HBEM1403 Management of Teaching and Learning

Faculty of Education and Languages
HBEM1403
Management of Teaching
and Learning
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

HBEM1403
MANAGEMENT OF
TEACHING AND
LEARNING
Mohd Salleh Lebar

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Chung Han Tek
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Mohd Salleh Lebar
Moderator: Dr Nor Aziah Mohd Salleh

Translator:
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, December 2009
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), October 2011, HBEM1403

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Copyright
Copyright © Open
Open University Malaysia (OUM)
University Malaysia (OUM)
Table of Contents
Course Guide xi – xiv
Topic 1 Learning Concepts and Methods 1

1.1 Definitions of Learning
1.2 Learning Theories 3
1.2.1 Classical Conditioning Theory 3
1.2.2 Operant Conditioning Learning Theory 4
1.2.3 Cognitive Theory and Gestalt 5
1.2.4 Humanistic Learning Theory 7
1.2.5 Gagne’s Information Processing Theory 8
1.3 Learners’ Readiness 9
1.3.1 Psychological Readiness 9
1.3.2 Mental Readiness 9
1.3.3 Sociological Readiness 10
1.3.4 Family Background 10
1.3.5 School Facilities 10
1.3.6 The Influence of Surroundings 10
Summary 13
Key Terms 13
References 14
Topic 2 Learners’ Learning Styles 15

2.1 Learning Styles Among Learners 16
2.1.1 Independent Learning and Memorising 17
2.1.2 Learning When Asked to Learn 17
2.1.3 Learning Through Experience 18
2.1.4 Learning Through Practice and Practical Work 18
2.1.5 Learning in Groups 18
2.1.6 Learning by Listening 19
2.1.7 Innovative, Intuitive and Analysis Way of Learning 19
2.1.8 Learning by Imitating 19
2.2 Learning Workshops 20
2.3 The Employment of Learning Styles to Optimise Learning 21
2.3.1 Aware of The Changes in Learners’ Achievement 22
2.3.2 Increased Practice 22
2.3.3 Student-Centred Teaching 22
2.3.4 Vary Teaching Methods 23
2.3.5 Outside Class Teaching Activities 23
2.3.6 Present Learners with Challenging Questions 23
2.4 Effective Learning 24
2.4.1 Hard Work 24
2.4.2 Inspiring Surroundings 24

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.4.3 Effective Reading Technique 25

2.4.4 Wise and Ambitious 25
2.4.5 Aware of The Direction in Life 26
2.4.6 Having High and Lasting Memorisation Ability 26
Summary 27
Key Terms 27
References 28
Topic 3 Teaching Methods 29

3.1 Definitions of Teaching 29
3.2 Theories of Teaching 31
3.2.1 Sim Teaching Theory 32
3.2.2 Robert Glaser’s Teaching Theory or Method 33
3.2.3 Taba Model 34
3.3 Traditional Teaching Methods 34
3.3.1 Expository Method 35
3.3.2 Lecturing Method 35
3.3.3 Mastery Method 36
3.4 Contemporary Methods Including Problem-Based Learning 37
3.4.1 Problem-Based Teaching 37
3.4.2 Group Method 38
3.4.3 Team Teaching 38
3.4.4 Discussion Method 40
3.4.5 Demonstration 41
3.4.6 Project Method 42
3.4.7 Simulation Method 42
3.4.8 Teaching using Teaching Aids 42
Summary 43
Key Terms 44
References 45
Topic 4 Teaching Preparations 46

4.1 Preparing Objectives and Contents of Teaching 47
4.2 Teaching Aids 51
4.3 Teaching Methods
4.3.1 Science 52
4.3.2 English Language 53
4.3.3 History 53
4.4 What do Formative and Summative Evaluations Mean? 54
4.4.1 Formative Evaluation 54
4.4.2 Summative Evaluation 55
4.5 Preparing Assigned Tasks 55
4.6 Computer Application and Internet Service
in Enriching Teaching and Learning 57
Summary 59
TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Key Terms 59
References 59
Topic 5 Classroom Management in Solving Learners’ Conflict 60

5.1 Classroom Management 61
5.2 Learners’ Conflicts: Early Signs 62
5.3 Management Techniques to Solve Learners’ Conflicts 62
5.3.1 Competition Versus Collaboration 63
5.3.2 Communication 64
5.3.3 Listening Skill 65
5.4 Solving Conflicts 66
5.5 Helping Learners Deal with Conflicts 67
Summary 68
Key Terms 68
References 69

Topic 6 Short-Term and Long-Term Memory in Learning 70
6.1 Human Reception of Information
And Memory 71
6.2 Types of Memory 72
6.2.1 Sensory Storage 74
6.2.2 Short-Term Storage 74
6.2.3 Long-Term Memory 74
6.3 Types of Long-Term Memory 74
6.3.1 Episodic Memory 75
6.3.2 Semantic Memory 75
6.3.3 Procedural Memory 75
6.4 Forgetting 76
6.4.1 Factors Causing Forgetfulness 77
6.4.2 Enhancement of Learners’ Memory Retention 79
6.4.3 Practice to Help Learners Memorise 80
Summary 82
Key Terms 82
References 83
Topic 7 Self-Concept and Self-Value 85

7.1 Definitions of Self-Concept and Self-Value 86
7.2 Factors Influencing Learners’ Self-Concept 88
7.2.1 Heredity 88
7.2.2 Influence from Parents 89
7.2.3 School Discipline 89
7.2.4 Influence from Society 89
7.3 Development of Learners’ Self-Concept 90
7.4 High and Low Self-Concepts 91
7.5 Enhancing Learners’ Self-Concept and Self-Value 92
vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.5.1 Do Not Exert Undue Pressure 92

7.5.2 Tightening Relationship with Peers 92
7.5.3 Provide Various Facilities 92
7.5.4 View Successful People as Role Models 93
7.5.5 Sharpening Talents and Increasing Ability 93
7.5.6 Provide Religious and Moral Education 94
7.5.7 Avoid Over-Comparison with Others 94
7.5.8 Change The Negative Attitude 94
Summary 94
Key Terms 95
References 95

Topic 8 Fostering Learners’ Success Through Evaluation 96
8.1 Ways to Succeed in Learning 97
8.1.1 Increased Knowledge 97
8.1.2 Time Management 98
8.2 Definitions of Test, Measurement, Evaluation
And Examination 99
8.2.1 Testing 99
8.2.2 Measurement 99
8.2.3 Evaluation 100
8.2.4 Examination 100
8.3 Types of Tests 101
8.3.1 Criterion Referenced Test 101
8.3.2 Norm Referenced Test 101
8.3.3 Standard Test 102
8.3.4 Teacher Constructed Test 102
8.3.5 Attitude Test 102
8.3.6 Written Test 102
8.4 School-Based Evaluation 103
8.4.1 Construction of Test 103
8.4.2 Table of Test Specifications 105
8.4.3 Steps in Constructing A Test 106
8.4.4 Marking Scheme 106
8.5 Evaluation and Test Report 107
8.5.1 Score Arrangement 107
8.5.2 Calculation of Mean, Median, Mode and Range 108
8.5.3 Doing Analysis 111
8.5.4 Preparation of Report 111
Summary 112
Key Terms 113
References 114

TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 9 High Expectations and Learning Opportunities 115

9.1 Learners’ and Teachers’ High Expectation 115
9.2 Trial Examination 116
9.3 Learners’ Preparation for a Public Examination 117
9.3.1 Understanding The Syllabus 118
9.3.2 One Day Before The Examination 119
9.3.3 Examination Day 119
9.3.4 Before Answering The Examination Questions 120
9.3.5 When Answering Examination Questions 120
9.4 Learners’ Failure 121
9.4.1 Know The Cycle of Failure 121
9.4.2 Teach Learners to Think Positive 121
9.5 Factors That Hamper Educational Opportunities:
What Needs To Be Changed? 122
9.5.1 Classification and Streaming in a Classroom 122
9.5.2 Insufficient Number of Teachers in Remote Areas 122
9.5.3 Teacher Prejudice 122
9.5.4 Low Achievers are Ignored 122
9.5.5 Teachers Lacking Inspiration 123
9.5.6 Lack of Career and Counselling Guidance 123
9.5.7 Lack of Reading Materials in The School Library 123
Summary 123
Key Terms 124
References 124
Topic 10 Expectation of Today’s Teachers: Are Teachers Under Pressure? 125

