chemical engineering research and design 1 0 9 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 730–733

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Chemical Engineering Research and Design

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cherd

Suspension of solid particles in vessels agitated

by Rushton turbine imperllers

R.K. Grenville a,∗ , J.J. Giacomelli a , D.A.R. Brown b

a Philadelphia Mixing Solutions Ltd., Palmyra, PA, USA
b Fluid Mixing Processes, BHR Group, Cranfield, UK

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The “just suspended” condition is an important criterion for the design of agitators in
Received 26 November 2015 solid−liquid mixing processes. This criterion is met when all the particles are in motion
Received in revised form 11 March on the base of the vessel but not necessarily uniformly distributed throughout the liquid.
2016 Grenville et al. (2015) have proposed a new correlation for predicting the just suspension
Accepted 20 March 2016 speed of axial flow impellers in standard, baffled vessels with dished bases. It is based on
Available online 31 March 2016 the physical model proposed by Davies (1986) and correlates data taken at three scales over
a wide range of physical properties.
Keywords: Many previous workers have measured the just suspension speed for Rushton turbines,
Mixing which produce a radial primary flow, and forced their data to the correlation proposed by
Agitation Zwietering (1958) but without testing the statistical fit. The applicability of the Davies (1986)
Stirred Tank model and Grenville et al. (2015) correlation to radial flow impellers was recognized as an
Solids suspension outstanding question and it is addressed in this paper.
Turbulence Chapman (1981) measured the just suspension speed for Rushton turbines at five vessel
Eddies scales in standard baffled vessels with flat bases under gassed and ungassed conditions.
The ungassed data have been successfully fitted to the Grenville et al. (2015) correlation but
with a change in geometrical dependencies. The just suspension speed is independent of
impeller clearance above the vessel base but strongly dependent on the impeller to vessel
diameter ratio. These geometric effects are very different to the ones observed for axial
impellers in dished base vessels and this suggests that further work should be carried out
to reconcile these differences.
© 2016 The Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In the design of agitators for solid−liquid mixing processes
one of the important design criteria is the “just suspended”
operating speed, NJS , where all the particles are in motion
on the base of the vessel but not necessarily uniformly dis-
tributed. The just suspended condition is the optimum for
mass transfer between particles and the liquid phase since the
particles are all in motion and in contact with the liquid for the
minimum power input. If any particles are stationary on the
vessel base, the mass transfer rate is limited by the renewal of
interfacial area and hence, diffusion through the settled bed
of particles. If the agitator operates at a speed above NJS , the
mass transfer coefficient will increase slightly as the velocity
of the liquid passing the surface of the particle increases (see
for example Nienow (1985)).
Grenville et al. (2015) have proposed a correlation that suc-
cessfully fits solids suspension data measured with axial flow
impellers at three vessel scales over a wide range of liquid vis-
cosities. The impeller Reynolds numbers ranged from 3.9 × 102
to 6.5 × 105 but the dependent variable in their correlation is
the Reynolds number of the turbulent eddies at the scale of

∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 717 202 7976; fax: +1 717 832 1740.
E-mail address: rkgrenville@philamixers.com (R.K. Grenville).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2016.03.024
0263-8762/© 2016 The Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 chemical engineering research and design 1 0 9 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 730–733
Nomenclature
Ar Archimedes number -
C Impeller clearance above vessel base m
D Impeller diameter m
d Particle size, m
g Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
k Exponent in Eq. (1)
N Impeller speed, s−1
NJS Impeller speed when particles are “just sus-
pended”, s−1
P Power, W
Po Impeller Power number
p Constant in Eqs. (3) and (4)
p Constant in Eq. (5)
q Exponent in Eqs. (3) and (4)
Re Impeller Reynolds number
ReE Reynolds number of turbulent eddies at NJS
r Exponent in Eqs. (3) and (4)
r Exponent in Eq. (5)
s Exponent in Eqs. (3) and (4)
s Exponent in Eq. (5)
T Vessel diameter, m
t Exponent in Eq. (3)
X Zwietering’s concentration (Mass of parti-
cles/Mass of liquid), %
XM Mass fraction (Mass of particles/Mass of slurry),
%
XV Volume fraction (Volume of particles/Volume of
slurry), %
˛ Constant in Eq. (31)
ˇ Exponent in Eq. (31)
 Exponent in Eq. (31)
ı Exponent in Eq. (31)
ε̄JS Vessel averaged power input per mass at NJS ,
W/kg
 Liquid density, kg/m3
S Particle density, kg/m3
 Density difference (=S –), kg/m3
the particles. The eddy and impeller Reynolds numbers are
related by:
 d 4/3
1/3
ReE = Po Re
D
The correlation is based on the model proposed by Davies
(1986) which describes how particles are lifted from the vessel
base by turbulent eddies but the limitation of the correlation’s
applicability to axial flow impellers operating in vessels with
dished bases and standard baffles is recognized by Grenville
et al. (2015). They suggest that it is not clear that the new cor-
relation would be applicable to radial flow impellers such as
Rushton turbines.
While these impellers are rarely used in industry for pro-
cesses requiring solids suspension ((Barnak (2013), Janz (2013),
Kehn (2013), Simpson (2013)) it should be of academic inter-
est to determine if their performance can be described by the
Davies (1986) model, especially since much of the work sup-
porting the use of Zwietering’s (1958) correlation is based on
data measured using these impellers.
731
Chapman et al. (1983) studied solids suspension in gassed
and ungassed vessels agitated by Rushton turbines and con-
cluded that Zwietering’s (1958) correlation was the “soundest
basis for design”. The power input per unit mass by an impeller
operating at the just suspension speed can be related to the
vessel diameter by:
ε̄JS = T −k (2)
Zwietering’s (1958) correlation predicts that k should have
a value of 0.55 while Chapman et al. (1983) found that their
data were best fitted with a value of 0.28. No explanation was
offered to reconcile this difference. Grenville et al. (2015) have
shown, that, for axial flow impellers, scale-up should be car-
ried out using a rule of constant power input per mass, i.e.
k = 0.
In this paper, Chapman’s (1981) ungassed, just suspension
data are correlated using the approach proposed by Davies
(1986) and Grenville et al. (2015).
2. Experimental conditions
The experimental methods and equipment used by Chapman
are described in his PhD Thesis (1981). Briefly they are sum-
marized below:
Rushton turbine impellers of T/2, T/3 and T/4 diameter
were located at clearances of T/3, T/4 and T/6 above the vessel
base. Five vessels were studied of diameters 0.29, 0.30, 0.56,
0.91 and 1.83 m, all with flat bases and standard baffles.
The range of physical properties investigated was:
d: 93, 206, 300, 470, 550, 600, 925 and 2650 microns
S : 1200, 1250, 1400, 2200, 2480 and 2650 kg/m3
L : 1000 kg/m3
: 1.0 cP
X: 1–30%
XV : 0.04–14.73%
3. Data analysis
Grenville et al. (2015) correlated their data by:
 C ı
ReE = ˛Arˇ XV

(3)
(1) D
Davies (1986) model predicts that the exponent on
Archimedes number, ˇ, should have a value of 0.50 and this
was confirmed by regression of the experimental data. The
exponent on C/D, ı, was found to be 0.10 indicating that clear-
ance has a weak, but statistically significant, effect on ReE and
NJS for axial flow impellers in vessels with dished bases.
Review of the literature (for example Armenante et al.
(1998)) shows that, for Rushton turbines, there is an effect of
clearance and impeller diameter on NJS so Eq. (3) was modified
to and regression analysis carried out on:
 D s  C t
ReE = pArq XV
r
(4)
T T
The results of the regression analysis are shown in Table 1.
The correlation coefficient, r2 , is 0.958.
732 chemical engineering research and design 1 0 9 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 730–733

Table 1 – Regression results including C/T.

