy of "\Yclded Shear Rein-
forcing for Concrete Ream s" <135 l . All 16 beams tested failed by moment.
It neverthele,.;s appeared that inclined welded stirrups were stressed
faster than loose vertical stirrups, permitting less diagonal cracking.
ACI Committee 501 replaced Committee E-1 in 193.J.. A revised
s tandard, ACI Standard .501-36T, was adopted in 1936 0 29 ! . It specified
that web reinforcement s hould ca rry the excess shear over 0.02 and
0.03f'c up to ceilings of 0.06 and 0.12f' c for beams without and with
.~pecial anchorage, respectively. Hence the special prnvision of 1928 for
the u;;e of ::;tresses over 0.09f'r was discontinued. The equations for de-
s ign of \\'eb reinforcement were again changed. For vertical s tirrnps,
Eq. 1 was used with a ceiling valu e of Vm a x = 0.08f' ,.. Equation 11 was
recommended for bars bent up in a single plane with the ceiling V ' =
0.0.J.f' , bd. For a series of bent-up bars or inclined welded stirrups,
Eq. 13 was used. A combination of web reinforcemenL types was per-
mitLed, but no one type of s uch combined reinforcement s hould carry
more than % V ' . In the subse quent revisions of the ACI CodeCL 37 · 139 ), ACI-
318-41 <149! ACI-318-47 <156 l , no major changes pertaining to shear and
web remforcement appeared.
The third Joint Committee presented a final report in 19400 38 >. The
values 0.02J' ci 0.03f' r· and 0.06f'c, 0.12f' c were mainta ined. Equation
13 \\' as used for design of all web reinforcem ent , vertical or inclin ed .
A ne \\· feature of this specification was that where v > 0.06f' c, the
web reinforcement should be designed for the total shear (Fig. 3). An
equation for the design of web rrinforcement in wedged bea ms similar
to Eq. 8 was also prese nted .
So far three inveRtigations pertaining to weh reinforcement carried
out al the University of Illin ois C36 · 93 · 97 i have !wen di sc ussed in this
circular. A fourth experimental study , reported by 0. \loretto in
19-15 C151 l dealt with tests of 44 beams which were rather heavily rein-
forced longitudinally in order to obtain diagonal t ension failures. It
was found that the nominal shearing stress at which yielding takes
pl ace in the web reinforcement can be expressed by the following equa-
ti on:
Vyp = K rfy p +
0.04f'c + 5000 p
Th e ACI Code was revi sed in 1951 beca use of t he increased allowable
bond st resses for modern deformed hars <111 l . This specification a.lso
calb for hooks on all plain bars. Hence , ACI 318-51 di scontinu ed th e
distinction b et wee n allowable nominal s hearing st res::;es depending on
the presence or absence of special anchorage. Only members with s uch
anchorage were considered. The remaining parts of the specifications
were maintained essentially as prese nted in ACI 501-36T.
In conclusion it appea rs that American te;;ts pertaining to diagonal
tension and web reinforcement have been cha racterized by specimen s
so mewhat abnormal in shape as compared to normal construction prac-
tice, or that specimenR wit b abnormally large percentages of longitu-
dinal and web reinforcement have been used. \leas ured ,.;t resse,.; in the
\Yeb reinforcement and ultimate nominal s hearing stresses in such s peci-
men s have been emphasized. As a result Am erican specifications are
characterized by the as;;umption that part of the shear is carried by
the concrete, th e web reinforcement being d es igned for the remaining
shear. Only a few presentations departing from this practice appear in
the literaturr c103 • 145 l , t hr major being the 1940 J. C. report <138 >. Another
noteworthy featu re in the development of American specifications i::i
t he cyclic changes of th e design equations for we b reinforcement <79 · 11 5 1•
The only foreign specification based on Lhe sa me principl es as th e
American Codes is, as far as the writ er knows, th e Canadian NRC No.
1069 of 1941 c142 >.
(16)

The nominal shearing st ress at failure was expressed as

v,, = J( rfvv + O.lOf'c + 5000 p (17)

TheRe equation s may be regard ed as further developments of F . E.

Richart's Eq . 15.

V. SOME BRITISH STUDIES
The complaint has been made that the early users of reinforced
concrete in Britain paid littl e attention to "scienti fic tests." Even
though British scientists have made tremendous contributions to the
physical and enginee ring sciences in general, t heir stud ies of reinforced
concrete, and web reinforcement in particular, have until recently been
of rather limit ed importance.
A report of tests of 12 beams with various types of web reinforcement
12
appea red in 1910 < >. In 1915 J . Gilchrist <55 > wrote a study of web rein-
forcement in T-heams. On the basis of German tests <41 · 45 > he argued
that the resistances to shear of vertical stirrups and bent-up bars are
not additive. He also maintained t hat web strengt h depends on the
spacing of stirrups for the same area pet· unit length, and he presented
the following empirical formula
jd 2::.o 1:0
V'= 130 (2 - - ) (18)
s s
0. Faber pre;;ented in 1916 a new theory of web action <59l. The
major elements of this t heory were consid erations of ultim ate loads
rather than working loads, inclined compressive stresses due to arch
action, and a slipp age of t he longitudin al bars over a ll t hei r length to
the hooks. This study is interesting indeed, because many sound con-
clu sions pertaining to web reinforcement were reached. The t heory is
h ard ly applicable to modern American design, however, sin ce with
modern deformed bars an extensive slip is impossible without the
occurrence of splitt ing failures.
