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2. CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The heat flux given in equation (1.4) is a vector quantity. It shows flow of heat per unit area
in the x-direction. This equation can be written in a more general (three dimensional) form as
 T T T 
q  kT  k  i j k  (2.1)
 x y z 
Or

q   iq x  jq y  kqz  (2.2)
A major objective in a conduction analysis is to determine the temperature field in a medium
resulting from conditions imposed on its boundaries. That is, we wish to know the
temperature distribution, which represents how temperature varies with position in the
medium. Once this distribution is known, the conduction heat flux at any point in the medium
or on its surface may be computed from Fourier’s law. Other important quantities of interest
may also be determined. For a solid, knowledge of the temperature distribution could be used
to ascertain structural integrity through determination of thermal stresses, expansions, and
deflections. The temperature distribution could also be used to optimize the thickness of an
insulating material or to determine the compatibility of special coatings or adhesives used
with the material.

Fig. 2.1 Differential control volume, dx.dy.dz, for conduction analysis in Cartesian coordinates

The conservation of energy principle is used to find the conduction (energy diffusion)
equation.
Refering to Fig. 2.1,
.
Let E in = rate of energy entering to the control volume
.
E out = rate of energy leaving the control volume
.
E gen = rate of energy generated in the control volume
.
= q dxdydz

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.
E st = rate of energy stored in the control volume
= c p T dxdydz
t
Applying the energy balance equation to the control volume,
. . . .
E in  E gen  E out  E st
(2.3)
.
 (q x dydz  q y dxdz  qz dxdy)  q dxdydz 
(2.4)
T
(q xdx dydz  q y dy dxdz  qz dz dxdy)  c p dxdydz
t
But from Taylor series approximation,
q q y q
q x dx  q x  x dx, q y  dy  q y  dy, q z  dz  q z  z (2.5)
x y z
And from Fourier’s law
T T T
q x  k , q y  k , q z  k (2.6)
x y z

Substituting equations (2.5) and (2.6) in to equation (2.4) and dividing by dxdydz gives

.   T    T    T  T
q k    k    k   c p (2.7)
x  x  y  y  z  z  t
.
Where q = energy generated per unit volume ( W / m3 )
3
ρ= density ( kg / m )
c p =specific heat capacity (J/kg.K)
Equation (2.7) is a general transient three dimensional difussion equation in rectangular
coordinate system with energy generation. For materials with constant thermal conductivity
k, equation (2.7) can be written as
.
q  2T  2T  2T c p T 1 T
    
k x 2 y 2 z 2 k t  t
k
 is called thermal diffusivity (m2/s). It is clear from the above equation that the ability
c p
of a material to let heat pass through it increases with increasing thermal diffusivity. This can be
due to a high thermal conductivity k or a low heat capacity c p of the material.
Similar equation can be obtained in cylinderical coordinate system also. Refer to Fig. 2.2 for
the derivation.

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Fig. 2.2 Differential control volume, dr.rddz, for conduction analysis in cylindrical coordinates

The heat flux in cylinderical coordinates is

 T 1 T T 
q  kT  k  i j k  (2.8)
 r r  z 

Where
T k T T
q r  k , q   , q z  k (2.9)
r r  z
Applying the principle of conservation of energy, the energy diffusion equation can be
obtained as

1   T  1   T    T 
. T
q  kr  2  k    k   c p (2.10)
r r  r  r     z  z  t
For constant thermal conductivity,
.
q 1 T  2T 1  2T  2T c p T 1 T
      (2.11)
k r r r 2 r 2  2 z 2 k t  t
Following similar procedure as for rectangular and cylindrical coordinate systems, the heat
diffusion equation can be obtained in spherical coordinate system (Fig. 2.3). For constant
thermal conductivity, this equation will look like,
.
q 2 T  2T 1  2T 1 T 1  2T c p T 1 T
  2  2 2     (2.12)
k r r r r sin   2 r 2 tan   r 2  2 k t  t

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Fig. 2.3 Differential control volume, dr.rsinθdrdθ, for conduction analysis in spherical coordinates

2.1.1. Boundary and Initial Conditions

The temperature distribution in a medium is determined based on the physical conditions
existing at the boundaries of the medium and, if the situation is time dependent, on conditions
existing in the medium at some initial time. There are several common possibilities of
boundary conditions that are simply expressed in mathematical form. Because the heat
equation is second order in the spatial coordinates, two boundary conditions must be
expressed for each coordinate needed to describe the system. Because the equation is first
order in time, however, only one condition, termed the initial condition, must be specified.
The three kinds of boundary conditions commonly encountered in heat transfer are
summarized in Table 2.1. The first condition corresponds to a situation for which the surface
is maintained at a fixed temperature Ts . It is commonly termed a Dirichlet condition, or a
boundary condition of the first kind. It is closely approximated, for example, when the
surface is in contact with a melting solid or a boiling liquid. In both cases there is heat
transfer at the surface, while the surface remains at the temperature of the phase change
process. The second condition corresponds to the existence of a fixed or constant heat flux q
at the surface. This heat flux is related to the temperature gradient at the surface by Fourier’s
law which may be expressed as
T
qx   k (2.13)
x x 0
It is termed a Neumnnn condition, or a boundary condition of the second kind,and may be
realized by bonding a thin film or patch electric heater to the surface. A special case of this
T
condition corresponds to the perfectly insulated, or adiabatic surface for which  0.
x x 0
The boundary condition of the third kind corresponds to the existence of convection heating
(or cooling) at the surface and is obtained from the surface energy balance.

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Table 2.1 Common boundary conditions in heat transfer

Boundary condition type Equation Example
1 constant surface temperature T(0,t)= Ts
(Dirichlet condition)

2 a. Finite heat flux T

k  qs
x
Constant surface heat flux

x 0
(Neumnnn condition)

b. Adiabatic/Insulated surface T
k 0
x x 0

3 Convection surface condition T

k  hT  T (0, t ) 
x x 0

Example 2.1
Passage of an electric current through a long conducting rod of radius ri and thermal
.
conductivity kr results in a uniform volumetric heating at rate of q . The conducting rod is
wrapped in an electrically non-conducting cladding material of outer radius ro and thermal
conductivity kc, and convection cooling is provided an adjoining flow. For steady state
conditions, write appropriate forms of the heat equations for the rod and cladding. Express
appropriate boundary conditions for the solution of these equations.

Fig. Example 2.1

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Solution
From Equation 2.10, the appropriate forms of the heat equation are:
In the Conducting Rod,
.
q d  dT 
 r 0
k dr  dr 
In the Cladding,
d  dT 
r 0
dr  dr 
Appropriate boundary conditions are:
dTr
a) 0
dr r 0 symmetry
b) Tr (ri )  Tc (ri ) common temperature at interface
dT dT
c) k r r  kc c
dr ri dr ri heat flux crossing interface area
 hTc (ro )  T 
dTc
d) k c
dr ro convection heat transfer at outer surface

2.2 STEADY STATE CONDUCTION

2.2.1. One Dimensional Steady State Conduction
The term "one-dimensional" refers to the fact that only one coordinate is needed to describe
the spatial variation of the dependent variables. Hence in a one dimensional system
temperature gradients exist along only a single coordinate direction and heat
transfer occurs exclusively in that direction. The system is characterized by steady-state
conditions if the temperature at each point is independent of time. Despite their inherent
simplicity, one dimensional steady state models may be used to accurately represent
numerous engineering systems. Equation (2.7) for one dimensional steady state heat
conduction with no energy generation in rectangular coordinate system reduces to
d  dT 
k 0 (2.14)
dx  dx 
Integration of equation (2.14) gives us the temperature variation to be
dT C
  C1 (2.15)
dx k
and T ( x)  C1 x  C2 (2.16)
Equations (2.15) and (2.16) show that the heat transfer rate is constant and there is linear
temperature variation with respect to x in the rectangular coordinate system for one
dimensional steady state heat conduction with no energy generation and constant thermal
conductivity. The constants C1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions.
Similarly, equation (2.11) for one dimensional steady state heat conduction with no energy
generation in cylindrical coordinate system reduces to
1 d  dT 
 kr   0 (2.17)
r dr  dr 
Integration of equation (2.17) gives
T (r )  C1 ln( r )  C2 (2.18)

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2.2.2. Thermal Resistance Concept

Consider the one dimensional temperature variation in equation (2.16) applied to the slab
shown in Fig.2.4. Applying the known temperatures T1 and T2as boundary conditions, the
constants C1 andC2 in equation (2.16) can be obtained
T2  T1 dT T  T1
C1  , C 2  T1 and  C1  2
L dx L
The heat transfer rate in the slab becomes

. dT T T T T T T T T
Q  kA  kA 2 1  kA 1 2  1 2  1 2
dx L L L R
kA
. T T
Q 1 2
R
(2.19)
Where R  L is called thermal resistance. It depends on the geometry and thermal properties
kA
of a medium.