Coefficient Upper 95% Lower 95% p-Value
Conf. Limit Conf. Limit

log p -0.130 0.191 -0.450 0.414

q 0.509 0.552 0.466 < 0.01
R 0.076 0.146 0.007 0.033
s -1.491 -1.162 -1.819 < 0.01
t 0.073 0.432 -0.267 0.683

Table 2 – Regression results excluding C/T.

Coefficient Upper 95% Lower 95% p-Value
Conf. Limit Conf. Limit

log p -0.130 0.191 -0.450 0.414

Q 0.509 0.552 0.466 < 0.01
Fig. 1 – Plot of correlation for Rushton turbine.
R 0.076 0.146 0.007 0.033
S -1.491 -1.162 -1.819 < 0.01
T 0.073 0.432 -0.267 0.683 Re-arranging Eq. (7) and multiplying both sides by D/T:

Po1/3 NJS D5/3



1/2  T 0.47
1/3
The exponent on Archimedes number, q, is 0.509 with ε̄JS = = 0.73d1/6 g 0.07
XV (9)
T  D
upper and lower 95% confidence limits of 0.552 and 0.466,
respectively, and a p-value less than 0.01. Similarly, the expo- Or:
nent on C/T, t, is 0.073 but its p-value is 0.683 indicating that
  3/2  T 1.41
is not statistically significant.
ε̄JS = 0.39d1/2 g 0.21
XV (10)
C/T was eliminated from Eq. (4) and regression carried out  D
on:
A larger diameter Rushton turbine is more efficient, achiev-
 D s ing just suspended conditions, at a lower power input than a
ReE = pArq XV
r
(5)
T small one.

The results of this regression analysis are shown in Table 2. 4. Discussion

The correlation coefficient, r2 , is 0.959.
The exponent on Archimedes number, q, is 0.509 with 4.1. Effects of geometry
upper and lower 95% confidence limits of 0.551 and 0.446
respectively and a p-value less than 0.01. Analysis of Chapman’s data shows that there is no effect of
Finally, since the Davies (1986) model predicts that q should clearance on the just suspensions speed. This is in very good
have a value of 0.50, and this is supported by the data regres- agreement with the conclusions of Zwietering (1958). He plot-
sion, Eq. (5) was rearranged and further regression carried out ted the s-value (the constant in his correlation) versus T/D (Fig.
on: 4 in the 1958 paper) for 1 < T/C < 7 and there is no difference
 D s between the data sets. Zwietering essentially drew the best
ReE 
= p XV
r
(6) straight line through the data points so it is not possible to
Ar1/2 T evaluate the scatter in the data or their fit to this line.
Nienow (1968) measured just suspension speed and plotted
The results of this analysis are shown in Table 3.
the Zwietering s-value versus T/D (|Fig. 2) for three clearances,
The correlation can be written:
C/T of 1/3, 1/5 and 1/7. The results show that s-value increases
 D −1.47 with clearance but Zwietering’s line is plotted on the same
ReE = 0.73Ar0.50 XV
0.07
(7) axis and fits well within the scatter of Nienow’s data.
T
Armenante et al. (1998) measured just suspension speed at
low clearances and found that there are two suspension mech-
The relative standard deviation on the constant is ± 18.08%
anisms. At very low clearances, a single flow loop is generated
and the data are plotted in Fig. 1.
(the “single-eight”) but as the impeller clearance increases a
Eq. (7) can be re-arranged for NJS :
flow loop develops under the impeller so that there are two

0.73
  1/2  T 1.47 loops (the “double-eight”). There is a critical clearance, CCRIT ,
NJS = 1/3
d1/6 g 0.07
XV (8) which depends on the T/D ratio but is generally found at C/T
Po D2/3  D
≈ 1/6.
When C/T < CCRIT /T:
Table 3 – Regression results for exponent of 0.50 on Ar.  C