E". W. Joh ansen presented a similar theory in D en mark in 1945 052 >,
also based on t he extensive type of slip mention ed above.
0. Faber presen ted hi s t heory again in a book, R einf arced Concrete
B eams in B ending and Shear, published in 1925 <83 >. T ests of 8 rectangu-
lar beams, 16 T-b eams, and 16 fram es were reported. Th e American
T . D. Mylrea, reviewing Faber's book, was rather critical regarding
the applicability of t he theory<81J.
In 1927 J. Gilchrist reported tests of so me small T -beams without
94
web rcinforcement< l. H e found t hat the nominal shearing st ress at
32
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TE NS IO N AN D W EB REINFORCEMENT 33
failure in diagonal tension increased with concrete st rength but was
so mewh at less than the tensile strength of t he concrete.
In 1935 R. H . Evans reported tests of beams without web rein-
forcement <125l. Through indirect meas urements of shearing st re;;ses h e
found a relief of diagonal tensile st resses n ear concentrated loads. The
action of stirrups a nd bent-up ba rs was desc rib ed in the usual man ner,
and a n increase of the ultimate nomin al s hearin g st ress wi th the per-
centage of longitudin al reinforcement was noted .
An ot her se ri es of tc;;ts was presented by R . H. Evans in 19410 41 >,
indicating changes in beam action du e to the formation of di agon al
tension cracks and slip in bon d. H e reco mm ended bent-up bars as the
most efficient type of web reinforce ment.
Several fac t ors that influence t he ultimate st rengt h of beams failing
in di agon a l tension were st udied in 1949 by A. Sunderlancl <161 >, such as
the percentage, strength and in clin ation of web reinforcemen t, the
ratio of shea r span to depth of beam, the percen tage of tensile and
compressive reinforcement, a nd the concrete st rength . Unfortunately
the repo rt is v ery brief, so that it is difficult to receive the full benefit of
the tests. Th e British specificat ions were considered to be too conserv-
ative, a nd those of the Am erica n 1940 J oint Co mmittee report were
preferred.
Th e present British Code of Pract ice for R einforced Conc rete< 168 l
is esse nti ally based on the German 1916 Code. Th e concrete is permitted
to carry nominal shearing stresses of the orde r of 0.03 f' rn· In t hose
parts of me mb ers wh ere this value is exceeded, however, web rein-
forcement must be designed to ca rry t he total shear. The cei ling value
of the nomin al shearin g stress is of the order of 0.12 f' cu ·

VI. SPECIAL PROBLEMS
.:\lo;-;t ;.;t uclirs of wr h r einforcr ment act io n a ncl t he strrngth of rein-
forced con crete s ulijcct to shrar have hcrn d eYoted to licams . Studir;.; of
problems p ertaining to o thrr types of rnembrrs h ave been made, how-
ever , ;.;omc of which a rc outlined b elo w.
7 . Combined Shear, Bending and Axial Load
Thi;.; prnblcm ha" b ee n s ubj ect to some ;.;tuclic;.; ba;.;cd on the iclealizNI
propertir;.; generally refcncd to a;.; t he strn ight-lin c thcory <JOi , 111 • J.
148
As far a;.; the w rit er know,,, one s pec im en only h as been made and te;.;ted
in order to o btain exp e rim ent a l evidence, and thi;.; s pecim en had no web
104
rci11forccrncnt < J_ Hrncr our knowledge of this prnblc m is lim ited. In
d e;;;ign , thr pre.~en cr
of the ax ia l forcr;.; i;.; oftrn disregard ed, t he assump-
tion being maclr that this is on the safe ;.; idr. A ri g id fr a me tested at the
Univer;.;ity of Illin oi;.; did , o n the other hand , fail violently in diagonal
tension at a nominal ;.;hraring st ress a;.; low a.~ 72 psi, ev en though the
conc rete st rength was abo ut 4000 p si <10 1J.
8. Punch ing of Sla bs
Punching failmr in slab;.; grnerally takrs pla ce by t he pun chi ng out
of a 1 runcat ccl con e directly und e r a concrntraled loa d . If s uch a load i;.;
clo.~c to a ;.; uppori , the failurr may diffe r somr wh at. At any ratr, ihr
fa ilure is genrrally caused by di ago n a l tens ion rather t ha n punchin g
s hear.
A number of punching fa ilurrs arc rrpor trd in the lit erat ure, most of
which took place in tests ca rried out primarily in order to s tud y the
properties of s lab s in be ncling (56 • 101 • 132 • 133 • 154 • 157 J. In these test;.; a con clu-
;.;ion s imil a r to the followingo 33 J wa;.; often reached: " However, sin ce such
;.;eco ndary failmrs (punching] came so lo ng a ft e r the yield po int of the
steel h a d been reached and cracking of the s lab h ad become gen eral,
the s h earing st rrs;.;es a rc probab ly not significa nt. " Thi s is certainly a
valid p oint of view wh en d eR ign is based on allowable stresses. If and
wh e n an ultim ate desig n of slabs becomes generally used , s uch as K . W.