.
Q

Fig. 2.4 Thermal Resistance Concept

As an electrical resistance is associated with the conduction of electricity, a thermal

resistance may be associated with the conduction of heat defining resistance as the ratio of a
driving potential to the corresponding transfer rate.
T1  T2 L
Rcond  .
 (2.20)
Q kA
For electrical conduction in the same system, Ohm’s law provides an electrical resistance of
the form
E1  E2 L
Relect   (2.21)
I A
We can also write a thermal resistance for convection heat transfer from Newton’s Law of
cooling
. . (T  T ) (Ts  T )
Q conv  hA(Ts  T ) or Q conv  s 
1 R
hA
And the convection thermal resistance is

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Ts  T 1
Rconv  .
 (2.22)
Qconv hA
The thermal resistance concept is more appropriate for heat transfer problems with composite

Fig. 2.5 Composite wall in series and corresponding thermal circuit

materials in series or parallel as shown in Fig. 2.5.
The one-dimensional heat transfer rate for this system may be expressed as the ratio of the
overall temperature difference to the sum of all the thermal resistances.
. T,1  T, 4 T
Q  (2.23)
R R .
Q
. T ,1  T , 4
Q (2.24)
1 L L L 1
 A  B  C 
h1 A k A A k B A k C A h4 A

Alternatively, the heat transfer rate can he related to the temperature difference and resistance
associated with each element.

T ,1  Ts ,1 Ts ,1  T2 T2  T3 T3  Ts , 4 Ts , 4  T , 4
.
Q     (2.25)
1 LA LB LC 1
h1 A kA A kB A kC A h4 A
With composite systems it is often convenient to work with an overall heat transfer
coefficient, which is defined by an expression analogous to Newton’s law of cooling.
Accordingly,
.
Q  UAT (2.26)

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Where ΔT is the overall temperature difference. The overall heat transfer coefficient is
related to the total thermal resistance and from equations (2.23) and (2.26) we see that UA =
1 /ΣR. Hence, for the composite wall of Fig. 2.5,
1 1
U  (2.27)
AR 1 LA LB LC 1
   
h1 k A k B kC h4
In general, we may write
1 T
Rtot  R   . (2.28)
AU Q
The thermal resistance concept can be applied to radial systems too. Consider the hollow
cylinder shown in Fig.2.6. Assuming heat transfer in the cylinder to be only in the radial
direction, equation (2.18) can be used to obtain an expression for the thermal resistance.
T (r )  C1 ln( r )  C2
Introducing the boundary conditions T(r1)=Ts,1and T(r2)=Ts,2, the constants C1 and C2can be
obtained and equation (2.18) becomes
T T r
T (r )  s ,1 s , 2 ln    Ts , 2 (2.29)
 r1   r2 
ln  
 r2 
The conduction heat transfer rate in the cylinder will be obtained from Fourier’s law,

. dT dT T T T T
Q  kA  k 2rL  k 2rL s ,1 s , 2  2kL s ,1 s , 2
dr dr r  r 
r ln  1  ln  2 
 r2   r1 
. Ts ,1  Ts , 2 T
Q  (2.30)
r  R
ln  2 
 r1 
2kL

Equation (2.30) shows that conduction thermal resistance in cylindrical coordinate system
is given by
r 
ln  2 
R  1
r
(2.31)
2kL
For the hollow cylinder shown in Fig. 2.6, the total thermal resistance can be written as
r 
ln  2 
  1
1 r 1
Rtot  (2.32)
h1 2r1 L 2kL h2 2r2 L

1 1
Where and are the convective thermal resistances at the inner and outer
h1 2r1 L h2 2r2 L
surfaces, respectively, of the cylinder.

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Fig. 2.6 Thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder

Example 2.2
Uninsulated thin-walled pipe of 100mm diameter is used to transport water to equipment that
operates outdoors and uses the water as a coolant. During particularly harsh winter conditions
the pipe wall achieves a temperature of-150C and a cylindrical layer of ice forms on the inner
surface of the wall. If the mean water temperature is 30C and a convection coefficient of
2000W/m2K is maintained at the inner surface of the ice (k1.94W/m.K), which is at 00C,
what is the thickness of the ice layer?
Solution

Fig. Example 2.2

Performing an energy balance for a control surface about the ice/water interface, it follows
that, for a unit length of pipe,
qconv  qcond
Ts, i  Ts, o
hi (2r1 )(T.i  Ts ,i ) 
ln( r2 / r1 ) / 2k

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Dividing both sides of the equation by r2,

ln( r2 / r1 ) k Ts, i  Ts, o 1.94 15
    0.097
(r2 / r1 ) hi r2 T.i  Ts ,i 2000 x0.05 3
The equation is satisfied by r1/r2=1.114, in which case r1=0.05m/1.114=0.045m, and the ice
layer thickness is   r2  r1  0.005m  5mm

Fig. 2.6 Thermal resistance of a hollow cylinder

Example 2.3
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide glass window with a thickness of 8 mm and a thermal
conductivity of k = 0.78 W/m·K. Determine the steady rate of heat transfer through this glass
window and the temperature of its inner surface for a day during which the room is
maintained at 20°C while the temperature of the outdoors is -10°C. Take the heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer surfaces of the window to be h1 = 10 W/m2·K and h2 = 40
W/m2·K, which includes the effects of radiation.
Solution

Fig. Example 2.3

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(a) Ideal (b) Actual

Fig. 2.7 Thermal Contact Resistance

2.2.3. Thermal Contact Resistance

Surfaces of solids are practically rough with numerous picks and valleys. When two or more
such surfaces are pressed together, the picks form good contact and the valleys form voids
filled with air, Fig. 2.7(b).

As a result, an interface will contain numerous air gaps of varying sizes that act as insulation
because of the low thermal conductivity of air. Thus, an interface offers some resistance to
heat transfer, and this resistance per unit interface area is called the thermal contact
resistance, Rc. Heat transfer through the interface of these two rods is the sum of the heat
transfers through the solid contact spots and the gaps in the noncontact areas and can be
expressed as
. . .
Q  Q contact  Q gap (2.33)

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It can also be expressed in the form of Newton’s law of cooling as

.
Q  hc ATint erface (2.34)
Where hc= thermal contact conductance
A=apparent interface area
∆Tinterface=effective temperature difference at interface
The thermal contact resistance Rc is given by
1 Tint erface
Rc   . (2.35)
hc Q/ A
The thermal contact resistance depends on several parameters and is usually determined
experimentally. Common thermal contact resistances have values in the range
0.000005 to 0.0005m2 K/W , the highest value being for insulating materials like air.
Thermal resistance can be minimized by applying thermally conducting materials called
thermal greases such as silicon oil, and inserting soft metallic foils such as tin, silver, copper
and aluminum. Thermal contact conductance of some materials are given in table 2.2.

Table 2.2 Thermal contact conductance of some metal surfaces in air

2.2.4. Critical Thickness of Insulation

When a plane surface is covered with insulation, the rate of heat transfer always decreases.
However, the addition of insulation to a cylindrical or spherical surface increases the
conduction resistance but reduces the convection resistance because of the increased surface
area. The critical thickness of insulation corresponds to the condition when the sum of
conduction and convection resistances is a minimum. The rate of heat transfer from the
insulated pipe to the surrounding air can be expressed as (Fig. 2.8)

. T1  T
Q (2.36)
r 
ln  2 
 r1   1
2kL 2hr2 L

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.
The variation of Q with the outer radius of the insulation r2 is plotted in Fig. 2.9. The value
. .
of r2 at which Q reaches a maximum is determined from the requirement that d Q/ dr2  0 .
Solving this for r2 yields the critical radius of insulation for a cylinder to be
k
rcr  (2.37)
h
Similarly the critical radius of insulation for a sphere is given by
2k
rcr  (2.38)
h

Fig. 2.8 Insulated pipe exposed to

convection from external Fig. 2.9Variation of heat transfer rate
with insulation thickness

From Fig. 2.8 it can be seen that insulating the pipe may actually increase the rate of heat
transfer from the pipe instead of decreasing it when r2<rcr.
2.2.5. Optimum Thickness of Insulation
Insulation does not eliminate heat transfer but it merely reduces it. The thicker the insulation,
the lower the rate of heat transfer but the higher the cost of insulation. Therefore, there should
be an optimum thickness of insulation corresponding to a minimum combined cost of
insulation and heat lost (Fig. 2.10). The total cost, which is the sum of insulation cost and lost
heat cost, decreases first, reaches a minimum, and then increases. The thickness
corresponding to the minimum total cost is the optimum thickness of insulation, and this is
the recommended thickness of insulation to be installed.

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Fig. 2.10 Optimum Insulation Thickness

Example 2.4
A 3-mm-diameter and 5-m-long electric wire is tightly wrapped with a 2-mm thick plastic
cover whose thermal conductivity is k = 0.15 W/m · °C. Electrical measurements indicate
that a current of 10 A passes through the wire and there is a voltage drop of 8 V along the
wire. If the insulated wire is exposed to a medium at T∞ = 30°C with a heat transfer
coefficient of h = 12 W/m2·°C, determine the temperature at the interface of the wire and the
plastic cover in steady operation. Also determine whether doubling the thickness of the
plastic cover will increase or decrease this interface temperature.
Solution
L= 5m dwire = 3mm thickness , t = 2mm kplastic = 0.15 W/m.K I = 10 A V = 8V
T∞ = 30 oC

The rate of heat transfer becomes equal to the heat generated within the wire, which is
determined to be
𝑄̇ = 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 = 8𝑉 × 10𝐴 = 80𝑊
The thermal resistance network for this problem involves a conduction resistance for the
plastic cover and a convection resistance for the outer surface in series, as shown in figure
example. 2.4. The values of these two resistances are determined to be

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To answer the second part of the question, we need to know the critical radius of insulation of
the plastic cover. It is determined from Eq. 2.37 to be

This is larger than the radius of the plastic cover. Therefore, increasing the thickness of the
plastic cover will enhance heat transfer until the outer radius of the cover reaches 12.5 mm.
As a result, the rate of heat transfer Q will increase when the interface temperature T1 is held
constant, or T1 will decrease when Q is held constant, which is the case here.