10.1 What are Learners’ and Society’s Expectations
of Teachers? 125
10.1.1 Ensure Excellent Performance Among Learners 126
10.1.2 Teachers are Knowledgeable 127
10.1.3 Involvement in Co-Curricular Activities
and Social Work 127
10.1.4 Competent Management 127
10.1.5 Solving Disciplinary Problems 128
10.2 Pressure Among Teachers 128
10.2.1 Definition of Pressure 129
10.2.2 The Causes of Pressure 129
10.2.3 Signs of Pressure 130
10.3 Ways to Overcome or Reduce Pressure 132
10.3.1 Be Positive 132
10.3.2 Reflection 132
10.3.3 Carry Responsibilities as Entrusted upon You 132
10.3.4 Good Time Management 132
10.3.5 Calming Techniques 133
10.3.6 Communicate 133
viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.3.7 Practice B Personality 133

10.4 Challenges Faced by Today’s Teacher 134
10.4.1 Smart School 134
10.4.2 Cluster School or Group of Excellent Schools
(KSC) 134
10.4.3 Head Count Method 135
10.4.4 Role of ICT 135
10.4.5 Action Plan for The Development
of Education 2006-2010 135
10.4.6 Other Challenges 136
Summary 136
Key Terms 137
References 137

COURSE GUIDE

x  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course Guide
as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important
study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEM1403 Management of Teaching and Learning is one of the courses offered
by Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM).
This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Education (Education
Administration) with Honours programme. This module aims to impart
knowledge about teaching and learning so as to facilitate the process within the
classroom. By understanding the various dynamics which influence teaching
and learning, students will be able to design the ideal teaching and learning
experience to improve teachers’ and learners’ performance.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material,
the course requirements and how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulatrion of Study Hours
Study Activities Hours Study

Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial 3
discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Discuss concepts and theories pertaining to teaching and learning;

2. Manage your classroom and resolve conflicts between learners;
3. Apply concepts like self-esteem, memory and evaluation to improve your
students’ performance; and
4. Identify teaching and learning issues which beset both teachers and learners
alike.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces the concept of learning and various learning theories.
Topic 2 describes learners’ learning styles and learning strategies.
Topic 3 discusses the concept of teaching and various teaching theories.
Topic 4 describes the preparation required to teach a class.
Topic 5 explains classroom management and how to resolve learners’ conflict.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 6 discusses short term and long term memory.
Topic 7 discusses self-concept and self-value.
Topic 8 describes evaluation and how it may foster learners’ success.
Topic 9 is about high expectations and learning opportunities.
Topic 10 describes the expectations and pressure that teachers have to deal with
in their career.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the
text arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
had completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer your reading back to these given learning outcomes. By doing
this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after you had gone through one sub-section
or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in a form of a question that
may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you come across
this component, try to reflect what you had already gone through. When you
attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be able to gauge whether
you had understand what you had read clearly, vaguely or worse you might find
out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-section(s) that you had
just gone through. Most of the time, the answer to the question can be found
directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or junctures
throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear in various
forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to conduct an
observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and evaluation on a
given scenario. When you came across an Activity, you should try to widen what
you had gathered from the module and introduce it to real situations. You should
engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall and define.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Summary
assist you to recap the whole topic. By going through summary, you should be
summary that you do not fully understand; it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details from the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component so as to remind yourself on important terms or jargons
explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a lost of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear
in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end
of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer
to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to
enhance you overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
In the syllabus, students are required to go through the various levels of
knowledge starting from level one and moving on to subsequent levels.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Abdul Rahim Selamat. (1989). Belajar cara belajar. Kuala Lumpur: Nurin Enterprise.
Gagne, Robert M. (1970). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.
Selye, H. (1976). The stress of life. New York: Knopf.

Copyright
Copyright © Open
Open University Malaysia (OUM)
University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 1 LEARNING CONCEPTS AND METHODS  1
Topic  Learning
Concepts and
1 Methods
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. State the definitions of learning;
2. Describe the theories of learning;
3. Identify learner readiness; and
4. Conduct various activities to motivate learners.
XX INTRODUCTION
This topic starts with a discussion on the definitions of learning. This is followed
by a general discussion on learning theories and learning methods that have been
developed by Western psychologists. As a teacher, it is crucial for you to be familiar
with learning theories and methods to ensure that your teaching is accepted and
comprehended by your learners. This is because most students come from diverse
social backgrounds and cultures and they learn based on preparation, experience
and surroundings which influence them directly or indirectly. Then, at the end of
this topic, there will be a brief discussion on learners’ motivation. It covers increasing
learners’ confidence, preparing sufficient teaching materials, considering learners’
background, inspiring learners to be independent learners, helping learners become
good time managers, encouraging learners to do revision and others.

2  TOPIC 1 LEARNING CONCEPTS AND METHODS
1.1 DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING

All children will go through formal or informal learning in various conditions. That
is the reason why sometimes, we may not even realize how children or learners
acquire knowledge and comprehend it. Hence, let us look at several definitions of
learning as put forth by renowned psychologists.
(a) Morgan and King in their book entitled Introduction to Psychology: Learning
can be defined as changes in behaviour as a result of experience or practice
that one undergoes.
(b) Robert M. Gagne (1970): Learning is one’s changes in behaviour or one’s ability
that is retained. The changes are not only caused by one’s developmental
process.
(c) Hilgard, Atkinson and Atkinson in their book entitled Introduction to
Psychology: Learning is the process whereby an organism changes its behaviour
due to experience.
Based on the given definitions, it can be said that learning reflects changes in
behaviour as a result of practice, reinforcement and experience. Learning is
also a process that can generate altered behaviour due to the circumstances one
experiences. Learning is also a process of associating newly received knowledge
to one’s existing cognitive structure.
An individual’s process of learning is generally obtained from various channels

such as through communication, practice, teaching, imitation, changes in behaviour
and others. As a result, an individual can remember what has been learnt and
apply the knowledge in other situations. Learning also occurs when an individual
reacts to a stimulus. If the individual is drawn to the stimulus, then the process
of learning is more effective. Therefore, in general, learning carries the following
characteristics:
(a) Learning is a systematic process.
(b) Motivation is primary in the learning process.
(c) Activities that promote a cognitive process enhance learning.
(d) Learning can occur formally and informally.
(e) Teachers play a significant role in teaching children and learners.
(f) Every teaching process must have its objectives.
(g) Learning ability depends on children’s age and maturity.
(h) Practice and repetition should be encouraged to make for effective learning.

activity 1.1
Do you know what learning means? Do you think learners can

understand what they learn if they are not given clear explanations and
sufficient practice?
1.2 LEARNING THEORIES

Learning theories are significant in classroom application. Among the theories put
forward by Western psychologists are:
(a) Classical Conditioning Theory (Pavlov, Watson and Gutherie).
(b) Operant Conditioning Theory (B. F. Skinner, E. L. Thorndike).
(c) Cognitive Theory (Piaget and Gestalt).
(d) Humanistic Learning Theory (Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers).
(e) New Theories (Gagne’s Information Processing Theory, Ausubel’s Learning
Theory and Bruner’s Learning Theory).
1.2.1 Classical Conditioning Theory

This theory was introduced by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. Classic Conditioning Theory
is considered the most classic example of the link between stimulus and response.
Classic conditioning refers to the process whereby the most conditioned responses
are acquired. The classic definition is also considered as a response that is repeated
or conditioned.
To prove the theory, Pavlov conducted an experiment using a dog (please refer
to Figure 1.1). In his experiment, Pavlov gave some meat to the dog as a stimulus
and as a reaction to that, the dog salivated. The stimulus is regarded as typical
or unconditioned stimulus (US) and the act of salivating is called unconditioned
reaction (UR). However, when Pavlov rang a bell as another stimulus, the dog did
not salivate. This shows that the sound of the bell was not a normal stimulus. But
when the bell was rung together with meat, the dog salivated. When the same action
is repeated several times, it elicited the same response to the one when only meat
was presented. At the final stage, Pavlov only rang the bell and the dog salivated.
Based on the experiment, the bell which was previously a neutral stimulus has
become a conditioned stimulus (CS), and the response that it elicits is called a
conditioned response (CR).

The application of this learning theory requires you to increase practice, give
motivation and constant attention to learners’ problems.
Figure 1.1: Illustration of Pavlov’s experiment with the dog
1.2.2 Operant Conditioning Learning Theory

The word “operant” means a response that operates on the surroundings. It
is a behaviour that becomes an instrument in producing the changes in the
surroundings. This theory was introduced by B. F. Skinner (please refer to Figure
1.2) who possessed a PhD in psychology from the University of Harvard. He did
not agree with Pavlov because he believed that stimulus was not important in
promoting change of behaviour. Instead, he proposed that it was linked to the
operant conditioning process because it involved various operational responses.
In his experiment, a rat was placed in a small empty enclosure with a food tray
and a lever (please refer to Figure 1.3). At first, the rat emitted various responses or
operants to get to the prepared food. After many attempts, it eventually managed
to get the food.
In short, Skinner’s theory demonstrates that children should be encouraged to try

and solve problems on their own. Ongoing practice, reinforcement or rewards
encourage children to complete the given tasks.