Joh a nsen 's Yield Line Th eo ry, the m atte r of punching must b e con-
sid e red in anot he r ligh t. Th e Yi eld Lin e Th eo ry assumes th at la rge
d e fl ect ion s a r e d eveloprd when the f'd abs ente r the in elas tic loa ding
range. In o rd e r to d evelop the u ltimat e fl exural s tre ngt h it becomes
34
Circ. 64. DI AG O NA L TE N SION AN D W EB REI N FORCEM EN T 35
imperatiYe lhal pun ching br preve nt ed ev en afte r consiclrrable crac king
bas taken place, a nd qu a ntit at ive knowl edge p ert a ining to s uch punch-
ing failmr;.; beco m es highly import a nt.
Some invest igations have been devo t r cl prim a ril y lo the development
of quantitative inform a tion rega rding punching failmc;; (m, 155 >. Speci-
men;; in the;.;c tests we re generally over- rrinforced in bending, howcvrr,
and our kno wl edge rega rding th r effrct of th e presence of large fl exural
stre:-::-;e,; on the she a ring ,.;trenglh i;; ,.;till v e ry limitrd.
In recr nt years a typr of co ns truction grnerally refe r rrd lo a;.; fl at
plat e floor;.; ha;.; been u;.;ed in lhi;.; co untry a nd in Europr. S ince this typ e
of floor d iffe r;.; from th e flat sla b in the r es pect that ca pi tals and drop
pa1wb are ab;.;ent , the shea rin g stre;.;ses may beco me import a nt and it
m a~· hr unsafe to apply th e formula:-i d rvelo ped for fl at ;; /a h;.;. A,.; far as
th e \\"ritr r knows, only three te;.;ts of clements of ;.; uch ;.; /ah,; have h crn
reported <11;9 1, a nd l hi s inform ation is far from co n cl u;.; i ve.
9. Footings
Our prese nt design of reinforced concrete footings is based on the
hrn major invest iga tions carried o u t at t he Univer;.;ity of Illinois <51 • 160 1.
It has brcn found that t he no min a l shea ring ;.;trr,;s at a di sta nce d
arou nd columns o r wa ll s is a fa ril y goo d meas mc of the diagonal tension
;;tre,.;s. The design of fla t slabs i;.; ba;;ed on a ;.; imil a r concrpl om. So m e
forr ign codrs con;.;ider t hr shra ring st re;.;s at a distance % r/0 36 1 .
10. W a ll s
A s hea ring failure in deep beam;.; or lo a d-carry ing walb will ge nerally
ap prar a;.; a ;.;p litting or a diagonal t ensio n fa ilure. In ea rl y st udi e;; a n
analysi;.; was gcnrrally maclr according to lhr t hrory of elast icit y,
a;;;.; uming a n elastic homogeneou;; material, the reinforcement bei ng
placed according to the co rrr;.; ponding cli;.;tribution and m agn it ud e of
ie n;.; il r st re,.;;.;r;.; . L ate r ;.;tudie;.;(Izo, 1'34 1 and tests <143 • 147 • 15 ~ 1 haYc sho wn ,
howevrr , that ;.;uch a n app roac h may be un econo mi cal. Th e formation
of diagonal tensio n crac ks will cause a favorahlr red ist ributi on of
stresses. H . :Nylander and H. H o lst <153 1 therefore recommended t h at,
the cler;ign of such deep beams he b ased on the safety again st failure,
the conditions a ft er crack formation hei ng considered in t h e design of
Rhear reinforce ment.
11 . Construction Joints
A number of tests have been made in order to determin e to wh at
exte nt the resistance of conc rete to di ago na l tension or shea r is weak ened
by the preRence of construction jo int s <50 · 52 • 109 • 117 • 128 J. It has generally
been ag rred that wcll- constructrd and wel l- placrd joi nts do not redu ce
36 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
the strength significantly. E. H a rboe <128 > has indicated , howeve r, that
b adly placed joints (in a region of high shear) may reduce the ultimate
s trength considerably. Accordingly, so me specifications <164 > require half
th e normal allowable nominal sh earing stresses in the region of such
constrnction joints.
1 2. Theories of Failure
Since the publication of ~Iohr 's paper on shear in concrete in
1911 <·t:l), it has generally been agreed th at some type of maximum shear
theo ry a pplies better to concrete t han the la ter theories , which h ave
been found to be in a ccord with the failure of ductile metal s. Shear is
therefore an important concept in theori es pertaining to the failure of
concrete. Even though much work h as been clone in thi s fi eld <91 • 9s , 100 • 12 4 .
140 159 163
• • • lioJ, this matter is considered beyond the scope of t h e present
discussion.
VII. CONCLUSION
Two major groups of specifications appear in present design of rein-
force d concrete subject to sh ear. Th e differences between them are
caused hy different views regarding basic concepts of design as well as
differences in th e econom ic structure of the nations involved.
In Germany the concept of design was advanced by E. ~Hirsch that
diagonal tension fai lures should never occur in reinforced concrete
st ructures. Structures should be designed in such a ma nner that fai lure
of flexural members will be du e to moment , not to shea r, thereby taking
advantage of the favorable redi stribution of moment s and forces often
possible in monolithic st ructures. Furthermore, German eco nomic condi-
tions were and are such that a saving in steel weight is synonymous with
economy, even if such conservation of steel is achi eved at the expense
of some additional labo r.
On the basis of these lwo considerations, test res ults were int er-
preted to the effect that web reinforcement should consist mainly of
bent-up bars, which should be designed for the total shear wh enever web
reinforcement was at all necessary . Thi s is accordingly the philosophy of
presen t German design a nd spccificatio1rn . A major part of the world is
su bj ect to similar econo mic conditions \Yi th respect to con;;truction
work , and the German type of specifications is therefore very common in
Europe and elsewh ere.