2.3 EXTENDED SURFACES

The term extended surface is used to describe a system in which the area of a surface is
increased by the attachment of fins. A fin accommodates energy transfer by conduction
within its boundaries, while its exposed surfaces transfer energy to the surroundings by
convection or radiation or both. Fins are commonly used to augment heat transfer from
electronic components, automobile radiators, engine and compressor cylinders, control
devices, and a host of other applications.

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Fig. 2.11 Use of fin to enhance heat transfer from a plane wall
To determine the heat transfer rate associated with a fin, we must first obtain the temperature
distribution along the fin. We begin by performing an energy balance on an appropriate
differential element. Consider the extended surface of Fig. 2.12. The analysis is simplified if
certain assumptions are made. We choose to assume one-dimensional conditions in the
longitudinal (x) direction, even though conduction within the fin is actually two dimensional.
The rate at which energy is convected to the fluid from any point on the fin surface must be
balanced by the rate at which energy reaches that point due to conduction in the transverse (y,
z) direction. However, in practice the fin is thin and temperature changes in the longitudinal
direction are much larger than those in the transverse direction.

Hence we may make the following assumptions in the analysis:

 one-dimensional conduction in the x direction,
 Steady-state conditions,
 Constant thermal conductivity,
 Negligible radiation from the surface,
 heat generation effects are absent, and
 Convection heat transfer coefficient h is uniform over the surface.
Applying the conservation of energy requirement to the differential element of Fig.2.12, we
obtain
. . .
Q x  Q x  dx  d Q conv (2.39)
But from Fourier’ Law,
. dT
Q x   kAc (2.40)
dx
The conduction heat transfer at x+dx can be expressed as
.
. . d Qx
Q x  dx  Qx  dx (2.41)
dx
Inserting equation (2.40) in to equation (2.41)
dT
d (kAc )
. dT dx dx
Q x  dx  kAc  (2.42)
dx dx

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.
The convection heat transfer d Q conv will be expressed as
.
d Q conv  h( dAs )(T  T ) (2.43)
Then equation (2.36) becomes,
dT
d (kAc )
dT dT dx dx  h(dA )(T  T )
 kAc  kAc  s 
dx dx dx
d  dT  h dAs
Or  Ac  ( )(T  T )  0 (2.44)
dx  dx  k dx
For fins with constant cross-section Ac, the element surface area dAs=Pdx(where P is fin
perimeter) and equation (2.44) becomes,
d 2T hP
 (T  T )  0 (2.45)
dx 2 kAc

.
d Q conv
.
Qx

.
Q x  dx

Fig. 2.12 Fin element used for analysis

Let (x)=(T(x)-T∞)then d  dT since T∞ is constant. Equation (2.45) becomes,

dx dx
d  hP
2
  0
dx 2 kAc
d 2
Or 2
 m 2  0 (2.46)
dx
hP
Where m  . The general solution of differential equation (2.46) is
kAc
 ( x)  C1e mx  C2 e mx (2.47)

The constants C1andC2are obtained from boundary conditions. The boundary conditions used
occur at fin base and tip.
A. Boundary condition at fin base is specified temperature condition. This temperature is
usually assumed to be known.
 ( x  0)   b  Tb  T (2.48)

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From equation (2.44),

 b  C1  C2 (2.49)
B. The boundary condition at fin tip has three options
I. Infinitely long fin(L→∞,Ttip=T∞)
(x=L)=Ttip-T∞=0=C1emL+C2e-mL
But as L→∞, e-mL=0and C1=0andC2=b(from equation (2.49))
So, for an infinitely long fin equation (2.47) becomes
hP
 x
 ( x)   b e  mx
 be
kAc
or
hP
 ( x)  x
e
kAc
(2.50)
b
The heat removed by the fin at base is
. dT d
Q base  kAc  kAc
dx x0 dx x0
. hP
Q base  kAc b m  kAc b
kAc
.
Q base   b hPkAc (2.51)
 d 
II. Negligible heat loss from fin tip   0 
 dx x  L 
d
dx x L

 m C1e mL  C2 e mL  0  (2.52)

Combining equations (2.49) and (2.52), and solving for the constants C1 and
C2, the temperature variation in a fin with negligible heat loss from tip will be
 ( x) cosh m( L  x)
 (2.53)
b cosh( mL)
The heat loss from fin base is
.
Qbase   b hPkAc tanh( mL) (2.54)
III. Convection from fin tip
. dT
Q  hAc (T xL
 T )  kAc (2.55)
dx xL
Or
d
hAc  x L
 kAc (2.56)
dx x L
Solving for the constants C1andC2 gives the following temperature variation
 ( x) coshm( L  x)  h / mk sinh m( L  x)
 (2.57)
b cosh( mL)  h / mk sinh( mL)
The corresponding heat loss from fin base will be,
. sinh( mL)  (h / mK ) cosh( mL)
Q base   b hPkAc (2.58)
cosh( mL)  (h / mk ) sinh( mL)

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Example 2.5
A brass rod 100mm long and 5mm in diameter extends horizontally from a casting at 2000C.
The rod is in an air environment with T∞=200C andh=30W/m2K. What is the temperature of
the rod 25, 50 and 100mm from the casting? Take thermal conductivity of brass to be
k=133W/m.K.
Solution

Based on the assumption of convection heat loss from fin tip, the temperature distribution,
from equation (2.57), has the form
coshm( L  x)  h / mk sinh m( L  x)
 ( x)   b
cosh( mL)  h / mk sinh( mL)
The temperatures at the prescribed location are tabulated below
x(m) T(0C)
0.025 156.5
0.05 128.9
0.10 107.0

2.3.1. Fin Effectiveness

The performance of fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in the heat transfer relative
to the no-fin case. The performance of fins expressed in terms of the fin effectiveness
finisdefined as (Fig. 2.13)
Heat transfer rate from . .
the fin of base area Ab Q fin Q fin
ε fin    (2.59)
Heat transfer rate from Q. hAb(Tb  T )
no fin
the surface of area Ab
In any rational design the value of fin should be as large as possible, and in general, the use
of fins may rarely be justified unless fin2.

Fig. 2.13 Fin Effectiveness

2.3.2. Fin Efficiency

Another measure of fin thermal performance is provided by the fin efficiency, fin. The
maximum driving potential for convection is the temperature difference between the base (x
= 0) and the fluid, b = Tb-T∞. Hence the maximum rate at which a fin could dissipate energy
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is the rate that would exist if the entire fin surface were at the base temperature. However,
since any fin is characterized by a finite conduction resistance, a temperature gradient must
exist along the fin and the above condition is an idealization. A logical definition of fin
efficiency is therefore
. .
Q fin Q fin
 fin   (2.60)
Q max hA fin(Tb  T )
.

Where Afin is the surface area of the fin.

Fin efficiency relations are developed for fins of various profiles and are plotted in Fig. 2.14
and for fins on a plain surface and in Fig.2.15 for circular fins of constant thickness. The fin
surface area associated with each profile is also given on each figure. For most fins of
constant thickness encountered in practice, the fin thickness t is too small relative to the fin
length L, and thus the fin tip area is negligible.

Fig.2.14 Efficiency of circular, rectangular, and triangular fins on a plain surface of

width w

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Fig.2.15 Efficiency of circular fins of length L and constant thickness t

2.3.3. Proper Length of Fin

The temperature of a fin drops along the fin exponentially and reaches the environment
temperature at some length. The part of the fin beyond this length does not contribute to the
heat transfer. Designing such an extra long fin results in material waste, excessive weight and
increased size and cost.

Fig. 2.16 Proper length of fin

To get the sense of the proper length of a fin, we compare the heat transfer from a fin of finite
length to the heat transfer from an infinitely long fin with the same conditions.
.
Q fin hpkAc (Tb  T ) tanh( mL)
Heat Transfer Ratio    tanh( mL) (2.61)
hpkAc (Tb  T )
.
Q long fin

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This ratio becomes unity for mL2.5as can be seen from Fig. 2.15. Therefore, L  2.5 gives
m
proper length of a fin and the designer should make proper compromise between heat transfer
performance and fin size.
Example 2.6
Steam in a heating system flows through tubes whose outer diameter is D1 = 3 cm and whose
walls are maintained at a temperature of 120°C. Circular aluminum fins (k = 180 W/m ·°C) of
outer diameter D2 = 6 cm and constant thickness t = 2 mm are attached to the tube, as shown
below. The space between the fins is 3 mm, and thus there are 200 fins per meter length of
the tube. Heat is transferred to the surrounding air at T∞ = 25°C, with a combined heat
transfer coefficient of h = 60 W/m2·°C. Determine the increase in heat transfer from the tube
per meter of its length as a result of adding fins.

