TRANSPORTATION Vehicle Signal Change Interval

U.S. Customary Units v

y= t+
a = deceleration rate (ft/sec2) 2a ! 64.4 G
A = absolute value of algebraic difference in grades (%) r = W v+ l
e = superelevation (%)
f = side friction factor Stopping Sight Distance
± G = percent grade divided by 100 (uphill grade "+")
= height of driver's eyes above the roadway surface (ft) V2
h1 SSD = 1.47Vt +
30 dc 32.2 m ! G n
h2 = height of object above the roadway surface (ft) a
L = length of curve (ft)
Ls = spiral transition length (ft) ISD = 1.47 Vmajor tg
R = radius of curve (ft)
Peak Hour Factor (PHF)
SSD = stopping sight distance (ft)
Hourly Volume Hourly Volume
ISD = intersection sight distance (ft) = =
PHF Hourly
tg = time gap for vehicle entering roadway (sec) Flow Rate 4 # Peak 15- minute Volume
t = driver reaction time (sec) Queueing models are found in the Industrial Engineering
V = design speed (mph) section.
v = vehicle approach speed (fps)
W = width of intersection, curb-to-curb (ft)
l = length of vehicle (ft)
y = length of yellow interval to nearest 0.1 sec (sec)
r = length of red clearance interval to nearest 0.1 sec (sec)

• SIGHT DISTANCE
Vertical Curves: Sight Distance Related to Curve Length

S ≤ L S > L
Crest Vertical Curve AS2 2
General equation:
L =
100( 2h1 + 2h2 ) 2
L = 2S −
200 ( h1 + h2 )
A

Standard Criteria:
AS2 2,158
h 1 = 3.50 ft and h2 = 2.0 ft: L = L = 2S −
2,158 A

Sag Vertical Curve

AS2 400 + 3.5 S
(based on standard headlight
criteria)
L =
400 + 3.5 S
L = 2S − ( A )
Sag Vertical Curve AV 2
L =
(based on riding comfort) 46.5
Sag Vertical Curve AS2
(based on adequate sight distance
under an overhead structure to see an
L =
( h +h
800 C − 1 2 )
L = 2S −
800
A
(
h +h
C− 1 2
2 )
2
object beyond a sag vertical curve)
C = vertical clearance for overhead structure (overpass) located within 200
feet of the midpoint of the curve

Horizontal Curves

V2
0.01e + f =
Side friction factor (based on superelevation) 15 R

3.15V 3
Ls =
Spiral Transition Length RC
C = rate of increase of lateral acceleration
[use 1 ft/sec3 unless otherwise stated]

Sight Distance (to see around obstruction)

HSO = R [ 1 − cos ( 28.65 S
R
)]
HSO = Horizontal sight line offset
• Compiled from AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th ed., 2011.

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♦ Basic Freeway Segment Highway Capacity

Flow Rate Range

FFS Breakpoint
(mi/h) (pc/h/ln) ≥ 0 ≤ Breakpoint > Breakpoint ≤ Capacity
75 1,000 75 75 – 0.00001107 (vp – 1,000)2
70 1,200 70 70 – 0.00001160 (vp – 1,200)2
65 1,400 65 65 – 0.00001418 (vp – 1,400)2
60 1,600 60 60 – 0.00001816 (vp – 1,600)2
55 1,800 55 55 – 0.00002469 (vp – 1,800)2
Notes: FFS = free-flow speed, vp = demand flow rate (pc/h/ln) under equivalent base conditions.
Maximum flow rate for the equations is capacity: 2,400 pc/h/ln for 70- and 75-mph FFS;
2,350 pc/h/ln for 65-mph FFS; 2,300 pc/h/ln for 60-mph FFS; and 2,250 pc/h/ln for 55-mph FFS.

LOS Density (pc/mi/ln)

A ≤11
B >11 – 18
C >18 – 26
D >26 – 35
E >35 – 45
Demand exceeds capacity
F >45

FFS = 75.4 – fLW – fLC – 3.22 TRD0.84

where
FFS = free flow speed of basic freeway segment (mi/h)
fLW = adjustment for lane width (mi/h)
fLC = adjustment for right-side lateral clearance (mi/h)
TRD = total ramp density (ramps/mi)

Average Lane Width (ft) Reduction in FFS, fLW (mi/h)

≥12 0.0
≥11 – 12 1.9
≥10 – 11 6.6

Right-Side
Lanes in One Direction
Lateral
Clearance (ft) 2 3 4 ≥5
≥6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.1
4 1.2 0.8 0.4 0.2
3 1.8 1.2 0.6 0.3
2 2.4 1.6 0.8 0.4
1 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.5
0 3.6 2.4 1.2 0.6

♦ HCM 2010: Highway Capacity Manual, Vol 2, Uninterrupted Flow, Transportation Research Board of the National Academics, Washington, DC, 2010.