Figure 1.2: B. F. Skinner Figure 1.3: Skinner’s box
E. L. Thorndike also used operant conditioning in his experiment which was almost
the same as B. F. Skinner’s. He used a cat that was placed in a cage. In the experiment,
Thorndike assumed that the cat would learn how to open the cage door by relating
what happened in the cage.
The next theory is Behaviour Reduction Theory by Miller and Dollard in 1941.
According to this theory, there are four important aspects in the process of learning
– intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, signal, response and reward. For example,
feeling hungry is considered as a stimulus and a student will use several ways to
get food like buying it from a shop, the school canteen or asking from friends who
bring food to school.
Based on the given example, we can synthesise that learners’ behaviour in getting
food is considered as a response. He or she will lose the feeling of hunger if he or she
is able to reduce the stimulus. He or she will react the same when hungry again.
The theory on learning through imitation was introduced by Bandura and Walters. It
is called the Social Learning Theory, which states that the human interaction process
includes seeing and imitating, which makes children learn fast. This approach is
very important at the primary school level because children require correct teachings
as they learn by observing behaviour and modelling it. Therefore, instructions,
attractive models, teaching aids and systematic levels of teaching are required from
the teacher to ensure that children are able to complete the given tasks throughout
the learning process.
1.2.3 Cognitive Theory and Gestalt

This theory was introduced by Jean Piaget (1896–1980) whose areas of interest are
psychology, sociology, physics and theology (please refer to Figure 1.4). Piaget
believed that the learning process occured in stages according to learners’ age. The
stages are motor senses (0–2 years old), pre-operational (2–7 years old), concrete

operational (7–12 years old) and formal operation (12–16 years old). According to
Piaget, children experience behaviourial changes in each stage and the changes
build their schema. He also highlighted that learning had some associations with
genetics and surroundings. Therefore, to educate children, parents and teachers
should provide conducive and healthy surroundings. This would then promote
positive thinking among children.
Figure 1.4: Jean Piaget

Next, we move to Gestalt Theory. It was introduced by Max Werheimer (1880–1943),
Wolfgang Kohler (1887–1976) and Kurt Koffka (1886–1976). Gestalt is a German
word which means shaped perception of something. According to the German
psychologists, there are two aspects of psychology, namely, figure and ground.
It means that when a person observes a particular shape it can sometimes change
and become ground (please refer to Figure 1.5). This theory emphasises the role of
innate mental laws in learning.
This theory demonstrates that in the context of learning, one should view learning
holistically. For example, in secondary Mathematics and Science, teachers have
to instruct students to keep an open mind before doing exercises or answering
them.
Figure 1.5: Shape and ground

1.2.4 Humanistic Learning Theory

Humanistic Learning Theory was initiated by Abraham Maslow (please refer to
Figure 1.6) and Carl Rogers (please refer to Figure 1.7). The theory focuses mainly on
one’s uniqueness, individualistic and humanistic value. In other words, this theory
emphasized moral consciousness and learners’ potential. Learners’ success not only
depends on reinforcement from outside but it also relies on each individual’s feeling
of responsibility towards himself or herself and one’s sensitivity to others’ needs.
Apart from that, this theory shows that each person has his or her own needs. The
most significant needs are basic needs like food, water, rest, sleep, oxygen and others.
If the needs are fulfilled, each individual will feel motivated to move to a higher level
of needs that is its own perfection. In other words, when the needs are fulfilled then
one can move towards his or her ultimate goals in life. Nevertheless, these ultimate
goals are hard to achieve because as human beings we have our own weaknesses.
Not every one can gain the ultimate knowledge and expertise in everything.
Figure 1.7: Carl Rogers Figure 1.6: Abraham Maslow

(1902–1987) (1908–1970)
Roger’s Humanistic Learning Theory, on the other hand, emphasizes client therapy.
This theory is very useful for a counsellor who constantly deals with problems of
misbehaviour. Based on this theory, clients are able to talk about their problems
and seek advice from counsellors on ways to resolve their problems. Thus, the
client therapy concept is significant as it highlights one’s pride, individual rights
and values.
This theory applies to in-class learning process whereby a student must have positive
beliefs about his or her own abilities. As teachers, you play the role of a facilitator
who is responsible for realizing learners’ needs. Therefore, you should respect and
honour your students’ feelings and empathize with them. In addition, you must
remember that learners need to be inspired and motivated.

1.2.5 Gagne’s Information Processing Theory

This particular theory was introduced by Robert M. Gagne, a professor and
psychologist that has conducted numerous researches on the phases in learning.
This theory is called data or information processing theory and learning is viewed
as an input-output process:
FIRST — Input
TWO — Process
THREE — Output
Gagne mentioned that an effective learning process consists of three processes:

previous situation which is also known as input; current situation or process; and
future actions that are related to response. In other words, if a person is able to
utilise the process well, learning becomes easy.
According to Gagne, the process happens very fast in one’s nerve system without
one realising it. It involves perception, encoding, memory storing, searching,
transferring, reinforcing and responding. So, the learning process occurs from
signals, stimulus, retrieval, verbal, differentiating, concept, regulations or judgments
and problem solving. A learner has to undergo this learning process in order for
the teachings to occur smoothly and learner can comprehend the lesson.
Ausubel’s learning theory focuses on information mastery through meaningful

language. The information is gathered from books and other sources. It can
be mastered through reception and discovery. Reception means the teacher
gives structured information. Discovery on the other hand focuses on learners’
independent learning whereby they are required to search for the information
and complete the assigned task on their own. Ausubel also encouraged teachers
to practice inter-disciplinary teaching like integrating Science and Mathematics so
that teaching-learning become more meaningful.
Next, Bruners’s learning theory suggests that teachers should encourage learners to
think critically, be intuitive. Teachers should teach inductively, that is from specific
to general. Other than that, Bruner stressed on the link between past and present
and learners’ readiness and experience.

activity 1.2
1. Generally, cognitive learning theory is more applicable at primary

school level. Do you agree with the suggestion? State your stand.
2. Extrinsic motivation and support from people around learners
influence their learning ability. Give examples of the various
motivation and support.
3. How do you treat students who learn fast even though they are
not given extensive teaching?
1.3 LEARNERS’ READINESS

Knowing whether learners are ready or not to receive your teaching is crucial.
If learners are not ready, there is a high probability that your teaching will not
be effective. Therefore, you should first identify your learners’ ability. Learners’
ability is usually connected to psychology, mental, sociology, family background,
school facilities and their surroundings. Based on learners’ ability, you will be able
to predict learners’ readiness.
1.3.1 Psychological Readiness

Psychology influences learners’ learning ability. Psychology is associated with
pressure, attitude, values and others. Some students have problems like being
scolded by parents at home, anxiety due to failure to finish the given homework,
worried about being bullied by other students on the way home and others.
These problems give a negative impact on the learners’ behaviour and affect their
reception and concentration towards the lesson. Besides that, some learners are
not interested in difficult subjects such as English Language and Mathematics.
When students are not interested in the subjects, they will not pay attention to the
teaching. As a teacher, you have to use a psychological approach with these students
to encourage them to learn. Being strict with them will not resolve the problem but
will probably make it worse.
1.3.2 Mental Readiness

The basis for learners’ intelligence and ability is mental readiness. A student who
is mentally prepared such as those who have mastered past lessons can easily
understand what we teach. For Mathematics teachers, most of them face problems

as not all learners possess the expected mental readiness. For non-elite and non-
boarding school learners, most of them are not good in Mathematics and Science.
They are slow in answering questions, completing given tasks and understanding
abstract concepts.
1.3.3 Sociological Readiness

Sociological readiness is associated with socialising, communicating, origin and
others. For a new student in school like Year 1 and Form 1, they will face problems
in making friends, socialising, playing during recess and communicating with
teachers. Teachers who have the experience teaching in remote areas may realise
that learners are afraid or shy to communicate with the teachers.
1.3.4 Family Background