In the United States and Canada, on the other hand , the basic view
pertaining to the design of web reinforcement !ms been that of allow able
stresses and working loads. Th e economic conditions in t h e construction
industries of these countries are such that a saving in steel consump-
tion is relatively less important as far as construction cost is concern ed
than a saving in labo r and construction time through a considerable
degree of standa rdization.
As a result of these different considerations, tests have been planned,
conducted and interpreted to the effect that web reinforcement may be
designed only for the excess shear over that assumed to be carried by
t h e concrete.
The writer feels that no justification exists for seeking the introduc-
tion of American practice in present-day Europe. It is possible, however,
37
38 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
that, future economic changrs a nd advances in construction tcchnics may
create s uch justi fications .
It is felt, on the oth e r hand , that it should be seriously considered
wh eth e r o r not the Ame ri ca n construction indu st ry m ay be nefi t by
th e int rocluct ion of strict e r specifications for the d es ign of web rein-
forcement.
The wrilcr beli eves that fai lure by diagonal tens ion is possibl e in
many st ructural element s design ed afte r the present Am e ri ca n speci-
fic al ions , espec ially in mono! it hi c s tructures. From the point of vie\\·
of design by a ll o wable stresses, ;;uch a pos;;ibility is not of decisive
importance provided th at a rca;;ona blc "fac tor of sa fe t y" i,.; present.
If a nd wh en reinforced conc ret e ;; tructures a re cl e,.; igncd on an ulti-
mate basis, however. con,.;idering the increa,.;ed st rength a nd lou g hn cs,.;
of a monolithic s tructure clu e to redi st ribution of moments and force,;
in the inelastic loading range, t h e n thi ;; tendency to fa il in diagonal
tension becomes important. In be a m;; a nd simp le fram es th e ultim ate
flexural capacit y will be relatively liltl e higher than th e ca pac ity at
first y ieldin g. Th e formation of fl exural crack,; and ;;o-call cd pl ast ic
hinges will , on the other ha nd , reduce tl1e abi lity of th e concrete to
carry shear as as;;umed in present American design , a d es ign la rgely
based on lest;; of over-reinforced spec im ens. It is also un ce rtain ho\\·
the ab ili ty of the con cret e to ca rry s hear "·ill reac t to th e actions of
repeat cd load,; a ml of ,.;uclden loads ;;uch as se ismic a nd blast effe ct,; .
In the case of multi-indeterminate me mb ers ;; uch as ,.;onw ty pe,; of
s lab,;, th e ultim ate fl ex ural capac it y as computed by ultimate load
theo ri e,.; a nd obse rYed in te,.;ls m ay he co nsid erab ly high e r than th e
capac it y at first y ielding. Tests have n.lso s hom1 conclusive ly th at the
pre;;ence of lo cal yielding may reduce th e resi sta nce again,;[ punching
fai lure quite considerably. Under th ese circum stance,.; it beco mes impor-
t a nt indeed to sec ure th e pun ching s trength if it i,.; de,.; ired to maintain
the e ntire fl exural toughness an d st rength of such slabs a,.; a rese rve
load capacity. Such a co ntrol of punching st rength , for inst ance in fl at
plate floors , is not possible with our present knowledge.
Th e writer will by n o m eans at the present stage of hi s st udi es imply
that the present American specifications rega rding shear and diagonal
te1rn ion a rc un safe or un eco nomica l from t he point of view of presen t
d esign philosophy . If and wh en t h e concepts of ultimat e load design
are introduced into specificat ion s, h owever, it is s trongly recommended
that th e present concepts of web reinforcement design be c ri t ically and
t ho roughly re-exa mined.
VIII. BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATIO N
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TENSION AND WEB REINFORCEMENT 41
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.__
 42 43
ILLINOIS EN GI N EERI NG EXPERI MEN T STATION Circ. 64. DI AG O NA L TENSION A ND WEB REINFORCEM EN T

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71.t Bach, C., and Graf, 0.: " Vers uch e mit Eisenbetonbalken zm Ermitllu ng dpr 1927, 66 pp.
1921 \ \"idPrs tandsfiihigkci t verschiedener Be\\"ehrung gegen Schubkrilfl<'. Vi ert Pr T ei!," 92. v . Emperger, V.: " Di<· \"orsehriften llher Sehubs pannungt•n in Deutschland und
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72.t :\ liirsch, E.: " Schubversuch e mit \\"outcnbalken," Beton und Eise n, \'ol. 21, 93.t Hiclrnrt, F. E.: ".-\n Investigation of \Yeh SlrPSSl'S in Reinforced Concrete
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7-t. Hausch, E.: "Ben·chnung dcr .-\hbiegungen gPgen Ahschcrcn," D er Ba uingc ni eu r,
1922 Vol. :3, ::\o. 7, Berlin, April 1922, pp. 211-12. 95.t t " .-\CI Standard E-L\ -281'. Tentative Building H.Pgulations for Reinforced Con-
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1923 a nd Constructional Engin ee ring, \ "ol. 18, Xo. 4, London, April 1923, pp. 2:3.1-40. !l(i. Probst, E.: " Die Sehubsicherung yon Ei senhetontr;igPrn, " DN Bauingenieur,
Disc ussion 240-42. 1928 Vol. 9, ::\os. 12/ 13 and 14, Berlin , :\lar.-.-\pr. 1928, pp. 202-0-l and 2-14-46.
