ASTRONOMY FORTNIGHT SPECIAL

Astronomy
Science dealing with the origin, evolution, composition, distance, and motion of
all bodies and scattered matter in the universe. The most ancient of the
sciences, it has existed since the dawn of recorded civilization. Much of the
earliest knowledge of celestial bodies is often credited to the Babylonians. The
ancient Greeks introduced influential cosmological ideas, including theories
about the Earth in relation to the rest of the universe. Ptolemy's model of an
Earth-centred universe (2nd century AD) influenced astronomical thought for
over 1,300 years. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus assigned the central
position to the Sun , ushering in the age of modern astronomy. The 17th century
saw several momentous developments: Johannes Kepler's discovery of the
principles of planetary motion, Galileo's application of the telescope to
astronomical observation, and Isaac Newton's formulation of the laws of motion
and gravitation. In the 19th century, spectroscopy and photography made it
possible to study the physical properties of planets, stars, and nebulae, leading
to the development of astrophysics. In 1927 Edwin Hubble discovered that the
universe, hitherto thought static, was expanding (see expanding universe). In
1937 the first radio telescope was built. The first artificial satellite, Sputnik, was
launched in 1957, inaugurating the age of space exploration; spacecraft that
could escape Earth's gravitational pull and return data about the solar system
were launched beginning in 1959.
Copernican principle
Model of the solar system centred on the Sun, with Earth and other planets
revolving around it, formulated by Nicolaus Copernicus in the mid 16th century.
Having the Sun in this central position explained the apparent motion of planets
relative to the fixed stars and was truer than the Earth-centred Ptolemaic system
(see Ptolemy). Scientifically, the Copernican system led to belief in a much larger
universe than before (because, if the Earth revolved around the Sun, the stars
would have to be very distant not to appear to alter their position); more broadly,
the Copernican principle is invoked to argue against any theory that would give
the solar system a special place in the universe. Dethronement of Earth from the
centre of the universe caused profound shock: the Copernican system

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challenged the entire system of ancient authority and required a complete

change in the philosophical conception of the universe.
Spectroscopy

Branch of analysis devoted to identifying elements and compounds and

elucidating atomic and molecular structure by measuring the radiant energy
absorbed or emitted by a substance at characteristic wavelengths of the
electromagnetic spectrum (including gamma ray, X-ray, ultraviolet, visible light,
infrared, microwave, and radio-frequency radiation) on excitation by an external
energy source. The instruments used are spectroscopes (for direct visual
observation) or spectrographs (for recording spectra). Experiments involve a
light source, a prism or grating to form the spectrum, detectors (visual,
photoelectric, radiometric, or photographic) for observing or recording its
details, devices for measuring wavelengths and intensities, and interpretation of
the measured quantities to identify chemicals or give clues to the structure of
atoms and molecules. Helium, cesium, and rubidium were discovered in the mid-
19th century by spectroscopy of the Sun's spectrum. Specialized techniques
include Raman spectroscopy ,nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), nuclear
quadrupole resonance (NQR), dynamic reflectance spectroscopy, microwave
and gamma ray spectroscopy, and electron spin resonance (ESR). Spectroscopy
now also includes the study of particles (e.g., electrons, ions) that have been
sorted or otherwise differentiated into a spectrum as a function of some property
(such as energy or mass).

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Total range of frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation. The

spectrum ranges from waves of long wavelength (low frequency) to those of
short wavelength (high frequency); it comprises, in order of increasing
frequency (or decreasing wavelength): very-low-frequency to ultrahigh-
frequency radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet
radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. In a vacuum, all waves of the electromagnetic
spectrum travel at the same speed: 299,792,458 m/sec (186,282 mi/sec).

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Expanding universe

Current understanding of the state of the universe. It is based on the finding that
all galaxies are moving away from each other. Application of general relativity to
cosmology, along with the detection of redshifted light coming from galaxies
outside the Milky Way Galaxy, led to the realization in the 1920s that all galaxies
are receding. It is unknown whether the universe will expand indefinitely (open
universe) or eventually collapse (closed universe) into an extremely dense,
congested state, as it began, according to the big-bang model.