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 V
vp = PHF # N # f # f
HV p

where
vp = demand flow rate under equivalent base conditions (pc/h/ln)
V = demand volume under prevailing conditions (veh/h)
PHF = peak-hour factor
N = number of lanes in analysis direction
fHV = adjustment factor for presence of heavy vehicles in traffic stream
fp = adjustment factor for unfamiliar driver populations

1
fHV =
1 + PT _ ET − 1 i + PR _ ER − 1 i
where
fHV = heavy-vehicle adjustment factor
PT = proportion of trucks and buses in traffic stream
PR = proportion of RVs in traffic stream
ET = passenger-car equivalent (PCE) of one truck or bus in traffic stream
ER = PCE of one RV in traffic stream

PCE by Type of Terrain

Vehicle Level Rolling Mountainous
Trucks and buses, ET 1.5 2.5 4.5
RVs, ER 1.2 2.0 4.0

vp
D= S
where
D = density(pc/mi/ln)
vp = demand flow rate (pc/h/ln)
S = mean speed of traffic stream under base conditions (mi/h)

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• Traffic Flow Relationships Logit Models
Greenshields Model n
Ux = / aiXi
i=1
Sf Sf
where
SPEED (mph)

SPEED (mph)
DO Ux = utility of mode x
SO SO
n = number of attributes
Xi = attribute value (time, cost, and so forth)
Dj
0 DO Dj 0 Vm
ai = coefficient value for attributes i (negative, since the
DENSITY (veh/mi/ln) FLOW (veh/h/ln)
values are disutilities)
If two modes, auto (A) and transit (T), are being considered,
SO
Vm Sf the probability of selecting the auto mode A can be written as
FLOW (veh/h/ln)

P_ Ai = P_ x i =
eUA eUx
n
eUA + eUT / eUxi
e=1

0 DO Dj
Traffic Safety Equations
DENSITY (veh/mi/ln)
Crash Rates at Intersections
Oversaturated flow
A # 1, 000, 000
RMEV = V
Sf
S = Sf − D D where
j RMEV = crash rate per million entering vehicles
Sf 2 A = number of crashes, total or by type occurring in a
V = Sf D − D D
j single year at the location
D jS f V = ADT × 365
Vm = 4 ADT = average daily traffic entering intersection
Dj Crash Rates for Roadway Segments
Do = 2
A # 100, 000, 000
RMVM = VMT
where
D = density (veh/mi) where
S = speed (mi/hr) RMVM = crash rate per hundred million vehicle miles
V = flow (veh/hr) A = number of crashes, total or by type at the study
Vm = maximum flow location, during a given period
Do = optimum density (sometimes called critical density) VMT = vehicle miles of travel during the given period
Dj = jam density = ADT × (number of days in study period) ×
So = optimum speed (often called critical speed) (length of road)
Sf = theoretical speed selected by the first driver entering ADT = average daily traffic on the roadway segment
a facility (i.e., under zero density and zero flow rate Crash Reduction
conditions) _ ADT after improvement i
_ ADT before improvement i
Crashes prevented = N # CR
Gravity Model where
Tij = Pi > /
AjFijKij H
AjFijKij N = expected number of crashes if countermeasure is
not implemented and if the traffic volume
j
remains the same
where CR = CR1 + (1 - CR1)CR2 + (1 - CR1)(1 - CR2)CR3 +. . .
Tij = number of trips that are produced in zone i and attracted + (1 - CR1). . . (1 - CRm -1) CRm
to zone j = overall crash reduction factor for multiple mutually
Pi = total number of trips produced in zone i exclusive improvements at a single site
Aj = number of trips attracted to zone j CRi = crash reduction factor for a specific
Fij = a friction factor that is an inverse function of travel time countermeasure i
between zones i and j m = number of countermeasures at the site
Ki = socioeconomic adjustment factor for interchange ij Garber, Nicholas J., and Lester A. Hoel, Traffic and Highway Engineering, 4th ed., Cengage
Learning, 2009.
• AASHTO, A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th ed., 2011.
Used by permission.

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 Highway Pavement Design

AASHTO Structural Number Equation

SN = a1D1 + a2D2 +…+ anDn, where
SN = structural number for the pavement
ai = layer coefficient and Di = thickness of layer (inches).