76. :\l iirsc h, E . : " Der Eisenbetonbau; I. Band; 1. H ;ilfte," 6 Edition, K onrad !l7.t Ri chart, F. E ., and La rson, L. J.: ' '.-\n Investigation of \\"ph StrPSSl'S in Concret e
1923 \\"itt,,w, Stuttgart, :\Iay 1923, 490 pp. 1928 Beams, Part II, R estrain ed 13cams,'" l"niversit _,. of Illinois Engin ee ring Experi-
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78. 1928 II. ::\ichtmctallische Stoffc,'" Eidgeniissisrhe :\ l alcrialprl"1fungsanstalt an der
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79. 1928 Congress for Bridge- and Structural Engineering, Sept. 1928, Julius Springer,
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1925 Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 12, ::\o. 2, Boston, Feb. 1925, pp. 71-76. Wien, 1929, pp. 423-51. Discussion pp. 451-61.
80.tt 100. t Richa rt, F. E., Brancltza:g, .-\., and Bro,,·n, R. L.: " A Study of the Failure of
" Prelimin a ry Draft of Proposed Standa rd Building Regulations for th e L"se of 1928 Concrete under Combined Compressive Stresses," universit y of Illinois Engineer-
1925 R einforced Concrete, " Proceedings .-\CI, Vol. 21, F eb. 1925, pp. 427-60. Discus-
sion 461-69. ing Experiment Station, Bulletin 185, Xov. 1928, 102 pp.
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44 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
105. Graf, 0 . : " Aus ncucrC'n Vcrsuchen liber di e \Yid crstandsfiihi gkeit von Eiscn-
1929 hctonbalken gcgc n Schubkriifte," Zeitsc hrift des Vcrcincs dcu tsc hcr Ingenieure
Vol. 73, l\o. 35, Berlin, Aug. 1929, pp. 1245-47.
106. Graf, 0. : " Aus a mcrika nisc hcn Versuchen mit Eise nbcton balken zu r Ermilllung
1929 dcr \Yidcrstandsfiihigk eit versc hi edener Bcwchrung gcgc n Schubkriiflc," Deuts-
cher Aussc huss fUr Eisenbcton, Heft Gl, Berlin , 1929, 30 pp.
107. Graf, 0.: " l\li ttcilungen aus ncucrcn VNsuchen Uber di e Bcwchrun g von Eisen-
1930 bctonbalkcn gcgcn Schubkrilf te," D er Ba uingcnieur, Vol. 11, :'{o. 18, BC' rli n, '.\Jay
1930, pp. 307-10.
108. v . Emperge r, F., Foerster, l\I., Graf, 0., a nd D omke, 0 . : " ] fa ndbuch fei r EisPn-
1930 bctonbau, Erstcr Ba nd," 4 Edition, \Yil hclm E rnst und Sohn, l3C' rlin , 19:30, 58!i pp.
109.t J ohansen, I~ . \V. : "Sty kcforh olclcnc i Stf'S bcskel i Beton, " Byg nin gsstatiskc :\ l l'cl-
1930 dclclser, Vol. 2, Copenh agen, 1930, pp. 67-68.
110. H ager, K .: " Die Schubsichcrung in den Deutschcn Eise nl)(' tonbesti mmu ngcn,"
1931 Der Btiuingeni eur, Vol. 12, X o. 12/ 13, Berlin, :\larch 1931, pp. 213-lG.
111. t Probst, E. : " Ein Bcitrag zur Fragc der Schubsichcrung vo n Eise nbclo nbalkcn, "
1931 D er Ba uingC'ni cur, Vol. 12, X o. 12/ 13, Berlin, :\larch 1931, pp. 208-12.
112. G raf, 0.: " Cher diC' Schuhsirherung dPr Eise nbctonba lken, ., D er Ba uingcni eur,
1931 Vol. 12, Xo. 24, Berlin, June 1931, pp. 442-46. Disc ussion pp. 447-49.
113. R a usch, E . : " Bcanspruchung a uf Absc hcren im Eisenbctonbau, " Der Bauingeni-
1931 cur, Vol. 12, l\o. 32/ 33, Berlin, Au g. 1931, pp. 578-81.
114.t Ri chart, F. E., and J ense n, V. P.: " T es ts of Plain a nd R einforced Concrete ;\l ade
1931 " ·it h llayditc r\ ggrcgatcs," l'niversity of Illinois Enginee ring Experiment Slation ,
Bulletin 237, Oct. 1931, 79 pp.
115. Sha nk, J . R .: " Bond, Shear a nd Di agonal T ension in R einforced Co ncrete,"
1931 ACI Journ al, :Nov. 1931, Proceedings Vol. 28, pp. 187-92.
116. t Graf, 0. : "Vcrsuchc mi t Eisc nbctonbalkcn zur Ermittlung der \\"idersta nclsfa-
1931 higkeit verschi edener Bewchrung gcgen Schubkriifte, Scchstcr T ei! ," D eutscher
Ausschuss fUr Eiscnbeton, H eft 67, Berlin, 1931, 58 pp.