Family background can influence a student’s achievement. Most learners who come
from a wealthy family would have the necessary facilities. They do not face problems
in buying books and these students come from a family of intellectuals who are
influential and highly educated figures. They are sent for paid extra classes after
school. In short, many learners from wealthy families are good in many aspects as
compared to those from low socio-economic status families. Students from these
families usually face many difficulties and rely heavily on the support from the
school and teachers. Nonetheless, if the respective student is determined, he or she
can compete with the good ones.
1.3.5 School Facilities

School facilities refer to the equipments provided and the physical state of the
school. Equipments are important to aid teachers in teaching. However, many
schools located in remote areas are not equipped with computer facilities and they
lack reading materials. When this happens, students feel less motivated to learn. In
addition, many students in remote areas face a shortage of English Language and
Mathematics teachers, which can influence learners’ readiness.
1.3.6 The Influence of Surroundings

At present, surroundings also give an impact on learners’ behaviour. Learners are
easily influenced by peers with discipline problems like students who smoke, play
truant, act like gangsters and ride bikes without license. That is why we always
read about students fighting with other students. These kinds of students are hard
to guide by teachers. Hence, they continue misbehaving.

activity 1.3
1. Why must you be well prepared before entering a class especially

when the new term starts?
2. Most learners from underprivileged families face low academic
achievement. Why does this happen?
1.4 LEARNERS’ MOTIVATION

The final discussion of this topic is on learners’ motivation. Motivation is very
important as it reinforced learning. Therefore, while teaching, you need to give
motivation to all learners. As teachers, the main objective of teaching is to meet the
objectives stated in the record book. The expected objectives may not be achieved
if the learners are not motivated and lack inspiration to comprehend a lesson.
Nevertheless, motivating learners is not an easy task.
In school, trained and experienced teachers should always motivate learners without
considering their ability. Also, they should not be motivated only when they are
going to sit for an exam as that will be too late. We should motivate them from the
start of the academic year. The following are ways to motivate learners to learn:
• Teachers should give fair attention to all students. However, teachers are to
encourage and give more attention to the low achievers.
• Teachers should start the lesson by motivating learners and asking them about
their problems.
• Teachers should promote good relationship with learners and among learners
themselves. This relationship should not only be promoted in class but also
outside class.
• Teachers should always ask learners’ problems especially the weak ones.
• Teachers should inform learners of the learning objectives before starting a
lesson.
• Teachers should not give up if the lesson is not well-comprehended. They should
keep trying.
• Teachers need to prepare teaching materials according to learners’ ability. Many
students fail in a particular subject because they find it hard to understand the
topic presented. Some learners resort to playing truant because they are not
interested in the lesson.

• Once you have the necessary information on your learners’ background, you can
build their confidence by giving support as it is the key to learners’ success.
• Teachers need to encourage students to work hard independently or in a
group.
• Teachers should encourage learners to do revision and train them to do past
years’ examination questions. This is because our education system is still
examination oriented.
• Forms Five and Six learners should be given explanations on their options in
pursuing higher education after leaving school.
• Learners also should be aware of their ability. They should be encouraged to be
proud of their success and ability. They must believe in themselves. If possible,
learners are encouraged to ask their teachers about their academic record every
month.
• Learners must also plan their work at home and learn good time management.
Therefore, self-discipline is important. They must prioritize their study time
and reduce spending time on unbeneficial activities.
• Learners are also encouraged to use effective learning strategies. For subjects
like Science and Mathematics, they must do a lot of revision, thinking and
problem-solving. They need to be friends with peers who are better than them
because the opportunity for consultation with the teacher is limited.
• Learners must have good listening and note-taking skills because sometimes
teachers may not be aware of their learners’ disability.
• Learners’ motivation is influenced by the environment. A well-equipped
classroom and reading room at the hostel or at home can inspire learners to
study.
activity 1.4
1. How do you prepare interesting activities to motivate low achievers

and those who always play truant?
2. Teachers are responsible for motivating learners. Discuss with your
friends some of the obstacles you may face in encouraging learners
to read academic books.

SUMMARY
• Learning refers to a person’s change in behaviour as a result of practice,
reinforcement and experience.
• Learning can occur formally or informally.
• The Classical Conditioning Theory is linked to the experiment by Pavlov.
• Operant Learning Theory was introduced by B. F. Skinner and it emphasized
that stimulation is not important in learning. On the contrary, learners learn
actively because they can work independently.
• Jean Piaget put forth the Cognitive Theory which relates the learning process
to learners’ age.
• One must view learning holistically. This concept is stressed in the Gestalt
Theory.
• Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers are significant contributors to the Humanistic
Learning Theory.
• According to Gagne, an effective learning process has three levels, namely,
input, process and output.
• Psychology, mental, sociology, school facilities and family background contribute
to learners’ readiness.
• Teachers are responsible for motivating learners.
Classical conditioning Operant learning

Operant conditioning Gestalt theory
Unconditioned stimulus Humanistic learning theory
Unconditioned response Perception
Conditioned response Stimulus
Reinforcement Motivation
Innate mental laws

references
Amir Awang. (1986). Teori-teori pembelajaran: Petaling Jaya: Fajar Bakti.
Mohd Salleh Lebar. (1999). Memahami psikologi. Kuala Lumpur: Thinker Library’s.
Saedah Siraj, Tunku Mohani Tunku Mokhtar dan Zainun Ishak. (1996). Motivasi
dalam pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn.
Bhd.
Mok Soon Sang. (2006). Ilmu pendidikan untuk KPLI. Subang Jaya: Kumpulan
Budiman Sdn. Bhd.
Atkinson, Rita, L., Atkinson, Richard C. A., & Hilgard Ernest, R. (1983). Introduction
to psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Morgan, Clifforf,. T., & King, Richard, A. (1971). Introduction to psychology. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Gagne, Robert, M. (1970). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston.

TOPIC 2 LEARNERS’ LEARNING STYLES  15
Topic  Learners’
Learning
2 Styles
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe learners’ learning styles and learning strategies;
2. Discuss learners’ preferred learning styles in the classroom;
3. Conduct learning workshops; and
4. Provide a conducive environment for learning.
XX INTRODUCTION
In this topic, we will discuss learners’ learning styles. Learning styles represent
another element of diversity in your classroom. Among the styles are learning
independently, learning when asked to learn, learning through experience, learning
through practice and practical sessions, learning in groups, learning by listening,
learning in innovative ways, learning through intuition and analysis, and learning
through imitation.
We would normally teach and expect students to understand. In reality, learners

may not really understand what we teach if we do not accommodate their learning
styles. Therefore, let us discuss ways to provide a conducive learning environment
for our students.
2.1 LEARNING STYLES AMONG LEARNERS

We have been in school for a long time and have experienced managing students.
Some of us feel that learners like our teaching style or methods whereas many
are dissatisfied because they are not given the opportunity to conduct their own
16  TOPIC 2 LEARNERS’ LEARNING STYLES
preferred activities. Just imagine, a class full of 30 to 40 students with different

abilities and learning styles. Hence, it is difficult for us to identify and accommodate
each learner’s learning style.
One of the reasons is the time allocated for each lesson only allows learners to
listen, take down notes and ask questions when they do not understand the lesson.
Therefore, they have to double their effort to ensure that they are able to gain accurate
understanding of the lesson and remember the various concepts and topics. One
of the ways they use in order to comprehend the lesson is by employing their own
preferred learning strategies. However, these strategies change as they progress to
a higher academic level.
According to psychologists, every student has his or her own learning strategies.
Some prefer learning by reading and memorizing. Others learn when asked to
learn or learn through experience and practice while some learn in groups, learn
by listening, learn through innovative ways, learn by imitating and other distinct
and unique styles. The following are some of the most common learning styles
among learners.
2.1.1 Independent Learning and Memorising

Learners in this category usually prefer to study alone at the hostel or at home
based on notes taken in class. They also study at night or at quiet places. Among the
things they do are to arrange their notes or make short notes, reread to memorise
and do revision. They will consult the teacher and their peers on parts that they do
not understand. Learners in this category usually possess intrinsic motivation, high
confidence level and good discipline. They do not want to be disturbed by peers
and waste time unnecessarily. This style is good because teachers do not have to
give continuous instruction.
2.1.2 Learning When Asked to Learn

Have you ever met a student who learns only when asked to learn? What do you do
with this kind of learners? Learners in this category usually possess low motivation.
They learn only when asked to do so by their parents. They are generally low
achievers. They rarely pay attention in class, lack effort to obtain notes and seldom
do their homework. Besides that, they do not have systematic strategies in learning
like note taking, analysing and memorising, and time management. If you encounter
such students, you need to guide and motivate them continuously. Also, encourage
them to make friends with more active students.