Fig. Example 2.6

Solution
In the case of no fins, heat transfer from the tube per meter of its length is determined from
Newton’s law of cooling to be

The efficiency of the circular fins attached to a circular tube is plotted in Fig. 2.15. Noting
that
L = ½*(D2 - D1) = 0.5*(0.06 - 0.03) = 0.015 m in this case, we have

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2.4 CONDUCTION WITH THERMAL ENERGY GENERATION

In some engineering systems, it becomes necessary to analyze one-dimensional steady
conduction with internal energy generation. Common sources of energy generation are the
passage of an electric current through a wire or bus bar or a rear window defroster in an
automobile. In the fuel element of a nuclear reactor, the energy is generated due to neutron
absorption. A vessel containing nuclear waste experiences energy generation as the waste
undergoes a slow process of disintegration.
Consider the plane wall of Fig. 2.16 in which there is uniform energy generation per unit
.
volume ( q is constant) and the surfaces are maintained at Ts,1 and Ts,2. For constant thermal
conductivity k, the appropriate form of the heat equation, Equation (2.7), is
.
d 2T q
 0 (2.62)
dx 2 k

The general solution is

.
q 2
T ( x)   x  C1 x  C2 (2.63)
2k
Where C1 and C2 are the constants of integration. For the prescribed boundary conditions,
T(-L)=Ts,1 and T(L)=Ts,2
The constants may be evaluated and are of the form
Ts , 2  Ts ,1 Ts , 2  Ts ,1
.

C1  and C2  
q 2
L
2L 2 2k
in which case the temperature distribution is

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.
q L2  x 2  Ts , 2  Ts ,1 x Ts , 2  Ts ,1
T ( x)  1    
2k  L2 
(2.64)
2 L 2

Fig. 2.17 Conduction in plane wall with uniform energy generation

The heat flux at any point in the wall is obtained from Fourier’s law. Heat generation may
occur in a variety of radial geometries. Consider the long solid cylinder of Fig.2.17 which
could represent a current-caring wire or a fuel element in a nuclear reactor. For stead-state
conditions the rate at which heat is generated within the cylinder must equal the rate at which
heat is convected from the surface of the cylinder to a moving fluid. This condition allows the
surface temperature to be maintained at a fixed value of Ts.
To determine the temperature distribution in the cylinder, we begin with the appropriate form
of the heat equation. For constant thermal conductivity k, Equation (2.10) reduces to
.
q 1 d  dT 
 r 0 (2.65)
k r dr  dr 
Separating variables and assuming uniform generation this expression may be integrated to
obtain
.
q 2
T (r )  r  C1 ln( r )  C2 (2.66)
4k
To obtain the constants of integration C1 and C2, we apply the boundary conditions
T (ro )  Ts and dT
0
dr r 0
The first condition results from the symmetry of the situation. Introduction of these boundary
conditions gives us
.
q 2
C1  0 and C 2  Ts  ro
4k
And the temperature distribution becomes

.
qr
2
 r2 
T (r )  o 1  2   Ts (2.67)
4k  r 
 o 

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Fig. 2.18 Conduction in a solid cylinder with uniform energy generation

Example 2.7
A nuclear fuel element of thickness 2L is covered with a steel cladding of thickness b. Heat
generated within the nuclear fuel at a rate 𝑞̇ removed by a fluid at T∞, which adjoins one
surface and is characterized by a convection coefficient h. the other surface is well insulated,
and the fuel and steel have thermal conductivities of kf and ks, respectively.
a) Obtain an equation for the temperature distribution T(x) in the nuclear fuel. Express
.
your results in terms of q , kf, L, h, ks, h and T∞.

Fig. Example 2.7

b) Sketch the temperature distribution T(x) for the entire system.

Solution

(a) The heat equation for the fuel is,

.
d 2T q
 0 (  L  x  L)
dx 2 k f
And the corresponding temperature distribution is

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.
q 2
T ( x)   x  C1 x  C2
2k f
The insulated wall at x = -(L+b) dictates that the heat flux at x = - L is zero (for an energy
balance applied to a control volume about the wall, Ein=Eout=0). Hence
. .
dT q qL
  ( L)  C1  0 or C1  
dx kf kf
. .
q 2 qL
T ( x)   x  x  C2 (a)
2k f kf
The value of Ts,1may be determined from the energy conservation requirement that
. . .
E g  Q cond  Q conv or on a unit area basis
ks
Ts ,1  Ts , 2   hTs , 2  T 
.
 q (2 L) 
b
Hence,
. .
q(2Lb) q(2L)
Ts ,1    T (b)
ks h
Combining equations (a) and (b),
. . .
q(2 Lb) q(2 L) 3 q L2
T ( L)  Ts ,1    T    C2 (c)
ks h 2 kf
This gives
.  2b 2 3 L 
C 2  q L     T
k h 2k 
 s f 
The temperature distribution for (-L≤x≤L) is
. .
q 2 qL .  2b 2 3 L

T ( x)   x  x  q L     T
2k f kf k 
 s h 2 kf

(b) The temperature distribution is shown in the following three regions

dT
 ( L  b)  x   L :  0, T  Tmax
dx
dT
L  x  L:  with  x
dx
dT
L  x  Lb:  cons tan t
dx

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2.5 TRANSIENT CONDUCTION

Practical problems in heat transfer, in general, involve the variation of temperature with
position and time as well. In rectangular coordinate system, this can be expressed as
T(x,y,z,t), where (x,y,z) indicates the variation within space and t indicates the variation with
time. Analysis of transient heat conduction is more complicated than that of steady state
conduction and making simplifying assumptions is more appropriate.
2.5.1. Lumped Capacitance System
The temperature variations within some bodies remain essentially uniform at a given time
during a heat transfer process. Such bodies are said to act like a ‘lump’. Consider a hot metal
forging that is initially at a uniform temperature Ti and is quenched by immersing it in a
liquid of lower temperature T∞<Ti (Fig.2.18). If the quenching is said to begin at time t = 0,
the temperature of the solid will decrease for time t > 0, until it eventually reaches T∞. This
reduction is due to convection heat transfer at the solid-liquid interface. The essence of the
lumped capacitance method is the assumption that the temperature of the solid is spatially
uniform at any instant during the transient process. This assumption implies that temperature
gradients within the solid are negligible. This implies that temperature variation is dependent
only on time, T(t).

Fig. 2.19. Cooling of a hot metal forging

The variation of temperature of the hot metal with time can be obtained by applying energy
balance within a time interval of dt.

Heat Transfer From the Body During dt  Decrease in the Energy Content of the Body in dt
. .
Q conv  E Out
(2.68)

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hA(T  T )dt  mC p dT (2.69)

Rearranging equation (2.69) and noting that dT=d(T-T∞), since T∞ is constant, we obtain
dT  hA
 dt (2.70)
T  T mC p
Integration of equation (2.70) gives us

 hA
T t
dT
T T  T  0 mC p dt
i

 T (t )  T   hA
ln    t
 Ti  T  mC p
 hA
T (t )  T t
e p
mC
Or (2.71)
Ti  T
The temperature of the metal gradually decreases and eventually equals the ambient air
temperature. At this point there will not be any more heat transfer.
The rate of convection heat transfer is
.
Q  hA[T (t )  T ] (2.72)
Total amount of heat transfer from the hot body to the surrounding, time 0-t, is
T (t )

Q    mC p dT  mC p [T (t )  Ti ] (2.73)
Ti

The maximum amount of heat transfer is

Qmax  mC p [T  Ti ]  mC p [Ti  T ] (2.74)
The lumped capacitance analysis gives us a simple and convenient way of analyzing transient
heat transfer problems. But this method is ideal since it assumes uniform temperature
distribution within a body at an instant and it is better to know when to use it. Before
establishing a criterion for the validity of the method, it is worthy to define the terms known
as characteristic length, Lc, and Biot number, Bi.

V
Lc  (2.75)
A
hLc
Bi  (2.76)
k
The Biot number can also be expressed as
hT Convection Heat Transfer at the Surface of the Body
Bi  
k Conduction Heat Transfer within the Body
T
Lc
Lc / k Conduction Re sis tan ce within the Body
Or Bi  
1 / h Convection Re sis tan ce at the Surface of the Body
The Biot number is the ratio of conduction resistance within the body to convection
resistance at the surface of the body. The lumped capacitance analysis assumes uniform
temperature distribution within the body. This is true when the conduction resistance within
the body is zero, which is in turn true only when the Biot number is zero. Therefore, the
lumped capacitance analysis is exact only when Bi=0 and approximate when Bi>0. From
experience the lumped capacitance method is, in general, acceptable if Bi≤0.1.

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2.5.2. Transient heat conduction in large plane walls, long cylinders and spheres
The lumped capacitance analysis assumes uniform temperature distribution at a given instant.
Even though this method is applicable for small materials with high conductive properties, it
is ideal for most practical problems. A more realistic assumption is the case where
temperature varies with time and position in one dimension, T(x, t) or T(r, t), which is
applicable for large plane walls, long cylinders and spheres (Fig. 2.19).