Big Bang

Model of the origin of the universe, which holds that it emerged from a state of
extremely high temperature and density in an explosive expansion 10 billion–15
billion years ago. Its two basic assumptions—that Albert Einstein's general
theory of relativity correctly describes the gravitational interaction of all matter
and that an observer's view of the universe does not depend on direction of
observation or on location—make it possible to calculate physical conditions in
the universe back to a very early time called the Planck time (after Max Planck).
According to the model proposed by George Gamow in the 1940s, the universe
expanded rapidly from a highly compressed early state, with a steady decrease
in density and temperature. Within seconds, matter predominated over
antimatter and certain nuclei formed. It took another million years before atoms
could form and electromagnetic radiation could travel through space
unimpeded. The abundances of hydrogen, helium, and lithium and the discovery
of cosmic background radiation support the model, which also explains the
redshifts of the light from distant galaxies as resulting from the expansion of
space.

Definitions from above paragraph

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Antimatter:- Substance composed of elementary particles having the mass and

electric charge of ordinary matter (such as electrons and protons) but for which
the charge and related magnetic properties are opposite in sign.

The existence of antimatter was posited by the electron theory of P.A.M. Dirac. In
1932 the positron (antielectron) was detected in cosmic rays, followed by the
antiproton and the antineutron detected through the use of particle accelerators.
Positrons, antiprotons, and antineutrons, collectively called antiparticles, are the
antiparticles of electrons, protons, and neutrons, respectively. When matter and
antimatter are in close proximity, annihilation occurs within a fraction of a
second, releasing large amounts of energy.

Cosmic background radiation:- Electromagnetic radiation, mostly in the

microwave range, believed to be the highly redshifted residual effect of the
explosion billions of years ago from which, according to the big-bang model, the
universe was created. It was discovered by accident in 1964 by Robert W. Wilson
and Arno Penzias; its presence supports the predictions of big-bang cosmology.

Infrared astronomy

Study of astronomical objects by observing the infrared radiation they emit. Its
techniques enable examination of many celestial objects that give off energy at
wavelengths in the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum but that
cannot otherwise be seen from Earth because they do not emit much visible light
or because that light is blocked by dust clouds, which infrared radiation can
penetrate. Infrared astronomy originated in the early 19th century with the work
of William Herschel (see Herschel family), who discovered infrared radiation
while studying sunlight. The first systematic infrared observations of other stars
were made in the 1920s; modern techniques, such as the use of interference
filters for ground-based telescopes, were introduced in the early 1960s. Because
atmospheric water vapour absorbs many infrared wavelengths, observations are
carried out with telescopes sited on high mountaintops and from airborne and
space-based observatories. Infrared astronomy allows studies of the dust-
obscured core of the Milky Way Galaxy and the hearts of star-forming regions

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and has led to many discoveries including brown dwarf candidates and disks of
matter around certain stars.

Brown dwarf

Astronomical object intermediate in mass between a planet and a star.

Sometimes described as failed stars, brown dwarfs are believed to form in the
same way as stars, from fragments of an interstellar cloud that contract into
gravitationally bound objects. However, they do not have enough mass to
produce the internal heat that in stars ignites hydrogen and establishes nuclear
fusion. Though they generate some heat and light, they also cool rapidly and
shrink; they may differ from high-mass planets only in how they form.

Ultraviolet Astronomy

Study of astronomical objects and phenomena by observing the ultraviolet

radiation (UV radiation) they emit.

It has yielded much information about chemical abundances and processes in

interstellar matter, the Sun, and other stellar objects, such as hot young stars
and white dwarf stars. Ultraviolet astronomy became feasible once rockets could
carry instruments above Earth's atmosphere, which absorbs most
electromagnetic radiation of UV wavelengths. Since the early 1960s, a number of
unmanned space observatories carrying UV telescopes, including the Hubble
Space Telescope, have collected UV data on objects such as comets, quasars,
nebulae, and distant star clusters. The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, launched in
1992, was the first orbiting observatory to map the sky in the shortest UV
wavelengths, at the boundary with the X-ray region of the electromagnetic
spectrum.