2.1.3 Learning through Experience

Many learners learn this way and these learners are called theorists. The evolving
education world makes many learners want to gain more experience in learning.
Using their concrete experience, they observe and make the appropriate response.
Some like to conduct discussions, collect data and perform analysis. In other words,
what they see, they hear or they read from various sources are associated with the
new knowledge they gained.
2.1.4 Learning through Practice and Practical Work

Those teaching Mathematics and Industrial Design normally give a lot of practice
and practical work to their learners. That’s one of the best ways to teach students
in these disciplines. Besides, the learners also prefer learning through practice and
skill application. Learners in this category are pragmatic and reflective. They possess
creative minds to solve problems. They are open minded and active. They like to
keep on trying until they find the answers. For subjects like Industrial Design and
Science, learners face difficulty in understanding the content through reading. Only
when they are asked to do experiments, projects and practical work that involve the
usage of skill and observation that they are able to see and understand better. This
kind of learning style requires continuous practice and experiments. In conducting
experiments, you should prepare sufficient aids to ensure that learners are able to
try a number of alternatives.
2.1.5 Learning in Groups

This learning style is normally applied by moderate achievers. It can also be
called an activist learning style. In short, learners in this category rely on one
another and move actively and aggressively to form a study group (please refer
to Figure 2.1). Groups are formed in subjects like Science and Mathematics and
while doing practical work in workshops and fieldwork for their History subject.
In group work, there will be a leader who instructs each person in the group to
complete the tasks given by the teacher. If a student is unable to do the task, he
or she can ask for help from other members of the group. The students who are
good in a particular topic will explain to other group members who are weak in
the topic. This will make the weak ones feel more confident as they are able to
complete the given task successfully.

Figure 2.1: Group learning

Source: dinf.ne.jp
2.1.6 Learning by Listening

Some students prefer being spoon-fed by teachers. They want teachers to give
extensive notes and explanation. Hence, the lesson becomes very teacher-centred.
The problem with this kind of learners is that they are less committed and they
complete fewer class tasks. However, there are students who are creative and able
to easily memorize and comprehend the content presented.
2.1.7 Innovative, Intuitive and Analysis Way

of Learning
High achievers in Science and Mathematics rarely rely on teachers’ notes. They are
able to analyse abstract concepts and they are not shy to ask questions when they
do not understand something. They also prefer to do revision on their own and
work systematically and carefully. In addition, they are intuitive and reflective in
nature. This group of students do not waste time unnecessarily as they prioritise
their studies.
2.1.8 Learning by Imitating

Imitating is encouraged in learning. However, it can make a student passive and
inactive in class. That is why this practice is normally favoured by low achievers.
These learners face problems in completing tasks given in class. Even though they
have problems in learning, they refuse to ask teachers for help due to lack of self-
confidence. Therefore, they are unable to answer problem-solving questions during
the examination, leading to failure.

activity 2.1
1. Learners have their own preferred learning styles. Describe some

of the learning styles of secondary school students.
2. Think of other learning styles that students prefer apart from the
learning styles discussed.
3. Many moderate achievers prefer to work in groups. To meet their
needs, how would you encourage group work?
2.2 LEARNING WORKSHOPS

There are other learning styles that have not been discussed like learning in a quiet
place, learning using video, learning at night, learning in a group at the library
and others. Actually, learning through learning workshops is also a learning style.
However, this style is less common because most of us prefer formal teaching
following a timetable. Nonetheless, some teachers conduct workshops to prepare
learners before important examinations like Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia and Sijil Tinggi
Persekolahan Malaysia.
Learning workshops normally comprise small group activities, brainstorming,

producing action plans, writing and concluding (please refer to Figure 2.2). There
are some workshops that focus on skills like in technical schools where learners
learn to make new inventions through systematic guidance from experienced
teachers. The workshops are usually conducted continuously or every week.
The learning workshops are effective as many learners need to undergo practical
work and use their cognitive and psychomotor skills.
Figure 2.2: Learning workshop

Source: mudahbelajar.com

As for workshops that are not skill or technical based, planning will be made at
least two months earlier to get the most suitable place for the workshop. If you are
planning a workshop, you need to decide on the aims, subject matters to discuss,
who will deliver the speeches, the number of participants, the chairperson and the
committee members among the students.
During the workshop, other matters like the selection of group leaders and the
person to take down notes need to be settled as well. As the organizer, you need to
make sure the discussion goes smoothly and generates many valuable ideas. You
must also take note of the refreshments, break times, equipment like video player
and the screening of the outcomes of the discussion during the workshop.
Most workshops generate effective results as students normally pay attention

because they are in a different learning situation as compared to in class. Learners
also become more interactive and learn to cooperate with one another. They are not
scared to ask the presenter questions as he or she is someone they do not know.
The outcome of the discussion during the workshop can be compiled and printed
for students’ reference. Workshops also build learners’ listening skill, note-taking
ability, thinking and problem-solving skill and their confidence level. Learners
will also get valuable guidance if the workshop is on how to answer examination
questions. The guidance on how to answer examination questions is important as
it tests the effectiveness of learning among learners.
activity 2.2
1. You are asked to give a speech at a school workshop. The topic

is “Ways to answer questions in the SPM examination.” Suggest
ways to coordinate the workshop.
2. Learning workshops encourage learners’ involvement. Discuss
some workshop programmes that are suitable for Form Three
students.
2.3 THE EMPLOYMENT OF LEARNING STYLES

TO OPTIMISE LEARNING
Do you know that teachers play a crucial role in the teaching and learning process?
Every student expects effective teaching from the teacher because effective teaching
allows them to comprehend the lesson easily. However, we cannot teach without
accommodating learners’ diverse learning styles. If we use too much of explanation

or teacher-centred teaching, they may not have the opportunity to do activities and
their own practice. Thus, many bright, creative and independent learners require
teachers’ guidance to do practice and not to give them speeches.
To optimise learning is a teacher’s responsibility. So, you need to know your learners’
preferred learning styles. To realise this objective, you as the teacher must have
high determination. You will feel contented and satisfied when your learners show
positive change of behaviour at the end of the lesson. Hence, you must learn the
psychology of learners and their learning style. Among the ways are as follows:
2.3.1 Aware of the Changes in Learners’

Achievement
As a teacher, you have to be aware of your learners’ achievement. Have you ever
checked your learners’ record book? You should try to look at their record book
once a month. It is important to see the development of their achievement. If their
achievement shows progress, that will not be a problem. It becomes a problem
when the achievement of the whole class varies. If this happens, you will have to
get students to work in groups when doing additional practice. You should also
give more challenging questions to the good students and less challenging ones to
the weak students. Nevertheless, students should be given the freedom to do their
own practice based on their ability. This is appropriate for the learners that do not
want to be disturbed, have self-confidence and can manage their own learning. You
can ask how they are doing and inspect their work occasionally.
2.3.2 Increased Practice

To those teaching low achievers, they must work hard as weak students do not
like to do exercises. They are not interested in lessons because they have low self-
esteem. Therefore, you will have to give many exercises or practice because that
helps learners understand a topic better. Punishment and reward should also be
practised.
2.3.3 Student-Centred Teaching

Learners in technical schools usually take up Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic
Engineering whereby they do a lot of practical work. These students are interested
in learning by doing or hands-on learning. They have to do a lot of experiments and
practical work in the subjects they take. Hence, student-centred teaching is suitable
for these learners. The best thing to do is to encourage learners to practice on their
own after receiving explanation from the teachers. These students are normally
creative and they like to associate what they learn with past experience.

You should also give the learners the opportunity to borrow the equipment in the
workshop if it suits the learning objective. If the given time is insufficient, you should
give them more time to finish the task in the workshop. Besides that, you should
give them explanation on new discovery, space for inquiry sessions, time to do their
own analysis and practical work while you act as their facilitator.
2.3.4 Vary Teaching Methods

Most of us teach in classes that consist of moderate learners but they are hardworking.
For these learners, teachers need to vary their teaching. Teaching preparation should
also be completed and the learning objectives should be written clearly. Teachers
can also choose lecturing and the explaining method as this group of learners likes
to take notes, listen attentively and ask questions. At the end of the lesson, students
can be given practice questions that will be marked when completed. They can also
be given additional classes before sitting for an examination.
2.3.5 Outside Class Teaching Activities

Students who are in the Arts stream generally love to interact with one another. In
this case, if you are a History or Arts teacher, you should encourage the students
to have a discussion session outside class or to form small groups. For example,
for Accounts and Economics subjects, there are a number of topics to study and
most students do not have time to read all the books. By dividing the task of
discussing, summarising and concluding, they can all share information and
generate constructive ideas. They can also save time and memorise better. Besides
that, working in groups develops their self-confidence.
2.3.6 Present Learners with Challenging Questions

Those teaching in boarding schools will have Science stream students who are
bright, hardworking, disciplined and quick in learning. Most of them are competent.
You just need to provide them with adequate explanation and the students will
be able to think creatively, do analysis and solve problems on their own. In other
words, they do not depend much on the teacher. As a teacher, you can give them
challenging questions.
activity 2.3
Optimising effective learning is a challenge. What are the ways to teach

low achievers who do not have interest in Mathematics?