Load Equivalency Load Equivalency

Gross Axle Load Gross Axle Load
Factors Factors
Single Tandem Single Tandem
kN lb kN lb
Axles Axles Axles Axles
4.45 1,000 0.00002 187.0 42,000 25.64 2.51
8.9 2,000 0.00018 195.7 44,000 31.00 3.00
17.8 4,000 0.00209 200.0 45,000 34.00 3.27
22.25 5,000 0.00500 204.5 46,000 37.24 3.55
26.7 6,000 0.01043 213.5 48,000 44.50 4.17
35.6 8,000 0.0343 222.4 50,000 52.88 4.86
44.5 10,000 0.0877 0.00688 231.3 52,000 5.63
53.4 12,000 0.189 0.0144 240.2 54,000 6.47
62.3 14,000 0.360 0.0270 244.6 55,000 6.93
66.7 15,000 0.478 0.0360 249.0 56,000 7.41
71.2 16,000 0.623 0.0472 258.0 58,000 8.45
80.0 18,000 1.000 0.0773 267.0 60,000 9.59
89.0 20,000 1.51 0.1206 275.8 62,000 10.84
97.8 22,000 2.18 0.180 284.5 64,000 12.22
106.8 24,000 3.03 0.260 289.0 65,000 12.96
111.2 25,000 3.53 0.308 293.5 66,000 13.73
115.6 26,000 4.09 0.364 302.5 68,000 15.38
124.5 28,000 5.39 0.495 311.5 70,000 17.19
133.5 30,000 6.97 0.658 320.0 72,000 19.16
142.3 32,000 8.88 0.857 329.0 74,000 21.32
151.2 34,000 11.18 1.095 333.5 75,000 22.47
155.7 35,000 12.50 1.23 338.0 76,000 23.66
160.0 36,000 13.93 1.38 347.0 78,000 26.22
169.0 38,000 17.20 1.70 356.0 80,000 28.99
178.0 40,000 21.08 2.08
Note: kN converted to lb are within 0.1 percent of lb shown

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 Superpave
PERFORMANCE-GRADED (PG) BINDER GRADING SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE GRADE PG 52 PG 58 PG 64
–10 –16 –22 –28 –34 –40 –46 –16 –22 –28 –34 –40 –16 –22 –28 –34 –40

AVERAGE 7-DAY MAXIMUM PAVEMENT <52 <58 <64

DESIGN TEMPERATURE, °Ca

>–10 >–16 >–22 >–28 >–34 >–40 >–46 >–16 >–22 >–28 >–34 >–40 >–16 >–22 >–28 >–34 >–40
MINIMUM PAVEMENT DESIGN
TEMPERATURE, °Ca

ORIGINAL BINDER

FLASH POINT TEMP, T48: MINIMUM °C 230

VISCOSITY, ASTM D 4402: b 135

MAXIMUM, 3 Pa-s (3,000 cP),
TEST TEMP, °C

DYNAMIC SHEAR, TP5: c 52 58 64

G*/sin δ , MINIMUM, 1.00 kPa
TEST TEMPERATURE @ 10 rad/sec., °C

ROLLING THIN FILM OVEN (T240) OR THIN FILM OVEN (T179) RESIDUE

MASS LOSS, MAXIMUM, % 1.00

DYNAMIC SHEAR, TP5: 52 58 64

G*/sin δ , MINIMUM, 2.20 kPa
TEST TEMP @ 10 rad/sec. °C

PRESSURE AGING VESSEL RESIDUE (PP1)

PAV AGING TEMPERATURE, °Cd 90 100 100

DYNAMIC SHEAR, TP5:

G*/sin δ , MAXIMUM, 5,000 kPa 25 22 19 16 13 10 7 25 22 19 16 13 28 25 22 19 16
TEST TEMP @ 10 rad/sec. °C

PHYSICAL HARDENING e REPORT

CREEP STIFFNESS, TP1: f

S, MAXIMUM, 300 MPa
M-VALUE, MINIMUM, 0.300
0 –6 –12 –18 –24 –30 –36 –6 –12 –18 –24 –30 –6 –12 –18 –24 –30
TEST TEMP, @ 60 sec., °C