Radio and radar astronomy

Study of celestial bodies by measuring the energy they emit or reflect at radio
wavelengths. It began in 1931 with Karl Jansky's discovery of radio waves from
an extraterrestrial source. After 1945, huge dish antennas, improved receivers
and data-processing methods, and radio interferometers let astronomers study
fainter sources and obtain greater detail. Radio waves penetrate much of the gas
and dust in space, giving a much clearer picture of the centre and structure of

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the Milky Way Galaxy than optical observation can. This has allowed detailed
studies of the interstellar medium in the Galaxy and the discovery of previously
unknown cosmic objects (e.g., pulsars, quasars). In radar astronomy, radio
signals are sent to near-Earth bodies or phenomena (e.g., meteor trails, the
Moon, asteroids, nearby planets) and the reflections detected, providing precise
measurement of the objects' distances and surface structure. Because radar
waves can penetrate even dense clouds, they have provided astronomers' only
maps of the surface of Venus. Radio and radar studies of the Moon revealed its
sandlike surface before landings were made. Radio observations have also
contributed greatly to knowledge about the Sun.

Pulsar:- Any of a class of cosmic objects that appear to emit extremely regular
pulses of radio waves. A few give off short rhythmic bursts of visible light, X
rays, and gamma radiation as well. Thought to be rapidly spinning neutron stars,
they were discovered by Antony Hewish and Jocelyn Bell Burnell in 1967 with a
specially designed radio telescope. More than 550 have been detected since. All
behave similarly, but the intervals between pulses (and thus their rotation
periods) range from one-thousandth of a second to four seconds. Charged
particles from the surface enter the star's magnetic field, which accelerates them
so that they give off radiation, released as intense beams from the magnetic
poles. These do not coincide with the pulsar's own axis of rotation, so as the
star spins, the radiation beams swing around like lighthouse beams and are
seen as pulses. Pulsars have been shown to be slowing down, typically by a
millionth of a second per year. It has been calculated that pulsars “switch off”
after about 10 million years, when their magnetic fields weaken enough.

Quasar:- Any of a class of enigmatic cosmic objects of high luminosity and

strong radio emission observed at extremely great distances; also, a closely
related object that has the same optical appearance but does not emit radio
waves, i.e., a so-called quasi-stellar object (QSO).

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Most quasars exhibit very large redshifts, suggesting that they are moving away
from Earth at tremendous speeds (approaching the speed of light); they thus are
some of the most distant known objects in the universe. Quasars are no more
than a light-year or two across but as much as 1,000 times more luminous than a
giant galaxy having a diameter of 100,000 light-years; their extreme brightness
allows them to be observed at distances of more than 10 billion light-years. Many
investigators attribute such energy generation to matter spiraling at high
velocity into a supermassive black hole (millions or billions of times as much
mass as the Sun) at the centre of a distant galaxy.

Nebula:- Any of various tenuous clouds of gas and dust in interstellar space.
Nebulae constitute only a small percentage of a galaxy's mass. Dark nebulae
(e.g., the Coalsack) are very dense, cold molecular clouds that appear as large,
obscure, irregularly shaped areas in the sky. Bright nebulae (e.g., the Crab
Nebula, planetary nebula) appear as faintly luminous, glowing surfaces; they
emit their own light or reflect that of stars near them. The term nebula also
formerly referred to galaxies outside the Milky Way Galaxy.

Gamma ray astronomy

Study of astronomical objects and phenomena that emit gamma rays. Gamma-
ray telescopes are designed to observe high-energy astrophysical systems,
including stellar coronas, white dwarf stars, neutron stars, black holes,
supernova remnants, clusters of galaxies, and diffuse gamma-ray background
radiation found along the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy. Because Earth's
atmosphere blocks most gamma rays, observations are generally conducted by
high-altitude balloons or spacecraft. In the 1960s defense satellites designed to
detect X rays and gamma rays from clandestine nuclear testing serendipitously
discovered enigmatic gamma-ray bursts coming from deep space. In the 1970s
Earth-orbiting observatories found a number of gamma-ray point sources,
including an exceptionally strong one, dubbed Geminga , that was later
identified as a pulsar, the nearest yet detected. The Compton Gamma Ray
Observatory, launched in 1991, mapped thousands of celestial gamma-ray
sources; it also showed that the mysterious bursts are distributed across the
sky, implying that their sources are at the distant reaches of the universe rather
than in the Milky Way.

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Corona:- Outermost region of the Sun's (or any star's) atmosphere, consisting of
plasma. The Sun's corona has a temperature of about 3.6 million °F (2 million °C)
and a very low density. Extending more than 8 million mi (13 million km) from the
photosphere, it has no definite boundaries, continually varying in size and shape
as it is affected by the Sun's magnetic field. The solar wind is formed by
expansion of coronal gases. Only about half as bright as the full moon, the
corona is overwhelmed by the brilliance of the solar surface and normally not
visible to the unaided eye, but a total eclipse permits naked-eye observations.