(a) Large plane wall (b) Long cylinder (c) Sphere

Fig. 2.20 Bodies where one dimensional temperature variation can be assumed
If heat transfer takes place between the environment (h and T∞) and the large plane wall
(initially at Ti>T∞) of Fig. 2.19(a) by convection, the temperature at the surface of the wall
drops. This creates a temperature gradient within the wall and heat transfer by conduction is
initiated. The heat transfer from the wall to the environment continues until the two attain the
same temperature .This phenomena is shown in Fig. 2.20.

Fig. 2.21 Transient temperature variation in a large plane wall

For the large plane wall the diffusion equation (2.7) becomes,
  T  T
 k   c p
x  x  t
 2T 1 T
 (2.77)
x 2  t
The solution of equation (2.77) results in infinite series which are inconvenient and time
consuming to evaluate. Therefore, the solutions are presented in tabular or graphical form.
Before presenting the solutions graphically, some parameters need to be nondimensionalzed
to reduce number of parameters.

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T ( x, t )  T
 ( x, t )  Dimensionl ess temperatur e
Ti  T
x
X Dimensionl ess distance from center
L
hL
Bi  Biot number (Dimension less heat transfer coefficien t)
k
t
 2 Fourier number Dimensionl ess time 
L

For Fourier number   2t  0.2 , the infinite series solutions of equation (2.77) can be
L
approximated by taking only the first terms of the series. These solutions are given below,
T ( x, t )  T  x
 ( x, t ) wall   A1e 1  cos 1 ,   0.2
2
(2.78)
Ti  T  L 
T (r , t )  T  r
 (r , t ) cyl   A1e 1  J o  1 ,   0.2
2
(2.79)
Ti  T  ro 
 r
sin  1 
T (r , t )  T  ro  ,
 (r , t ) sph   A1e 1    0.2
2
(2.80)
Ti  T 1r
ro
Where the constants A1 and 1 are obtained from table 2.3. The function J0 is the zeroth-order
Bessel function of the first kind whose value can be determined from Table 2.4. The
temperature of the body changes fromTi toT∞ at the end of the transient heat conduction. The
maximum amount of heat transfer during this process can be obtained by
Qmax  mC p (T  Ti )  VC p (T  Ti ) (2.81)
The fraction of heat transfer within time t is obtained by the following equations for the large
wall, long cylinder and sphere.
 Q  sin( 1 )
   1  A1e  
2
1 (2.82)
 Qmax  wall 1
 Q  J ( )
   1  2 A1e 1  1 1
2

(2.83)
 Qmax  cylinder 1
 Q  sin(1 )  1 cos(1 )
   1  3 A1 e 1 
2
(2.84)
 Qmax  sphe 13

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Table 2.4 The zeroth- and first-order Bessel

functions of the first kind

Example 2.5
A load of peas at a temperature of 250C is to be cooled down in a room at constant air
temperature of 10C. (a) How long the peas will require to cool down to 20C when the surface
heat transfer coefficient of the pea is 5.81W/m2K? (b) What is the temperature of the peas
after a lapse of 10 minutes from the start of cooling? (c) What air temperature must be used if
the peas were to be cooled down to 50C in 30 minutes? The peas are supposed to have an
average diameter of 8 mm. their density is 750kg/m3 and specific heat 3.35 kJ/kgK.
Solution
The problem can be solved by making use of the lumped capacitance method, neglecting any
variation of temperature within the peas due to its small diameter. From equation (2.68)

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 hA
T (t )  T t
e p
mC

Ti  T
(a) Solving for time t,
  * 0.0083 

  750 *  * 3350
 mC p  T (t )  T   2 1 
   
6
t ln  ln    1835s  30.6 min
hA  Ti  T  5.81*  * 0.008 2
 25  1 
(b) From equation (2.65)
 
 
 5.81* *0.008 *600 
2

 hA   *0.0083 
T (t )  T t
T (600)  1  750* 
 0.353  T 600  9.480 C
*3350
e p  e
mC  6 
Ti  T 25  1
 
 
 5.81* *0.008 *1800
2

 hA   *0.0083 
T (t )  T t
5  T  750* *3350 
e p  e  0.044  T  4.080 C
mC  6 
(c)
Ti  T 25  T

2.6 NUMERICALMETHODS
Most of the practical problems encountered in engineering involve:
 Complicated geometries,
 Complex boundary conditions, and
 Variable properties.
Since such problemscannot be solved analytically, the need for numerical solution methods,
especially in cases of multidimensional problems, is inevitable.
2.6.1. Finite Difference Equation
There are several types of numerical methods. Some are:
 Finite Difference Method,
 Finite Element Method,
 Boundary Element Method, and
 Control Volume Method.
Because of its ease of application, the finite-difference method is well suited for an
introductory treatment of numerical techniques.
In contrast to an analytical solution, which allows for temperature determination at any point
of interest in a medium, a numerical solution enables determination of the temperature at only
discrete points. The first step in any numerical analysis must, therefore, be to select these
points. Referring to Fig.2.21, this is done by subdividing the medium of interest into a
number of small regions and assigning to each a reference point that is at its center. The
reference point is frequently termed as nodal point (or simply a nod), and the aggregate of
points is termed a nodal network, grid, or mesh. The nodal points are designated by a
numbering scheme that, for a two-dimensional system, may take the form shown in Fig.2.21.
The x and y locations are designated by the m and n indices, respectively. The temperature of
node (m, n) is assumed to be the average of the surrounding shaded area. The accuracy of a
numerical analysis is increased by increasing the number of nodes (fine nodes). But the
increased number of nodes requires more computing time and capacity.

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Fig. 2.21Nodal network of two-dimensional conduction

The finite-difference equation for a node can be obtained by applying conservation of energy
to a control volume about the nodal region. Since the actual direction of heat flow (into or out
of the node) is often unknown, it is convenient to formulate the energy balance by assuming
that all the heat flow is into the node. Such a condition is, of course, impossible. But if the
rate equations are expressed in a manner consistent with this assumption, the correct form of
the finite-difference equation is obtained. For steady-state conditions with no generation, the
appropriate form of equation (2.3) is
.
E in  0 (2.85)
There are different finite difference equations for interior and boundary nodes.
1. For interior node (m, n) of Fig. 2.22, the finite difference equation can be obtained,
assuming unit depth, as
. . . .
Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m1,n)( m,n)  Q ( m1,n)( m,n)  0
T T  T T  T T  T T 
kx.1 ( m,n1) ( m,n )   kx.1 ( m,n1) ( m,n )   ky.1 ( m1,n ) ( m,n )   ky.1 ( m1,n ) ( m,n )   0
 y   y   x   x 
for x=y, the above equation simplifies to
T( m,n1)  T( m,n1)  T( m1,n )  T( m1,n )  4T( m,n )  0 (2.86)

Fig. 2.22 Interior node for finite difference equation formulation

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2. Internal corner node with convection (Fig. 2.23)

. . . . .
Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m1,n)( m,n)  Q ( m1,n)( m,n)  Q conv  0
 T( m,n1)  T( m,n )  x  T T  y  T T 
kx.1   k .1 ( m,n1) ( m,n )   k .1 ( m1,n ) ( m,n )  
 y  2  y  2  x 
 T( m1,n )  T( m,n )   x y 
ky.1   h  .1T  T( m,n )   0
 x   2 2 
for x=y, the above equation simplifies to
 xh  2xh
2(T( m,n1)  T( m1,n ) )  (T( m,n1)  T( m1,n ) )  2 3  T( m,n )  T  0 (2.87)
 k  k

Fig. 2.23 Internal corner node with convection

3. Plane surface node with convection (Fig. 2.24)

. . . .
Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m1,n)( m,n)  Q conv  0
x  T( m,n1)  T( m,n )
 x  T( m,n1)  T( m,n )  T  T( m,n ) 
k .1   k .1   ky.1 ( m1,n )   hy.1T  T( m,n )   0
2  y  2  y   x 
for x=y, the above equation simplifies to
 xh  2xh
T( m,n1)  2T( m1,n ) )  T( m,n1)  2 2  T( m,n )  T  0 (2.88)
 k  k

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Fig. 2.24 Plane surface node with convection

4. External corner node with convection (Fig. 2.25)

. . .
Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m1,n)( m,n)  Q conv  0
x  T( m,n1)  T( m,n )
 y  T( m1,n )  T( m,n )   y x 
k .1   k .1   h  .1T  T( m,n )   0
2  y  2  x   2 2 
for x=y, the above equation simplifies to
 xh  2xh
T( m1,n ) )  T( m,n1)  21  T( m,n )  T  0 (2.89)
 k  k

Fig. 2.25 External corner node with convection

5. Plane surface node with heat flux (Fig. 2.26)
. . . .
Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m,n1)( m,n)  Q ( m1,n)( m,n)  Q flux  0
x  T( m,n1)  T( m,n )
 x  T( m,n1)  T( m,n )  T  T( m,n ) 
k .1   k .1   ky.1 ( m1,n )   hy.1q' '  0
2  y  2  y   x 
for x=y, the above equation simplifies to

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2xq' '
T( m,n1)  2T( m1,n )  T( m,n 1)  4T( m ,n )  0 (2.90)
k

Fig. 2.26 Plane surface node with heat flux

2.6.2. Solution of the finite difference equations
The equations obtained for each type of node reduce the heat transfer problem to solving of
system of linear equations, which can be written in matrix notation as,
AT   C (2.91)
a11 a12 .... a1n 
 
a 21 a 22 .... a 2 n 
. . 
Where A  
.
 is coefficient matrix,
. . . 
. . . 
 
a n1 a n 2 .... a nn 
 T1 
T 
 2
. 
T     is vector of nodal temperatures,
. 
. 
 