117.t H ager, IC , and Xenning, E.: " Versuchc zur F cststellung dcr Scherfestigkcit un d
1931 der \\"asserdi chtigk eil des Bcton s in den Arbcitsfugcn bei vcrsc hi cdenC' r Fugenbe-
ha ndlun g," D eutsc her Ausschuss fiir Eisc nbcton, H eft 69, Berlin, 1931, 33 pp.
118.tt " Bcstimmungc n des D eutscl1C'n Aussc husses for EisC'nbcto n 1932," Beto n-
1932 l\:a lendcr 1934, \\"ilhC'lm Ernst und Sohn, BC'rlin, Oct. 1933, 547 pp.
119. Lose r, B .: " Bestimmung der Balken-SchubsichC'rung a us dcr Schubkra ftlini e,"
1932 Beto n und E ise n, Vol. 31, Xo. 5, Berlin, :\larch 1932, pp. 77-79.
120. Disc hinger, F .: " Die E rmi ttlung dcr Eiseneinlagen in \\"a ndart igcn Triigern , .,
1933 Beton und Eisen, Vol. 32, .:'\o. 15, Berlin, Aug. 1933, pp. 237-39.
121.t Graf, 0. : " Versuche Uber die Wid ersta nclsfahi gkcit vo n E iscnbctonplattcn un ter
1933 konzen tri erter Last na he einem Auflagcr, und Versuchc Uber die \Yidcrstanclsfii-
higkcit des Betons a n den Abbi cgestellen der sc hief a bgebogencn Eisen in Eise n-
bctonbalken, " D eutsc her Ausschuss for Eisenbeto n, H eft 73, Berlin , 1933, 28 pp.
122. Ertl, II. : " Schubwidcrstand uncl Schubsicherung im Eisenbeto nbau," Publica-
1934 tions, Interna tional Association for Bridge- and Structural E nginee ring, Vol. 2,
1933-34, pp. 145-66.
123. t l\1 ylrea, T. D . : " Tests of Reinforced Concrete T-Beams," ACI Journ al, l\Iay-
1934 June 1934, Proceedings, Vol. 30, pp. 448-64.
124. Leon, A. : "Ueber die Scherfestigkeit des Betons," Beton und Eisen, Vol. 34, Xo.
1935 8, Berlin, Apr. 1935, pp. 130-35.
125. t Evans, R. H . : "Stresses in the Steel R einforce ment of R einforced Concrete
1935 Stru ctures," The Structu ral Engineer, Vol. 13, London, Sept . 1935, pp. 354-69.
45
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TENSION AND WEB REINFORCEMENT
126. Goldbeck, A. T.: " i:lhearing and T orsional Strength of Concrete," R eport on
19:35 Significance of T ests of Co ncrete and Co nercte _\ ggreg<ttcs, Publislw d by ASTl\I ,
' 1935, pp. 20-21.
127.t Graf, 0.: " Versuchc liber di e \Yid erstandsfiihi gkcit vo n Eisenbctonbalken gcge n
19:35 Abscheren," D eutscher Aussc huss fl"lr E ise nbeton, Hef t 80, Berlin , 1935, 17 pp.
128 .t U a rboe, E.: " Laboratoriumsfors6k med st 6peskj 6lcr i jernbetongkon struk-
rn:35 sjoner," :'forges tckniske h 6iskok, Avlm ncllinger til 25-arsjubil<'et, Trondheim ,
1935, pp. 375-92.
129.tt " ACI 8 tand a rcl 501-36T. Building R rgulations fo r R einforced Co ncrete," ACI
1936 J ournal, l\I ar.-Apr. 1936, Proceedings, Vol. 32, pp. 407-4-t
130.t Thompson, J. T., Hubbard, T. F. , and F ehrcr, J. X.: "ConcrctP Beams " ·ith
1938 Sheet-Steel W eb Plates," Civil En ginee ring, Vol. 8, :1\o. 12, D ec. 1938, pp. 815-18 .
131. t \\"ilson, "\Y. '.\I., !(luge, IL \V., and Coombe, J. Y. : " An In vestigation of Ri gid
1938 F rame Bridges; P art II , Laborntor~· T es ts of R l' inforcPd Co ncrete Rigid F rame
Bridges," Cnivcrsity of Illinois E nginee rin g Experiment Station, Bulletin 308,
D ec. 1938, 75 pp.
132. t Graf, 0.: " Versuche (1bcr die "\\"idersta ndsfiihigk cit von a llscit ig auflicgenden
1938 dickcn Eise nbctonplatte n untcr Einzellastcn, " D eutscher Ausschuss for Eisen-
bcton , H eft 88, Berlin, 1938, 26 pp.
133. t Ri cha rt , F. E.: " Tests of Reinforced Con crete Slabs Subject to Co nce ntrated
1939 Loads," l:" nivcrsity of Illinois Enginl'ering Experiment Station, Bulletin 314, June
1939, 75 pp.
134. B ay, J-l.: " D er frciauflil'gl' nd e wa nd:trlige Triiger im Stadium II, " Der B auin geni-
1939 cur, \ 'ol. 20, ::\ o. 27 / 28, Berlin , Juh- 1939, pp. 375-79.
135.t ::\lcCain, D . ::\l.: " \\'elckd Shear l{einforcing for Concrete Beams," Civil Engi-
1939 necrin g, Vol. 9, :\ o. 7, Jul y 19:39, pp. 418-21.