2.4 EFFECTIVE LEARNING

Learning is an art. Therefore, you need to apply various methods to ensure
effectiveness in learning. Learners’ success is not solely dependent on hard work
but also on effective teaching. In short, learners need to possess skills in listening,
thinking, note taking, memorising, revising and time-management.
As a teacher, you should remind students to adjust their learning strategies because
as their academic level increases, they need to learn more. They also need to read
more, increase their knowledge and do more challenging tasks. In short, effective
learning and teaching are crucial in ensuring successful learning.
In teaching and learning, effective means realising learning objectives with minimal
effort. Effective learning reflects a systematic, optimum, disciplined and well-
planned effort that unite all learning components to achieve optimal success. To
succeed, learners must work hard because teachers only guide them. The following
are factors that ensure effective learning:
2.4.1 Hard Work

Successful learners are hardworking. They do not play truant. Instead, they read
a lot, ask peers when they do not understand, manage their time wisely and do
revision continuously. Even though they do not have the right techniques and their
achievement is average, they can learn and complete their work successfully. Many
students succeed because they never give up and always revise past lessons. To
prove this you can interview students that get 5As in their S.P.M examination.
2.4.2 Inspiring Surroundings

If you have the chance to visit boarding schools, you will see that their surroundings
are very inspiring. The learners are bright and responsible towards their own
learning. Classes in the school are conducive and the number of students in each
class is small, thus enabling the teacher to give adequate attention to the learners.
Sufficient teaching and learning materials are used as additional reference materials
by the learners. The teachers are mostly experienced teachers and they are well-
prepared to ensure the teaching process is effective. Learners in boarding schools
also are comfortable with the learning environment because the learning system
is monitored; they have a study timetable and are assigned mentors. In boarding
schools, grouping system is used whereby the low achievers are placed in the same
group as the high achievers so that they can study together particularly outside
class.

Nevertheless, do not get discouraged if you are teaching in a daily school as

nowadays there are various alternatives to build a healthy learning culture in the
school. The principal will definitely support if you plan and execute activities for
the benefit of your learners.
2.4.3 Effective Reading Technique

Effective learning is also associated with good reading techniques (please refer
to Figure 2.3). Reading involves intellectual comprehension, increased maturity,
expansion of knowledge and enhanced memorisation. The correct reading
method is fast reading and identification of main points. Underlining main points
while reading is also encouraged. Besides that, one should not be a daydream
when reading or doing exercises.
Making short notes is also important. As for subjects like Mathematics, Science
and Accounts, reading should be done repeatedly to understand concepts and
facts. Reading also increases the effectiveness in learning. For instance, good
English language learners read a lot of English Language materials. Even though
at first they face problems in understanding the materials, but after reading the
same materials several times, they are able to comprehend them.
Figure 2.3: Learning involves reading

Source: summer-reading.ning.com
2.4.4 Wise and Ambitious

Always remind students to be ambitious. Learners that are optimistic make learning
effective. They are also good at managing their time, reflective, plan what to study,
take care of their health and have strong interest towards all the subjects learnt,
making them easier to be comprehended. When learners have strong interest, they
will work hard and they do not wait for teachers’ instruction before learning.

2.4.5 Aware of the Direction in Life

Learners who are aware of their direction in life and the reasons they learn make
learning more effective. The awareness comes from parents and teachers who always
encourage them to learn.
2.4.6 Having High and Lasting Memorisation Ability

Effective learning is also related to learners with good and lasting memorisation
ability. As we know, memory can be divided into two namely short term and
long term memory. Low achievers remember less when the subject is difficult
especially after one or two months. Being able to remember is important because
in the examination they need to explain meanings, do analysis and explain related
functions. Hence, systematic teaching and selection of methods that match learners’
ability is crucial.
As for experienced teachers, they need to create a learning environment whereby

learners can think critically and creatively and are not shy to state their opinion in
class. Learners should also be encouraged to interact with one another and practise
continuously. In this way, learners can remember a topic easily and effectively.

Those are general views on the characteristics of effective learning. You can think of
other ways to create effective learning situation because they help learners succeed
in learning. Please refer to the following website:
http://www.iss.stthomas.edu/studyguides/attmot4.htm
activity 2.4
1. Many learners do not know how to use the right reading methods.
If you face such learners, how would you help them?
2. A healthy school environment creates an effective learning
situation. State the physical and social characteristics of a healthy
school environment.

SUMMARY
• Each learner has a different learning style.
• Learners with low motivation learn when asked to learn.
• Learning through practice and practical work makes students become creative
and open-minded.
• Learning workshops is one of the ways to attract students to learn and revise
previous lessons particularly when examination is around the corner.
• Teachers need to plan carefully before conducting a learning workshop.
• Teachers are responsible in optimising learning. Among the ways are: increased
practice, learner-centred teaching, various utilisation of teaching methods and
• Effective learning means a well-planned, systematic, disciplined and optimum
effort to achieve maximum success.
• Successful learners usually work hard, ask questions and they do not waste
time.
• Good reading techniques increased learning effectiveness.
• Effective learning is also linked to having good memorisation ability.
Activist Optimal
Analysis Practical work
Counsellor Pragmatic
Innovative Reflective
Learner-centred Self-concept
Learning style Self-esteem
Learning workshop Teaching
Motivation

references
Abdul Rahim Selamat. (1989). Belajar cara belajar. Kuala Lumpur: Nurin Enterprise.
Abdul Rahim Selamat. (1996). Kemahiran belajar. Kuala Lumpur: Nurin Enterprise.
Abu Zahari Abu Bakar. (1988). Memahami psikologi pembelajaran. Petaling Jaya: Fajar
Bakti.
Sabri Ahmad. (2003). Kemahiran belajar berkesan. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publication
& Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Muhamad Nor Khalid. (1993). Kaedah pembelajaran berkesan. Kuala Lumpur: Cahaya
Pantai (M) Sdn. Bhd.

28  TOPIC 3 Teaching METHODS
Topic  Teaching
Methods
3
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define teaching;
2. Discuss theories of teaching;
3. Describe traditional teaching methods; and
4. Describe contemporary teaching methods.
XX Introduction
We have discussed learners’ learning styles in the previous topic. In this topic,
we will examine teaching theories and learning methods. This topic focuses on
conventional and contemporary methods. Among the conventional methods are
expository, lecturing and mastery technique. Current ones are problem-based
learning, group work, group teaching, discussion, demonstration, project, simulation
and teaching using teaching aids. All of these methods have their own strengths
and can be implemented according to the suitability of the contents of the lesson
plan. Do you regularly use the teaching methods mentioned above? What are the
methods that you usually use and why are these methods considered the best and
most appropriate? Have you ever created your own teaching method and shared
it with your colleagues?

TOPIC 3 Teaching METHODS  29
3.1 DEFINITIONS OF TEACHING

Teaching and learning are directly and indirectly related to learners and teachers.
In learning, the main focus is learners while in teaching the focus is the teachers
who are responsible in teaching the learners. Thus, your preparation and teaching
methods are important in making sure that the learners learn effectively. No doubt,
it is not easy to ensure that all of the learners are able to understand the teaching
because teaching involves presentation, communication, content and learners’
receptive level.
You may have been involved in teaching for quite some time and have undergone
courses to improve your teaching quality. As teachers, it is your responsibility
to ensure that your teaching meets the National Education Philosophy, that is, it
expands students’ potential. However, do you know what teaching really means?
Let’s look at the definitions before we discuss further on teaching methods.
Teaching is the process of transferring information, knowledge, facts, ideas and skills
from the teacher to the students. It comprises planning, managing, presenting and
evaluating activities. Teaching is our responsibility.
Learning involves learners’ change of behaviour as a result of the teaching they

get. Hence, teaching is a method being presented systematically to arouse learners’
interest towards learning. Teaching can be presented through explanation,
discussion, demonstration, problem-solving activities, practice and others.
Based on the definition, we can see that teaching is our responsibility and we are the
one who changes learners’ behaviour. Nevertheless, nowadays teaching should focus
more on the learners and teachers’ involvement should only be 30% of the lesson.
Do you agree with this view? Good teaching usually carries a specific objective. For
example, if we are teaching history and the topic is “Near Independence,” among the
objectives of the lesson are to make students appreciate the social value, particularly
in uniting all communities.
In the process of learning, teaching should start from easy to difficult so that learners
are able to understand the lesson. Take, for instance, the topic, “Earth Revolving”
in Geography. We have to explain the shape of the earth and its rotation on an
axis. Then only should we move to more detailed information like the existence of
seasons and the world weather.