Tn 

 C1 
C 
 2
. 
C    is vector of constants obtained from boundary conditions.
. 
. 
 
C n 

Equation (2.91) can be solved using either the matrix inversion or the iterative methods. In
the matrix inversion method, the nodal temperature will be obtained from
T   A1 C
(2.92)
A good example of iterative methods of solving linear system of equations is the Gauss-
Seidel Iteration method. Consider the following system of equations for explanation of the
solution procedure.

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x1  3x2  x3  10
2 x1  5 x2  x3  4
 x1  x2  2 x3  13
a) Solve each equation for one of the variables (one with larger coefficient) in terms of
other variables,
x1  10  3x2  x3 (a)
x2  (4  2 x1  x3 ) / 5 (b)
x3  (13  x1  x2 ) /( 2) (c )
b) Make initial guess for each unknown,
Let x2=0 and x3=0
c) Using equations from step 1, find new values for each unknown,
Using the initial guess and equation (a) of step 1, x1=10+3(0)-0=10
Using the updated value x1=-5 and equation (b) of step 1, x2=(4-2(10)-0)/5=-3.2
From equation (c), x3=(-13+10-(-3.2))/(-2)=-0.1
d) Repeat step 3 until a desired convergence criterion is satisfied.
Example 2.6
Consider the square channel shown in the sketch operating under steady-state conditions. The
inner surface of the channel is at a uniform temperature of 600K, while the outer surface is
exposed to convection with a fluid at 300K and a convection coefficient of 50W/mK.
a) Beginning with properly defined control volume, derive the finite-difference
equations for interior and boundary nodes. Due to symmetric nature of the problem,
take one eighth of the geometry with Δx=Δy=0.01m. Calculate the temperatures for
all nodes.
b) Calculate the heat loss per unit length from the channel.

Fig. Example 2.6

Solution
(a) Define control volumes about the nodes taking advantage of symmetry where appropriate
. .
and performing energy balances, E in  E out  0 , with Δx=Δy=0.01m. The one eighth
geometry of the channel is meshed in to nine nodes as shown below.

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Node 1:
. . .
Q 21  Q 51  Q Conv  0
x T2  T1 x T5  T1 x
k k  h T  T1   0
2 x 2 x 2
x
T2  T1  T5  T1  h T  T1   0
k
 x  x
T2  T5   2  h T1  h T
 k  k
T2  T5  2.5T1  150 (1)

Node 2:
. . . .
Q12  Q 62  Q 32  Q Conv  0
x T1  T2 T T x T3  T2
k  kx 6 2  k  hxT  T2   0
2 x x 2 x
solving this equation gives
T1  2T6  T3  5T2  300 (2)

Node 3: Similar to Node 2,

T2  2T7  T4  5T3  300 (3)

Node 4:
. .
Q 34  Q Conv  0
x T3  T4 x
k  h T  T4   0
2 x 2
solving this equation gives
T3  1.5T4  150 (4)

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Node 5:

. . .
Q15  Q 65  Q 85  0
x T1  T5 T T x T8  T5
k  kx 6 5  k 0
2 x x 2 x
solving this equation gives
T1  2T6  4T5  600 (5)

Node 6: Interior node

From equation 2.83 for int erior node

T2  T5  T7  T9  4T6  0
T2  T5  T7  4T6  600 (6)

Node 7:

. .
Q 37  Q 67  0
T3  T7 T  T7
kx  kx 6 0
x x
solving this equation gives
T3  T6  2T7  0 (7 )

Since the temperatures of nodes 8 and 9 are known, there is no need to write energy balance
equations for these nodes. Equations (1) through (7) can be solved simultaneously using
either matrix inversion method or Gauss-Seidel iteration method. But since the number of
equations is few, the matrix inversion method can be used.

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T2  T5  2.5T1  150
T1  2T6  T3  5T2  300
T2  2T7  T4  5T3  300
T3  1.5T4  150 (8)
T1  2T6  4T5  600
T2  T5  T7  4T6  600
T3  T6  2T7  0
Equation (8) can be written in matrix form as [A]{T}={C} where

 2.5, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0  T1   150 

1,  5, 1, 0, 0, 2, 0  T   300
   2  
0, 1,  5, 1, 0, 0, 2  T3   300
A  0, 0, 1,  1.5, 0, 0, 0 , T   T4  , C   150 
1, 0, 0, 0,  4, 2, 0  T   600
   5
  
 0, 1, 0, 0, 1,  4, 1  T6    600 
0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1,  2     
  T7   0 
The temperatures can be obtained using matrix conversion as, {T}=[A]-1{C}
The solution will be,

T1  430.102
T   
 2  421.684
T3  394.133 
T   T4   362.755 
T  503.571 
 5  
T6  492.092
  443.112
T7   

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b) Referring to Fig. Example 2.6 Solution (a), the heat loss from the channel is eight times the
heat loss from the one eighth portion shown.
.
Q loss  8hA(0.5(T1  T )  (T2  T )  (T3  T )  0.5(T4  T ))
 8 x50 x0.03(0.5(430 .102  300 )  (421 .684  300 )  (394 .133  300 )  0.5( 362 .755  300 ))
 3746.946W/m

Conceptual questions
1. Are heat transfer and temperature scalar or vector quantity? Explain.
2. What is the difference between transient heat transfer and steady heat transfer? one-
dimensional heat transfer and two-dimensional heat transfer?
3. Consider a cold canned drink left on a dinner table. Would you model the heat transfer to
the drink as one-, two-, or three-dimensional? Would the heat transfer be steady or
transient? Also, which coordinate system would you use to analyze this heat transfer
problem, and where would you place the origin? Explain.
4. Consider an egg being cooked in boiling water in a pan. Would you model the heat
transfer to the egg as one-, two-, or three-dimensional? Would the heat transfer be steady
or transient? Also, which coordinate system would you use to solve this problem, and
where would you place the origin? Explain.
5. Write down the one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation for a plane wall with
constant thermal conductivity and heat generation in its simplest form, and indicate what
each variable represents.
6. Write down the one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation for a long cylinder
with constant thermal conductivity and heat generation, and indicate what each variable
represents.
7. What is a boundary condition? How many boundary conditions do we need to specify for
a two-dimensional heat transfer problem?
8. What is an initial condition? How many initial conditions do we need to specify for a
two-dimensional heat transfer problem?
9. What is a thermal symmetry boundary condition? How is it expressed mathematically?
10. How is the boundary condition on an insulated surface expressed mathematically?
11. It is claimed that the temperature profile in a medium must be perpendicular to an
insulated surface. Is this a valid claim? Explain.
12. Does heat generation in a solid violate the first law of thermodynamics, which states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed? Explain.
13. What is heat generation? Give some examples.
14. An iron is left unattended and its base temperature rises as a result of resistance heating
inside. When will the rate of heat generation inside the iron be equal to the rate of heat
loss from the iron?
15. What is lumped system analysis? When is it applicable?
16. Consider heat transfer between two identical hot solid bodies and the air surrounding
them. The first solid is being cooled by a fan while the second one is allowed to cool

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naturally. For which solid is the lumped system analysis more likely to be applicable?
Why?
17. Consider heat transfer between two identical hot solid bodies and their environments. The
first solid is dropped in a large container filled with water, while the second one is
allowed to cool naturally in the air. For which solid is the lumped system analysis more
likely to be applicable? Why?
18. What are the limitations of the analytical solution methods?
19. How do numerical solution methods differ from analytical ones? What are the advantages
and disadvantages of numerical and analytical methods?
20. What is the basis of the energy balance method? How does it differ from the formal finite
difference method? For a specified nodal network, will these two methods result in the
same or a different set of equations?
21. Consider a heat conduction problem that can be solved both analytically, by solving the
governing differential equation and applying the boundary conditions, and numerically,
by a software package available on your computer. Which approach would you use to
solve this problem? Explain your reasoning.
22. Two engineers are to solve an actual heat transfer problem in a manufacturing facility.
Engineer A makes the necessary simplifying assumptions and solves the problem
analytically, while engineer B solves it numerically using a powerful software package.
Engineer A claims he solved the problem exactly and thus his results are better, while
engineer B claims that he used a more realistic model and thus his results are better. To
resolve the dispute, you are asked to solve the problem experimentally in a lab. Which
engineer do you think the experiments will prove right? Explain.
23. Define these terms used in the finite difference formulation: node, nodal network, volume
element, nodal spacing, and difference equation.