Coefficient Upper 95% Lower 95% P-Value
NJS ∝ exp 2.15 (11)
T
Conf. Limit Conf. Limit

log p -0.145 -0.041 -0.248 < 0.01

and when C/T > CCRIT /T:
r 0.072 0.127 0.015 0.013  C

s -1.471 -1.206 -1.735 < 0.01 NJS ∝ exp 0.44 (12)
T
 chemical engineering research and design 1 0 9 ( 2 0 1 6 ) 730–733
Comparing Armenante et al’s. (1998) prediction of the effect
of clearance on NJS , if C/T is increased from 1/6 to 1/3, s
will increase by 15% which falls within the variability of
Chapman’s data.
Zwietering (1958), Nienow (1968) and Armenante et al.
(1998) all show that NJS is dependent on T/D raised to an expo-
nent in the range of 1.4−1.5. The exponent found from the
regression of Chapman’s data is 1.50 with upper and lower
95% confidence limits of 1.12 and 1.82 so there is good agree-
ment on the effect of impeller diameter on the just suspension
speed.
4.2. Effect of solids concentration
The definition of solids concentration used by Zwietering
(1958) is the mass of solids divided by the mass of liquid
expressed as a percentage and in his correlation this is raised
to an exponent of 0.13. Grenville et al. (2015) used volume frac-
tion, also expressed as a percentage, raised to an exponent of
0.15 in their correlation.
Regression of Chapman’s (1981) data, expressing concen-
tration as percent volume fraction, gives an exponent of
0.07. Chapman measured 34 data points for the ungassed
Rushton turbine and, of these, 20 were taken at a Zwi-
etering concentration of 1%, six were taken at 3% and the
remaining eight were taken at single values ranging from 0.5
to 30%.
Myers et al. (2012) found that the exponent on concentra-
tion is 0.097 for concentrations up to 5% weight (Zwietering
X = 5). Ayranci and Kresta (2014) found that the exponent on
Zwietering’s X was dependent on both the type of particle and
its concentration but concluded that there was no clear expla-
nation for these observations. They found that the exponent
varied between 0.17 and 0.32 with 0.23 being the average for
their complete data set.
4.3. Comparison between axial flow and Rushton
turbine impellers
This analysis cannot be used to make a direct comparison
between the solids suspension performance of the axial flow,
from Grenville et al. (2015) and Rushton impellers reported
here. The reason for this is that Grenville et al. measured their
data in dished-base vessels while Chapman used vessels with
flat bases.
Moravec et al. (2006) have measured the just suspended
speed for a six-bladed pitched turbine, with diameter equal
to one-third of the vessel diameter, in dish and flat-based
vessels. They concluded that the just suspended speed and
power were higher in a flat-based vessel and the difference
was dependent on the particle size and concentration. For a
concentration of 10% by volume with particles of 390 microns,
the power required in the flat-based vessel was 60% higher. At
40% by volume with 250 micron particles, the power required
was doubled in the flat-based vessel.
5. Conclusions
The general form of the correlation developed by Grenville
et al. (2015), based on the physical model of Davies (1986)
733
describing particle suspension, can be applied to Rushton tur-
bines. That is:
ReE ∝ Ar1/2 (13)
The correlation can be rearranged to show that NJS is not
dependent on the viscosity of the liquid phase and that, if
experimental data are available; scale-up should be carried out
using a rule of constant power input per unit mass of slurry.
The terms accounting for the effect of geometry in the cor-
relation are different and this is a result of the differences in
the primary flow generated by axial and radial flow impellers.
For Rushton turbines operating in flat-based vessels, ReE and
NJS are proportional to (T/D)1.50 and independent of (C/T), over
the range that Chapman (1981) studied. These conclusions are
in agreement with those reported in the literature.
These geometric effects are very different to the ones
observed for axial impellers in dished-base vessels and this
suggests that further work should be carried out to reconcile
these differences.
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge Prof. Alvin W. Nienow of the Uni-
versity of Birmingham, UK and Dr. Arthur W. Etchells III of
Rowan University, Glassboro NJ, USA for their invaluable dis-
cussions and advice. Also we are especially indebted to Dr.
Colin M. Chapman for his work measuring the data on which
this paper is based.
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