DIRECT TENSION, TP3: f

FAILURE STRAIN, MINIMUM, 1.0% 0 –6 –12 –18 –24 –30 –36 –6 –12 –18 –24 –30 –6 –12 –18 –24 –30
TEST TEMP @ 1.0 mm/min, °C

Superpave Mixture Design: Compaction Requirements

VFA REQUIREMENTS
SUPERPAVE GYRATORY COMPACTION EFFORT @ 4% AIR VOIDS
TRAFFIC, AVERAGE DESIGN HIGH AIR TEMPERATURE TRAFFIC, DESIGN
MILLION < 39° C 39° – 40° C 41° – 42° C 42° – 43° C MILLION VFA
ESALs N int N des N max N int N des N max N int N des N max N int N des N max ESALs (%)
< 0.3 7 68 104 7 74 114 7 78 121 7 82 127 < 0.3 70 – 80
<1 7 76 117 7 83 129 7 88 138 8 93 146 <1 65 – 78
<3 7 86 134 8 95 150 8 100 158 8 105 167 <3 65 – 78
< 10 8 96 152 8 106 169 8 113 181 9 119 192 < 10 65 – 75
< 30 8 109 174 9 121 195 9 128 208 9 135 220 < 30 65 – 75
< 100 9 126 204 9 139 228 9 146 240 10 153 253 < 100 65 – 75
100 9 142 233 10 158 262 10 165 275 10 177 288 ≥ 100 65 – 75

VMA REQUIREMENTS @ 4% AIR VOIDS COMPACTION KEY

NOMINAL MAXIMUM
9.5 12.5 19.0 25.0 37.5 SUPERPAVE GYRATORY N int N des N max
AGGREGATE SIZE (mm) COMPACTION
MINIMUM VMA ( % ) 15 14 13 12 11 PERCENT OF Gmm 89% 96% 98%

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Horizontal Curve Formulas
PI
D = Degree of Curve, Arc Definition I
PC = Point of Curve (also called BC)
PT = Point of Tangent (also called EC) E
T
PI = Point of Intersection T
I = Intersection Angle (also called ∆) 100.00
Angle Between Two Tangents M
L = Length of Curve, from PC to PT PC c LC PT
T = Tangent Distance
E = External Distance
R = Radius I/2 I/2
LC = Length of Long Chord
D
M = Length of Middle Ordinate R d

R
c = Length of Sub-Chord I
d = Angle of Sub-Chord
l = Curve Length for Sub-Chord
NOT TO SCALE
R = 5729.58
D

LC
2 sin _ I 2i
R=

T = R tan _ I 2i = LC
2 cos _ I 2i
LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES
L = RI r = I 100
180 D + Latitude

M = R 81 - cos _ I 2iB
– Departure + Departure
R cos _ I 2i
E+ R=

R - M = cos _ I 2i
R
– Latitude
c = 2R sin _ d 2i

l = Rd b r l
180

E = R= 1 - 1G
cos _ I 2i

Deflection angle per 100 feet of arc length equals D 2

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Vertical Curve Formulas

x PVI
y E
PVT g
2
PVC FOR
TAN WARD
g1 GEN
T
CK NT
BA NGE YPVC
TA

DATUM

VERTICAL CURVE FORMULAS

NOT TO SCALE

L = Length of curve g2 = Grade of forward tangent

PVC = Point of vertical curvature a = Parabola constant
PVI = Point of vertical intersection y = Tangent offset
PVT = Point of vertical tangency E = Tangent offset at PVI = AL/800
g1 = Grade of back tangent r = Rate of change of grade
x = Horizontal distance from PVC K = Rate of vertical curvature
to point on curve
g1 g1L
xm = Horizontal distance to min/max elevation on curve = -
2a = g1 - g2
Tangent elevation = YPVC + g1x and = YPVI + g2 (x – L/2)

Curve elevation = YPVC + g1x + ax2 = YPVC + g1x + [(g2 – g1)/(2L)]x2

g2 − g1 g −g
E = ac 2 m r = 2 L 1
L 2 L
y = ax 2 a = 2L K= A

EARTHWORK FORMULAS
Average End Area Formula, V = L(A1 + A2)/2
Prismoidal Formula, V = L (A1 + 4Am + A2)/6
where Am = area of mid-section
L = distance between A1 and A2

Pyramid or Cone, V = h (Area of Base)/3

AREA FORMULAS
Area by Coordinates: Area = [XA (YB – YN) + XB (YC – YA) + XC (YD – YB) + ... + XN (YA – YN – 1)] / 2

Trapezoidal Rule: Area = w c + h2 + h3 + h4 + f + hn - 1m

h1 + hn
w = common interval
2

Simpson's 1/3 Rule: Area = = w >h1 + 2 e ! hk o + 4 e ! hk o + hn H 3

n- 2 n- 1
n must be odd number of measurements
k = 3, 5, f k = 2, 4, f
(only for Simpson's 1/3 Rule)

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