Answers to conceptual questions

1. Heat transfer is a vector quantity since it has direction as well as magnitude. Therefore,
we must specify both direction and magnitude in order to describe heat transfer
completely at a point. Temperature, on the other hand, is a scalar quantity.
2. The term steady implies no change with time at any point within the medium while
transient implies variation with time or time dependence. Therefore, the temperature or
heat flux remains unchanged with time during steady heat transfer through a medium at
any location although both quantities may vary from one location to another. During
transient heat transfer, the temperature and heat flux may vary with time as well as
location. Heat transfer is one-dimensional if it occurs primarily in one direction. It is two-
dimensional if heat tranfer in the third dimension is negligible.
3. Heat transfer to a canned drink can be modeled as two-dimensional since temperature
differences (and thus heat transfer) will exist in the radial and axial directions (but there
will be symmetry about the center line and no heat transfer in the azimuthal direction.
This would be a transient heat transfer process since the temperature at any point within
the drink will change with time during heating. Also, we would use the cylindrical

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coordinate system to solve this problem since a cylinder is best described in cylindrical
coordinates. Also, we would place the origin somewhere on the center line, possibly at
the center of the bottom surface.
4. Assuming the egg to be round, heat transfer to an egg in boiling water can be modeled as
one-dimensional since temperature differences (and thus heat transfer) will primarily
exist in the radial direction only because of symmetry about the center point. This would
be a transient heat transfer process since the temperature at any point within the egg will
change with time during cooking. Also, we would use the spherical coordinate system to
solve this problem since the entire outer surface of a spherical body can be described by a
constant value of the radius in spherical coordinates. We would place the origin at the
center of the egg.

5. The one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation for a plane wall with constant
 2T g 1 T
thermal conductivity and heat generation is   . Here Tis the temperature, x is
x 2 k  t
the space variable, g is the heat generation per unit volume, k is the thermal conductivity,
 is the thermal diffusivity, and t is the time.
6. The one-dimensional transient heat conduction equation for a plane wall with constant
1   T  g 1 T
thermal conductivity and heat generation is r   . Here Tis the
r r  r  k  t
temperature, r is the space variable, g is the heat generation per unit volume, k is the
thermal conductivity,  is the thermal diffusivity, and t is the time.

7. The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the boundaries are called the
boundary conditions. To describe a heat transfer problem completely, two boundary
conditions must be given for each direction of the coordinate system along which heat
transfer is significant. Therefore, we need to specify four boundary conditions for two-
dimensional problems.
8. The mathematical expression for the temperature distribution of the medium initially is
called the initial condition. We need only one initial condition for a heat conduction
problem regardless of the dimension since the conduction equation is first order in time
(it involves the first derivative of temperature with respect to time). Therefore, we need
only 1 initial condition for a two-dimensional problem.
9. A heat transfer problem that is symmetric about a plane, line, or point is said to have
thermal symmetry about that plane, line, or point. The thermal symmetry boundary
condition is a mathematical expression of this thermal symmetry. It is equivalent to
insulation or zero heat flux boundary condition, and is expressed at a point x0as
T ( x0 , t ) / x  0 .
10. The boundary condition at a perfectly insulated surface (at x = 0, for example) can be
expressed as
T (0, t ) T (0, t )
k 0 or 0
x x
which indicates zero heat flux.

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11. Yes, the temperature profile in a medium must be perpendicular to an insulated surface
since the slope T / x  0 at that surface.
12. No. Heat generation in a solid is simply the conversion of some form of energy into
sensible heat energy. For example resistance heating in wires is conversion of electrical
energy to heat.
13. Heat generation in a solid is simply conversion of some form of energy into sensible heat
energy. Some examples of heat generations are resistance heating in wires, exothermic
chemical reactions in a solid, and nuclear reactions in nuclear fuel rods.
14. The rate of heat generation inside an iron becomes equal to the rate of heat loss from the
iron when steady operating conditions are reached and the temperature of the iron
stabilizes.
15. In heat transfer analysis, some bodies are observed to behave like a "lump" whose entire
body temperature remains essentially uniform at all times during a heat transfer process.
The temperature of such bodies can be taken to be a function of time only. Heat transfer
analysis which utilizes this idealization is known as the lumped system analysis. It is
applicable when the Biot number (the ratio of conduction resistance within the body to
convection resistance at the surface of the body) is less than or equal to 0.1.
16. The lumped system analysis is more likely to be applicable for the body cooled naturally
since the Biot number is proportional to the convection heat transfer coefficient, which is
proportional to the air velocity. Therefore, the Biot number is more likely to be less than
0.1 for the case of natural convection.
17. The lumped system analysis is more likely to be applicable for the body allowed to cool
in the air since the Biot number is proportional to the convection heat transfer coefficient,
which is larger in water than it is in air because of the larger thermal conductivity of
water. Therefore, the Biot number is more likely to be less than 0.1 for the case of the
solid cooled in the air
18. Analytical solution methods are limited to highly simplified problems in simple
geometries. The geometry must be such that its entire surface can be described
mathematically in a coordinate system by setting the variables equal to constants. Also,
heat transfer problems can not be solved analytically if the thermal conditions are not
sufficiently simple. For example, the consideration of the variation of thermal
conductivity with temperature, the variation of the heat transfer coefficient over the
surface, or the radiation heat transfer on the surfaces can make it impossible to obtain an
analytical solution. Therefore, analytical solutions are limited to problems that are simple
or can be simplified with reasonable approximations.
19. The analytical solutions are based on (1) driving the governing differential equation by
performing an energy balance on a differential volume element, (2) expressing the
boundary conditions in the proper mathematical form, and (3) solving the differential
equation and applying the boundary conditions to determine the integration constants.
The numerical solution methods are based on replacing the differential equations by
algebraic equations. In the case of the popular finite difference method, this is done by
replacing the derivatives by differences. The analytical methods are simple and they
provide solution functions applicable to the entire medium, but they are limited to simple
problems in simple geometries. The numerical methods are usually more involved and
the solutions are obtained at a number of points, but they are applicable to any geometry
subjected to any kind of thermal conditions.

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20. The energy balance method is based on subdividing the medium into a sufficient number
of volume elements, and then applying an energy balance on each element. The formal
finite difference method is based on replacing derivatives by their finite difference
approximations. For a specified nodal network, these two methods will result in the same
set of equations.
21. In practice, we are most likely to use a software package to solve heat transfer problems
even when analytical solutions are available since we can do parametric studies very
easily and present the results graphically by the press of a button. Besides, once a person
is used to solving problems numerically, it is very difficult to go back to solving
differential equations by hand.
22. The experiments will most likely prove engineer B right since an approximate solution of
a more realistic model is more accurate than the exact solution of a crude model of an
actual problem.
23. A point at which the finite difference formulation of a problem is obtained is called a
node, and all the nodes for a problem constitute the nodal network. The region about a
node whose properties are represented by the property values at the nodal point is called
the volume element. The distance between two consecutive nodes is called the nodal
spacing, and a differential equation whose derivatives are replaced by differences is
called a difference equation.

Problems
1. Determine the steady-state temperature distribution and the total radial heat flow in a hollow
sphere in a region a<r<b when the boundary surface at r=a and r=b are kept at uniform
temperature To and Ti , respectively.
2. A plastic pipe (k=0.5W/m K) carries a fluid such that the convective heat transfer coefficient
is 300W / m 2 K .The average fluid temperature is 1000 C . The pipe has an inner diameter of
3cm and outer diameter of 4cm. If the heat transfer rate through the pipe per unit length is
500 W/m, calculate the external pipe temperature and the overall heat transfer coefficient
based on outside area.
3. A steel (k=15W/mK) tube with 5cm inner diameter and 7.6cm outer diameter is covered with
an insulation (k=0.2W/m K) of thickness 0.2cm. A hot gas at 330 0 C flows through the tube
with hi  400W / m K . The outer surface of the insulation is exposed to air at 30 0 C with
2

ho  60W / m 2 K . Calculate (a) the heat loss from the tube which is 10m long and (b) the
temperature drop resulting from the thermal resistances of the hot gas flow, the steel tube, the
insulation layer and the outside air.
4. Derive an expression for the one-dimensional steady state temperature distribution in a slab
3
of thickness L where heat is generated at a constant rate of qG (W / m ) . The boundary
surface at x=0 is insulated and that at x=L is kept at zero temperature. Calculate the
temperature of the insulated surface for k=40W/mK, qG  10 W / m , and L=0.1m.
6 3