13G.tt X. S. -127. R eglcr fo r utfo n,lse a v arbcider i a rml'r t hdo ng,"' D en X orskc In-
1939 ge ni orforl' ning, Oslo, X ov. 1939, 3;3 pp.
137.tt " Proposed R evisions of Building R rgulat ions for R einforced Concrete, ACI 501-
1940 36T, " ACI J ourn al, J an. 1940, ProcPPdings Yo!. 36, pp. 237-6-t Discussion pp.
264-1 to 26.
138. tt " R ecommend ed Practice and Standard Specifications for Concrete and R ein-
1940 forced Concrete, R eport of J oint Co mmi t tee," Published by A.Cl, Jun e 1940,
HO pp.
139.tt " Proposed Building R egul ations for R einforced Co ncrete Prese nted b.v ACI
1940 Co mmittee 318," ACI Journ al, X ov. 1940, Proceedings Vol. 37, pp. 77-139
Discussion pp. 140-1 t o 15.
140.t Smi t h, F. C., a nd Brown, R. Q. : " The Shearing Strengt h of Cement ::\Iortar, "
1941 U niversity of Washin gton Engineering Experiment Station, Bulletin 106, F eb .
1941, 32 pp.
141.t Evans, R.H.: " Influence of Shear Cracks on t he Bond Slip in R einforced Con-
1941 crete Beams," The Structural Engineer, Vol. 19, London, July 1941, pp . 119-25.
142.tt " :National Building Code," N ational R esearch Coun cil of Canada, ~.R.C. ~o.
1941 1068, Otta wa, N ov. 1941, 422 pp.
143.t Klingroth, H.: " Versuche an Stahlbetontragwandcn und deren Auswert ung, "
1942 Beton und Eisen, Vol. 41, Nos. 9/ 10, 11 / 12 and 13/ 14, Berlin, ?-lay-July 1942,
pp. 91-97, 108-15, and 130-36.
144. Dischinger, F.: " Kritische Betrachtungen zu den D eutschen Bestimmungen fiir
1942 Stahlbeton b ezi.iglich der Bercchnung der H aft-, Schub- und Scherspannungen, "
D er Bauingenieur, Vol. 23, No. 35/ 36, Berlin, Sept. 1942, pp. 259-64. Discussion
in E cton und Eisen, Vol. 42, 1943, pp. 25-39, 71-74 and 99-100.
 47
Circ. 64. DIAGONAL TENSION AND WEB REINFORCEMENT
46 ILLINOIS ENGINEERING EXPERIMENT STATION
l(i(j. tt " Inst rncc i6n para cl pro~·ecto de obras de honnig6n , ·• :\I ad rid, 1949, 6-! pp.
H.5. Boase, A. J., and :\lorga n, C. E.: " Balanced Design for R l' inforC'ed ConnPte"
1943 ACI Journal, Feb. 1943, Proceedings Vol. :39, pp. 277-9G. ' 1940
l\,7. t Thompson, J . :i\., imd Ferguson, P. '.\I. : " Shear R esistance of Tile-Concret e
146.tt " Bcstimmungen des DPutsc hen ..\ussc husses fi_ir Stah lbeton, Ausgabe 194:3 . D.I.X. 1%0 J oists, " ACI J ourn a l, :'\ov. 1950, Proceedings \'ol. 47, pp. 229-36.
19,1:3 104.5, " Zcntralhlalt der B[tuvenrnltung, Vol. 63, :\o. l-l / 17, Bl'rlin , 1\pr. Hl43, 168.tt Flcott, W. L., Glanville,\\' . IL, and Thomas, F. G.: " Explanatory Handbook on
pp. 177-203. 1950 the B.S. Co de of PraclieP for Reinforced Concrete," Connetc Publi cations Ltd.,
147. t C:raf, 0., Brenner, E., :md Ba.'" TT.: " VPrsuche mit einern \\'a nd a rt ig<'n Triigrr London, 1950, 119 pp.
1943 a us StahlJJPton," D eut sC' her .\u ssC' huss fiir StahlllPton, Hrft 99, Bl' rlin , 19-!:3. 169. t " LPs pl anchers-dalles sans ehampignons," Ann ales de l'Inst itut T echnique du
148 . Bensroter, S. U., and Logan, S. T.: " ShPa r and Bond StrPsses in R einforcC'd 19.51 Bil.timPnt et des Trnvaux Publics, ~o. 167, Ecton, 136ton .-\nnc, Xo. 16, P ari s,
19-1-1 Concretp," Proceedings .\SC I<;, :\l ar<'h 19-H , Transaetions ASC E, Vol. 110, l!l4.5, J a n. 1951, 44 pp.
pp. 1590-606. Disc ussion G07-32. 170. C hamlmud, H..: " R esistance du B6ton aux Contraintcs Tri ax iales," Annales de
149. tt " :\CI Standard :3 18-41. Standard Building Jlc•gulations for R e inforC'ed ConerdC', " 1951 l'lnstitut Technique du Bfttimenl et des Trnva ux Publics, :'\o. 17:3, :\lanud du
194.5 .-\ CI Journal, June 19-!.5, ProC'eedings Vol. 41, pp. 559-Gl9. Bcton .-\rm<\ Xo. 20, Paris, Feh. 1951, 14 pp.
150. Sali ger, R . : " Dic 1wue Theori<' des Slaldhcton s," Franz Dcutick<', \\'i en, .\ ug. 171.tt " ACI Standard :318-51. Standrtrd Building Code R equirements for R einforced
1945 194.5, 110 pp. 1951 Co nrrelc," ACI Journ a l, April 1951, Proceedings Vol. 47 , pp ..589-652 .