Table 3.1 shows the differences between traditional and contemporary teaching
methods:
Table 3.1: Differences Between Traditional and Contemporary Methods
Traditional Method Contemporary Method

One way. Two way.
Teacher-centred. Learner-centred.
Teacher plans teaching without learners’ Learners are involved in lesson planning
involvement thus learners become passive and are always active.
learners.
Do not really use teaching aids except A lot of teaching aids like computer.
textbook.
Limited teaching techniques like lecture. Various teaching techniques like problem-
solving, discovery, practice, group work
and others.
Less outside class activities. Many outside class activities like field
trip, fieldwork, extra class, workshop and
examination seminar.
Less in-class activities. In-class activities are easy to conduct.
activity 3.1
1. What is the meaning of teaching?

2. What are the general characteristics of conventional teaching
methods?
3.2 THEORIES OF TEACHING

Do you know that the theories of teaching and the theories of learning do not differ
much in concept and they share similar characteristics particularly in the process
of teaching in the classroom? Teaching involves the teacher, contents of the lesson,
learners, surroundings, teaching aids and the objectives of the lesson. There are
several theories introduced by Western scholars in relation to teaching and learning.
We will discuss them, next.

3.2.1 Sim Teaching Theory

Have you ever heard of Sim Teaching Theory? If you have not, you may want to
refer to Jurnal Pendidikan, Vol. 2, No. 2–1971. Sim teaching theory or model (1970)
refers to the relationship of several variables like the teacher, learners, learning
objectives, contents of the lesson and the surroundings. Figure 3.1 further explains
the theory:
Figure 3.1: Sim Teaching Theory
With reference to Illustration 3.1, there are four important aspects in teaching
activities. If you want your teaching to be effective, you will have to take into account
all the other aspects including surroundings.
There are several models that focus on learners, teachers, contents and objective. If
the focus is on the learners, you need to think about whether students are able to
relate contents with objectives. You also need to think about whether the contents
would be sufficient in making your students achieve the objectives? On the other
hand, if the central focus is on the teachers, then concentration should be on the
contents and objectives, design of the objectives and the methods to be applied. Next,
when the focus is on the objectives, you would need to think whether the objectives
reflect the students’ ability and are able to change their behaviour. Finally, if the
focus is on the contents, emphasis should be on the contents that meet students’
interest and ability.
Based on the above explanation, can you think of the basis of the Sim Teaching
Model? Yes, the basis to teaching comprises of objective, teacher, learners and
contents. The implications of the teaching model are as follows:
(a) Think about the teaching objectives.
(b) Consider learners’ ability.
(c) Evaluate the suitability of the objectives according to learners’ ability.
(d) Think about the content and teaching aids.
(e) Plan the learning process.

(f) Reflect on the teachers’ ability.

(g) Choose appropriate teaching methods like deductive, inductive, enquiry, inquiry,
discovery and mastery.
(h) Think about evaluating teaching and learning.
3.2.2 Robert Glaser’s Teaching Theory or Method

Robert Glaser (1962) divided the teaching process into four main components –
teaching objectives, existing knowledge, teaching methods and evaluation. These
components are presented in Figure 3.2:
Figure 3.2: Robert Glaser’s Teaching Model

With reference to Figure 3.2, teaching objectives are generally related to the cognitive,
psychomotor, social and affective fields. They have to be formed based on learners’
needs. Existing knowledge refers to the fact that learners’ knowledge vary. Thus,
teachers need to consider this characteristic before teaching. Besides that, teaching
methods have to be varied according to the topic and students’ ability. Finally,
evaluation is considered as one of the most significant aspects in teaching.
When teaching, you have to think about whether all learners are able to comprehend,
recall, solve problems and answer questions correctly. If there are students who
answer wrongly, you need to re-evaluate and identify which component is the
source of the failure as represented by line A in Figure 3.2. Line B shows whether
the evaluation of your teaching has been achieved. If it has been achieved, you can
proceed with your teaching.
The implications of the theory are:
(a) You need to prepare the appropriate teaching steps.
(b) Objectives should reflect learners’ existing knowledge.
(c) Design teaching methods that stimulate learners’ interest.
(d) Assess your teaching after each lesson to identify your own and your students’
strengths and weaknesses.

3.2.3 Taba Model

Another distinctive model is the Taba Model. This model places importance on the
relationship between the construction of concepts and the selection of contents in
the teaching and learning process. According to Taba, the selection of concepts has
to undergo four levels, namely:
(a) Data arrangement: Arrangement of facts based on differences and similarities.
(b) Concept construction: Classifying facts based on similar characteristics so that
it builds a particular category.
(c) Inferencing: Making predictions, inferences and conclusions of the link between
the categories.
(d) Application: Application of principles or testing them in new situations.
This model is useful to those teaching science. This is because in teaching Science,
there are a lot of things to be arranged and categorised accordingly before learners
can make conclusions.
Other distinctive models of teaching are the inquiry model and the discussion model.
These models will be discussed indirectly throughout the discussion on teaching
methods as they are inter-related with teaching and learning.
activity 3.2
1. Surf the Internet for information on Sim and Robert Glaser’s teaching
models. Discuss your findings with your peers.
2. How do you integrate the Sim Teaching Model in teaching Science?
Choose a topic and give an example.
3.3 TRADITIONAL TEACHING METHODS

Do you usually use traditional or contemporary teaching methods? Do you like to
integrate both traditional and contemporary methods? The decision is entirely up to
you as long as the teaching meets your teaching objectives. Many prefer traditional
methods as they are easier and require less preparation. Is that true? Let us discuss
briefly the traditional teaching methods – expository, lecturing and mastery.

3.3.1 Expository Method

This method emphasises explanation, elaboration of important facts, demonstration,
talking about the contents of the teaching and explaining the steps in solving a
particular problem. In certain situations, the teacher prepares teaching aids that
can help explain a difficult concept. Learners, on the other hand, are required to
listen attentively.
Many teachers resort to this method as they are afraid that if learners are exposed
to a lot of group and independent learning activities, they will not be able to finish
the syllabus. Therefore, many Science, Mathematics, History and Islamic Teaching
teachers prefer this method. They find this method saves a lot of time. During
teaching, you can use deductive teaching like giving general and abstract examples
to specific ones and inductive teaching whereby examples are from specific to
general. Normally, the expository method is implemented at the end of the lesson
as at the early stage of the lesson you give a lot of explanation.
The advantages of using the expository method are as follows:
(a) Learners do not do many exercises.
(b) Learners listen attentively.
(c) Teachers can prepare teaching materials accordingly.
(d) Learners can remember concepts better as the teacher’s explanation is clear.
3.3.2 Lecturing Method

Many teachers apply the lecturing method in teaching, particularly in teaching
History, Geography, Islamic Education and English Language. Why do you think this
method is popular among teachers? Teachers who use this classic method usually
provide extensive explanation when teaching. They would write a lot on the board
and give lots of examples. At the end of the lesson, they expect students to be able
to write down the gist of their lecture, comprehend and remember it. This method
emphasises on note taking as well as dissemination of information and facts.