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5. An electrical resistance wire of radius 1mm with thermal conductivity 25 W/mK is heated by
the flow of electric current which generates heat at the rate of qG  2  10 W / m . Determine
9 3

the centerline temperature rise above the surface temperature of the wire if the surface is
maintained at a constant temperature.
6. An industrial furnace is made of fireclay brick of thickness 25cm and thermal conductivity
k1  1W / mK . The outside surface is insulated with material k2  0.05W / mK . Determine
the thickness of the insulation layer in order to limit the heat loss from the furnace wall to
q  1000W / m2 when the inside surface of the wall is at 10300 C and the outside surface at
30 0 C .
7. A hollow steel sphere, k=10W/mK, has an inside radius of 10cm and outside radius of 20cm.
The inside surface is maintained at a uniform temperature of 230 0 C and the outside surface
dissipates heat by convection with h  20W / m 2 K in to the ambient air at 30 0 C . Determine
the thickness of asbestos insulation, k=0.5W/m K, required to reduce the heat loss by 50%.
8. Two very long slender rods of the same diameter are given. One rod is of aluminum and has
k1  200W / mK , but k2 of the other rod is not known. To determine the k2 of the other rod,
both the rods are thermally attached to a metal surface maintained at a constant temperature
To . Both rods lose heat by convection with a heat transfer coefficient h in to the ambient air
at T . The surface temperature of each rod is measured at various distances from the hot base
surface. The temperature of the aluminum rod at x1  40cm from the base is the same as that
of the other rod at x2  20cm from the base. Determine the thermal conductivity k2 of the
second rod.
9. The inner and outer radii of a hollow cylinder are 5cm and 10cm respectively. The inside
surface is maintained at 300 0 C , and the outside surface at 1000 C . The thermal conductivity
varies with temperature in the range 1000 C  T  3000 C as k  0.5(1  103T ) were T is in
0
C . Determine the heat flow rate per meter length of cylinder.
10. A copper rod of diameter 5mm is heated by the flow of current. The surface of the rod is
maintained at 1750 C while it is dissipating heat by convection, h  150W / m 2 K , in to the
ambient air at 250 C . If the rod is covered with a 1mm thick coating, k=0.6W/m K, will the
heat loss from the rod increase or decrease?
11. Determine the steady-state temperature distribution and the radial heat flow rate for a length
L in a hollow cylinder of inside radius ri and outside radius ro , in which heat is generated at
3
a constant rate of qG (W / m ) , while the inside and outside surfaces are maintained constant
at uniform temperatures Ti and To , respectively.
12. An aluminum plate (k= 160W/m K,   2790kg / m3 , c p  0.88kJ / kgK ) of thickness 30mm
and at a uniform temperature of 2250 C is suddenly immersed at time t=0 in a well-stirred
fluid at a constant temperature of 250 C . The heat transfer coefficient between the plate and

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the fluid is 320W / m 2 K . Determine the time required for the center of the plate to reach
50 0 C .
13. A billet of steel of the form of a parallelepiped with dimension 2mx2mx5m, originally at
300 0 C , is placed in a radiant furnace, where the furnace temperature is held at 10000 C .
Determine the temperature at the center after 30 minutes. For steel, take k=35W/mK,
  7800kg / m3 , c p  0.83kJ / kgK , while h  233W / m 2 K .
14. The temperature of a gas stream is measured with a thermocouple. The junction may be
approximated as a sphere of diameter 1mm. k=25W/m K,   8400kg / m3 and
c p  0.4kJ / kgK . The heat transfer coefficient between the junction and the gas stream is
h  500W / m 2 K . How long will it take for the thermocouple to record 99% of the applied
temperature difference?
15. A 3cm diameter aluminum sphere (k=204W/m K,   2700kg / m3 and c p  0.896kJ / kgK )
is initially at 1750 C . It is suddenly immersed in a well stirred fluid at 250 C . The
temperature of the sphere is lowered to 1000 C in 42s. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient.
16. An orange of diameter 10cm is initially at a uniform temperature of 30 0 C . It is placed in
refrigerator in which the air temperature is 2 0 C . If the heat transfer coefficient between the
air and the orange surface is 50W / m 2 K , determine the time required for the center of the
orange to reach 100 C . Assume the thermal properties of the orange are the same as those of
water at the same temperature (   1.4 107 m 2 / s and k=0.59W/m K).
17. A solid iron rod (   2 105 m 2 / s , k=60W/m K) of diameter 6cm, initially at 800 0 C is
suddenly dropped into an oil both at 50 0 C . The heat transfer coefficient between the fluid
and the surface is 400W / m 2 K . (a) Using Heisler’s charts, determine the centerline
temperature 10 min after immersion in the fluid. (b) How long will it take the centerline
temperature to reach 1000 C ?
18. A 6cm diameter potato initially at a uniform temperature of 20 0 C is suddenly dropped into
boiling water at 1000 C . The heat transfer coefficient between the water and the surface is
6000W / m 2 K . The thermo physical properties of potato can be taken the same as those of
water (   1.6 107 m 2 / s and k=0.68W/mK). Determine the time required for the center
temperature of the potato to reach 950 C and the energy transferred to the potato during this
time.
19. A slab of thickness 10cm, a cylinder of diameter 10cm and sphere of diameter 10cm, each
made of steel (   1.6 105 m 2 / s and k=61W/m K) were initially at 300 0 C , and then
suddenly immersed into a well-stirred fluid at 50 0 C . The heat transfer coefficient between
the surface and fluid is 1000W / m 2 K . Calculate the time required for the centers of slab,
cylinder and sphere to cool to 80 0 C .
20. A thick bronze plate (   0.86 105 m 2 / s , k=61W/m K) is initially at a uniform temperature
of 250 0 C . Suddenly the surface is exposed to a coolant at 250 C . Assuming h  150W / m 2 K ,
determine the temperature 5cm from the surface 10min after the exposure.

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21. Rectangular bar 6cmx3cm in cross-section is made of aluminum (   2700kg / m3

,c=890J/kgK, k=200W/mK and   8.4 105 m 2 / s ). It is initially at a uniform temperature
of 1750 C . Suddenly the surfaces are subjected to convective cooling with a heart transfer
coefficient h  250W / m 2 K into an ambient at 250 C . Determine the center temperature of
the bar 1min after the start of cooling.
22. A short cylinder (k=110W/m K and   3.39 105 m 2 / s ) of diameter 10cm and height
12cm is initially at a uniform temperature of 1200 C . The cylinder is now placed in
atmospheric air at 250 C , where heat transfer takes place by convection with h  60W / m 2 K .
Calculate (a)the temperature at the center of cylinder 15min after the start of cooling, and
(b)the total heat transfer from the brass cylinder (   8530kg / m3 ,c=380J/kg K)
23. Consider steady one-dimensional heat conduction in a plane wall with variable heat
generation and constant thermal conductivity. The nodal network of the medium consists of
nodes 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 with a uniform nodal spacing of ∆x. Using the finite difference form
of the first derivative and the energy balance approach, obtain the finite difference
formulation of the boundary nodes for the case of insulation at the left boundary (node 0) and
radiation at the right boundary (node 5) with an emissivity of ε and surrounding temperature
of Tsurr .

24. Consider steady heat conduction in a plane wall whose left surface (node 0) is maintained at
30 0 C while the right surface (node 8) is subjected to a heat flux of 800W / m 2 . Express the
finite difference formulation of the boundary nodes 0 and 8 for the case of no heat
generation. Also obtain the finite difference formulation for the rate of heat transfer at the left
boundary.

25. Consider a large uranium plate of thickness 5cm and thermal conductivity k =28 W/mK in
which heat is generated uniformly at a constant rate of qG  6 10 W / m . One side of the
5 3

plate is insulated while the other side is subjected to convection to an environment at 30 0 C

with a heat transfer coefficient of h  60W / m 2 K . Considering six equally spaced nodes with
a nodal spacing of 1cm, determine the nodal temperatures under steady conditions.

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26. Consider an aluminum alloy fin (k=180W/mK) of triangular cross section whose length is
L=5cm, base thickness is b=1cm, and width w in the direction normal to the plane of paper is
very large. The base of the fin is maintained at a temperature of To  180 C . The fin is losing
0

heat by convection to the ambient air at T  250 C with a heat transfer coefficient of
h  25W / m 2 K and by radiation to the surrounding surfaces at an average temperature of
Tsurr  290K . Using the finite difference method with six equally spaced nodes along the fin
in the x-direction, determine (a) the temperatures at the nodes and (b) the rate of heat transfer
from the fin for w=1m. Take the emissivity of the fin surface to be 0.9 and assume steady
one-dimensional heat transfer in the fin.

Answers
1. T 
1  b   a 
 aT0   1  bT11   
11. Ti  To 23. At x = 0:
b  a 
Q
r   r  ln ro / ri  T1  T0
T  T 4kab 2kL k 0 or T1  T0
Q 0 1 x
ba 12. 4 min
0
2. 36.53 C , 13. 580 0 C
At x= L :
62.69W / m 2 K 14. 4.6s T5  T4
3. (a) 7251W, (b) 120 C , k   [T54  Tsurr
4
]
15. 200W / m 2 K x
3.30 C , 2530 C and 16. 1h 32 min
31.7 0 C 17. (a) 54.50 C , (b)5min 24. T7  T8 T T
kA  q 0 A  0 or k 7 8  800  0
0 x x
4. 125 C 47s
T T
5. 20 0 C 18. 33 min, 37.8 kJ Q left surface  kA 1 0  0
x
6. 3.75cm 19. 547, 266 and 188 s
25. T0  556.8 C ,
0
7. 5.8 cm 20. 2050 C
8. 50W/m K 21. 93.30 C T1  555.70 C ,
9. 1.088kW/m 22. (a) 630 C , (b)85.9 kJ
T2  552.50 C ,
10. rc  4mm , heat loss
T3  547.10 C ,
increases

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T4  539.60 C , and 26. (a) T1  177.00 C , T4  168.40 C , and

T5  530.00 C T2  174.10 C , T5  165.50 C , (b)
T3  171.20 C , 533W

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