151.t i\lorclto, 0.: " :\n JnVC'st igalion of thP Stre ngth of \\'eld<'Cl Fltirrnps in R ein forced
1945 C'oncrde BPams," .\ CI .Journal, :\ov. 194.5, ProcePdings, Vol. 42, pp. 141-62. The follo\\'ing test reports appeared during the printing of thi s eirl'ubr:
152. Johan se n, h. \\'.: " 13crc•gning af J ernhctonhj:Plkl'r, " B.'·gningsstati ske :\Iedclel- 172.t \Yilh~-, C. B.: " Th e Stn·ngth of 11.Pinforl'ed Conc re te Beams in Slwar, " i\! agazi ne
194.5 elser, Vol. lG, :\o. 2, Copenhage n, 194.5, pp. 3.5-li:3. 1951 of Conncte R esearl'h, Xo. 7, London , .-\ug. 1951 , pp. 22-:30.
15:3. t :\.dandcr, H., and Hois l , II.: " :\ ag rn un ckrsii knin gar roran d e s kivor och hoga 1/:3. t C la rk, .-\. P.: " Diagonal TPns ion in R einforced Co ncrete Beams," ACI J ournal,
1946 ba lkar av a rmernd hctong, " Transactions of the Ho:rnl Technical l -niversity, :\o. 1951 Oct. 1951, Proceedings Vol. 48, pp. H.5-5G.
2, Stockholm, .Jan. 1946, 66 pp.
1.54. t Newmark, :"J. :\1., Sicss, C. P., and P enman, R. R.: " Studies of Slab and Beam
1946 High\\' a~· Bridges, P a rt I ," l'ni ve rs it.'· of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station,
Bulletin 3(i:J, :\larch 194G, 1:30 pp.
1.55. t Forsse ll, C., a nd Holmberg , A.: "Stiimpdlast pa plat tor av beto ng, " Beto ng, Vol.
1946 31, :'.\/ o. 2, Stockholm, 1946, pp. \).5-12:3 .
1.56.tt " ACI Standard 318-47. Standard Building Code Requireme nts for R einforced
19H Co nercte," ACI Journal , Sept. 19-17, Proce<•dings Vol. 44, pp. 1-64.
157. t :\Pl\· ma rk, X. i\l., SiPss, C. P., a nd Peek man, \\'. i\l.: " Studies of Slab and Beam
1948 High\\'a.'· !fridges, Part II," l . niVC'rsit.'· of Illinois Engineering Experiment Station,
Bullclin 37.5, .Jan. 19-18, GO pp.
158 . Richart, F . E.: " Advan ces in RPinforl'C'd Co ncrC'te During the Pas t Qua rter of
1948 a Cenlur.,-, " AC'I Journal , April 1948, Prol'cedings Vol. 44, pp. 720-31.
159. t :\IcH e nr~-, D.: " The Effect of Gplift Pre3su rc on t he Shc'.tring Strength of Con-
1948 C'l'cte," Trnns::ict ions, Third Congress on L ::i rge Dams, Vol. I, R . 48, Inte rn ational
Co mmi ssion on Large D a ms, Stoekholm, June 1948, 17 pp.
160.t Ri cha rt, F. E.: " R einforce d Concrete W a ll a nd Column Footings," ACI Journ a l,
1948 Oct.-Xov. 1948, Proceedings Vol. 45, pp. 97-128 a nd 237-60.
161. t Sunderland, A.: " Th e Strength of R einforced Co ncrete Beams in Shear," :\Iaga-
1949 zine of Concrete Research, Vol. 1, Xo. 1, London, J a n. 1949, pp. 3-8.
162. tt " D a nsk Ingeni orfore nings :\ormer for Bygnings-Konstruktioner. 2. Beton- og
1949 je rnbcto n-kon struktion er. D.S. 411, " Co penhagen, June 1949, 60 pp.
163. t Ba lm er, G.: "Shearing Strength of Concrete under High Triaxia l Stress -
1949 Computation of i\lohr's Envelope as a Curve," U. S. Bureau of R ecla mation,
Structural R esearch L a borato ry R e port :\o. SP-23, Oct. 1949, 13 pp.
164.tt "Statliga Betongbestiimmelser. D el 1, i\Iate ri a ldelen, " Statens Offentliga Utred-
1949 ningar 1949:64, Stockholm, D ec. 1949, 72 pp.
165. Gebauer, F.: " Die Plastizitiitstheo rie im Stahlbetonbau," Georg Fromme, 'Wien,
1949 1949, 179 pp.

....._
The Engineering Experiment Station was established by act of the
University of Illinois Board of Trustees on December 8, 1903. Its pur-
pose is to conduct engineering investigations that are important to the
industrial interest.a of the state.
The management of the Station is vested in an Executive Staff
composed of the Director, the Associate Director, the heads of the
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To make the results of its investigations available to the public,
the Station publishes a series of bulletins. Occasionally it publishes
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research project but not having a direct bearing on it. A few reprint.a
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the staff are also published.
In ordering copies of these publications reference should be made to
the Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin, Circular, or Reprillt
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Tull ENGINJIBBJNG E:u:mullllNT 8'1'..,TJ,
UNIVDBIT1' ~OJ' I
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