Neutron star:- Any of a class of extremely dense, compact stars thought to be

composed mainly of neutrons with a thin outer atmosphere of primarily iron
atoms and electrons and protons.

Though typically about 12 mi (20 km) in diameter, they have a mass roughly
twice the Sun's and thus extremely high densities (about 100 trillion times that of
water). Neutron stars have very strong magnetic fields. A solid surface
differentiates them from black holes. Below the surface, the pressure is much
too high for individual atoms to exist; protons and electrons are compacted
together into neutrons. The discovery of pulsars in 1967 provided the first
evidence of the existence of neutron stars, predicted in the early 1930s and
believed by most investigators to be formed in supernova explosions.

X-ray Astronomy

Study of astronomical objects and phenomena that emit radiation at X-ray

wavelengths. Because Earth's atmosphere absorbs most X-rays, X-ray
telescopes and detectors are taken to high altitudes or into space by balloons
and spacecraft. In 1949 detectors aboard sounding rockets showed that the Sun
gives off X-rays, but it is a weak source; it took 30 more years to clearly detect X-
rays from other ordinary stars. Beginning with the Uhuru X-ray satellite

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(launched 1970), a succession of space observatories carried increasingly

sophisticated instruments into Earth orbit. Astronomers discovered that most
types of stars emit X-rays but usually as a tiny fraction of their energy output.
Supernova remnants are more powerful X-ray sources; the strongest sources
known in the Milky Way Galaxy are certain binary stars in which one star is
probably a black hole. In addition to myriad point sources, astronomers have
found a diffuse background of X-ray radiation emanating from all directions;
unlike cosmic background radiation, it appears to have many distant individual
sources. The Chandra X-Ray Observatory and XMM-Newton X-ray satellite (both
launched 1999) have made numerous discoveries relating to the nature and
quantity of black holes in the universe, the evolution of stars and galaxies, and
the composition and activity of supernova remnants.

Zodiac

Belt around the heavens extending about 9° on either side of the ecliptic. The
orbits of the Moon and the major planets lie entirely within the zodiac. In
astrology, each of 12 constellations along this circle is considered to occupy
1/12 (30°) of it.

Zodiac symbols:-

Aries- (Latin: “Ram”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Pisces and
Taurus; in astrology, the first sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the
period March 21–April 19. It is represented by a ram, which is sometimes
identified with the Egyptian god Amon.

Taurus- (Latin: “Bull”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Aries and
Gemini; in astrology, the second sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the
period April 20–May 20.

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Gemini- (Latin: “Twins”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Cancer

and Taurus; in astrology, the third sign of the zodiac, governing approximately
the period May 21–June 21. It is represented by a set of twins.

Cancer- (Latin: “Crab”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Leo and
Gemini; in astrology, the fourth sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the
period June 22–July 22. It is represented as a crab (or crayfish).

Leo- (Latin: “Lion”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Cancer and
Virgo; in astrology, the fifth sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the
period July 23–August 22.

Virgo- In astronomy, the constellation lying between Leo and Libra; in astrology,
the sixth sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the period August 23–
September 22.

Libra- (Latin: “Scales”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Scorpio

and Virgo; in astrology, the seventh sign of the zodiac, governing approximately
the period September 22–October 23.

Scorpio- In astronomy, the constellation lying between Libra and Sagittarius; in

astrology, the eighth sign of the zodiac, governing approximately the period
October 24–November 21.

Sagittarius- Latin “Archer” In astronomy, the constellation lying between

Capricorn and Scorpio; in astrology, the ninth sign of the zodiac, governing
approximately the period November 22–December 21.

Capricorn- (Latin: “Goat horn”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between

Aquarius and Sagittarius; in astrology, the tenth sign of the zodiac, governing
approximately the period December 22–January 19.

Aquarius- (Latin: “Water carrier”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between

Capricorn and Pisces; in astrology, the 11th sign of the zodiac, governing
approximately the period January 20–February 18. It is usually represented as a
man pouring a stream of water out of a jug, probably because in ancient times
the rising of Aquarius coincided in the Middle East with the annual arrival of
floods or rainfall.

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Pisces- (Latin: “Fishes”) In astronomy, the constellation lying between Aries and
Aquarius; in astrology, the twelfth sign of the zodiac, governing approximately
the period February 19–March 20. Its symbol is two fish tied together.

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