Table 3.2 highlights the advantages and disadvantages of the lecturing method:

Table 3.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of the Lecturing Method

Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to manage facts. • Learners with hearing difficulty have
to sit in front.
• Teaching process runs systematically.
• Learners find the lecture accompanied
• A great deal of teaching content can
with note taking tiring.
be delivered.
• Learners feel bored if they receive too
• Appropriate for teachers who are
much teacher explanation.
experts in their area of teaching.
• The teacher’s voice has to be loud
• Appropriate for learners who are high
enough.
achievers.
• Learners have to listen attentively.
• Suitable for learners who are good at
note-taking. • Can make learners become passive
and sleepy.
• Suitable for a large number of
students. • Learners do not have the opportunity
to ask questions.
• Could stimulate learners’ interest
if the teacher incorporates some • A fast lecture may result in learners’
humour. failure to take down notes.
• Appropriate if the teacher has good • Teachers do not take into
class control. consideration learners’ note-taking
and listening skills.
• Learners’ interest is only halfway
throughout the lecture.
• Teachers who make little preparation
will finish the lecture early.
• Learners may not hear what the
teacher says if he or she lectures in a
low voice.
• Teachers are not aware of learners’
change in behaviour.
• Teachers have limited time to assess
learners’ comprehension.
3.3.3 Mastery Method

Experienced teachers generally favour this method. They assume that learners are
skilled high achievers and have mastered the contents. Hence, in the early part of the
teaching, he or she uses the explanation method. This is followed by a question and
answer session where learners are given questions to answer or problems to solve.
Then, the teacher can conduct a diagnostic evaluation on learners who are unable

to answer correctly. In conclusion, the mastery method can be used by experienced

teachers who are confident with their ability. However, teachers should bear in
mind that this method is most effective if the learning objectives are clear and the
contents are arranged appropriately.
activity 3.3
1. What does the expository method refer to?

2. What are the weaknesses of the lecturing method?
3.4 CONTEMPORARY METHODS INCLUDING

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING
Several methods have emerged in recent times like the problem-based method,
the group work method, the team teaching method, discussion, demonstration,
project work, simulation and others. Our discussion in this topic will focus on
these methods. However, there are more contemporary methods besides the ones
presented in this topic that you can implement in class.
3.4.1 Problem-based Teaching

Many who teach Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Mathematics use the problem-
based method. This method is common among teachers teaching in boarding and
elite schools. It is easy to conduct because the students are high achievers and they
are willing to try. This method is sometimes considered similar to the inquiry or
discovery method as they share some similar characteristics.
The problem-based method is used to give learners opportunity to solve problems
by experimenting on their own. By doing this, the learning process is reinforced. To
ensure the success of the method, Dewey suggests the following steps that start with
identifying the problem until forming conclusions as presented in Figure 3.3:
1 2 3 4 5
Searching for
Identifying the Forming Testing Forming
concluding
problem hypothesis Hypothesis conclusions
information
Figure 3.3: Problem-based teaching

In problem-based teaching, identifying problems involves learners identifying the

critical aspects in the problem to be solved. This is followed by searching for facts
and significant information. Then, students form a hypothesis by gathering ideas to
determine the proposed strategies. Testing the hypothesis is the next step towards
solving the problem until the best conclusion is generated.
The principles in implementing problem-based learning are:

(a) Learners employ the skill and theory learnt.
(b) Learners have to be guided when identifying the problems and choosing the
appropriate strategies.
(c) The questions or problems posed should match learners’ ability.
(d) Discussion with learners may be required at times.
(e) It would be good to encourage the students to experiment with certain
procedures on their own.
Problem-based learning benefits learners as they are able to comprehend and

remember the lesson better. This method stimulates learners’ interest and they
become more responsible, creative and independent. To ensure the effectiveness
of this method, you need to plan thoroughly. You must also be knowledgeable in
the topics to be discussed, prepare sufficient materials and make certain that the
learners are ready. In addition, you should ensure that there is enough time for the
method to be implemented.
3.4.2 Group Method

The group method is usually used when learners prefer learning in groups. Many
learners are interested in doing group work and they will find their friends to
conduct the discussion activities. Group discussion is suitable in the Mathematics
and Science classes as well as for practical work in workshops. Students indirectly
become motivated to do the task on their own and this lessens the teachers’ burden.
When doing group work, the students work in small groups that normally consist
of four to five students with mixed abilities. The group members can be reshuffled
according to the learners’ achievement. Therefore, this method is relatively suitable
for the implementation of KBSR and KBSM.

3.4.3 Team Teaching

Have you ever taught a particular subject in a team with teachers in your school? If
you have, what are the benefits? Team teaching was first introduced in the United
States of America in 1956. It is considered new in our country. The team is normally
led by an experienced or expert teacher and comprises three to four teachers. The
leader will prepare a systematic plan so that teachers in her group can follow the
instructions designed. In big schools, team teaching can be implemented to teach
subjects such as Mathematics, Science and Accounts. By designing the constructive
plan, the syllabus and curriculum can be completed together. Monthly examinations
can also be conducted simultaneously, thus students can be tested with the same set
of papers. The principles that need to be considered when employing this method
are:
(a) Every teacher must give cooperation.
(b) A discussion among group members must be conducted once every two weeks
to look at the progress of a particular subject.
(c) Teachers can switch classes in their groups to monitor learners’ overall
involvement.
(d) The leader has to decide on the objectives and construct at least half a year’s
teaching plans.
(e) There should be a room provided for the group of teachers and there should
also be sufficient reference materials.
(f) The teaching can be done in big, small or remedial classes.
(g) Teachers need to prepare a lot of activities and use various contemporary
techniques when teaching reading, problem-solving, project work and others.
(h) Inexperienced teachers who are involved must be willing to teach extra classes
to enhance their efficiency.
(i) Teachers have to conduct ongoing evaluation at least once a month.
Table 3.3 presents the characteristics of group method and team teaching. Look at
the differences between both methods:

Table 3.3: Differences between Group Method and Team Teaching
Group Method Team Teaching

Learners decide the grouping on their Groups are constructed by teachers.
own.
Usually conducted in class. Discussion is conducted outside class.
The placement of students in groups The placement of teachers in the group
changes according to achievement. does not change.
The learners’ responsibility is to discuss The teachers’ main responsibility is to
the task given by teachers. decide on the best teaching method.
Learners can invite teachers to their group Teachers do not have to invite students to
to enquire about any particular part of the the group.
lesson.
Discussion may be short, for example, Discussion is longer, usually more than
30 minutes. one hour.
3.4.4 Discussion Method

If you are too tired to teach, you can ask your students to form groups and discuss
a particular topic (please refer to Figure 3.4). Discussion indirectly stimulates
learners’ interest. It gives learners the opportunity to communicate, exchange
ideas and share their feelings. Discussion can be done at any time as a whole
group or in small groups for about 30 minutes. For Bahasa Malaysia, Economics
and Science for instance, you can give the students an issue or a problem to talk
about. Being the teacher, you need to encourage all learners to participate in the
discussion and to generate meaningful ideas and facts. Do not shove away ideas
given by students as each of them have different views.
Figure 3.4: Discussion method

Source: issx.org

At the end of the discussion, you can decide whether the activity should be merely
a verbal activity or the learners should do a written summary individually. Actually,
a good and systematic discussion can stimulate learners’ interest to gain in-depth
knowledge about a particular issue discussed. Therefore, teachers should consider
utilising this method in class.
The aspects that need to be considered during discussion sessions are:
(a) Discussions must relate to the topic learnt.
(b) Prevent learners from talking loudly.
(c) It is up to you to decide whether you want to elect a chairperson.
(d) Provide the opportunity for learners to discuss while you become the
facilitator.
(e) At the end of the discussion, you need to conclude and give positive reinforcement
to encourage learners to participate in future.
(f) You must be skilful in managing the discussion sessions particularly in terms
of class control, question and answer sessions and contending technique.
Another technique that is almost similar to discussion is brainstorming. This
technique encourages learners to generate ideas and promote critical thinking.
3.4.5 Demonstration
You may unconsciously be a model example that learners can make use like
explaining about models, ways to use a new apparatus and others while teaching.
This is what we call demonstration. Demonstration is frequently done when
explaining a particular concept to learners. It may take a short while to demonstrate
a task in a workshop or you may need to bring the tools with you. For example, for
the topic “Technical Drawing” in Living Skills, you will need to explain the usage
of all the tools needed in creating the drawing.
Among the factors you need to remember when using the method are as follows:
(a) Explain the objective of the demonstration.
(b) Conduct the demonstration in an appropriate place if it involves gas, electric
and fire.
(c) Ensure all learners listen and pay attention to your instructions.
(d) Learners can do the task on their own if you are confident that they possess the
necessary skills.
(e) Encourage learners to give opinions about the demonstration conducted.
(f) In Physical Education, teachers need to demonstrate first and this is called the
living model.

activity 3.4
1. What do you understand by the term “problem-based learning”?

2. What are the differences between the group method and team
teaching?
3. What does demonstration mean?
3.4.6 Project Method

This method is used occasionally in History, Geography, Science, Local Study,
Domestic Science and others. They are in the form of games, fieldwork, questionnaires
and field trips. Field trips are suitable for History and Geography subjects like
visits to interesting places such as Niah Cave in Sarawak and Batu Bersurat in
Kuala Berang. Project work is used to get learners to gather information, hence it
promotes knowledge discovery and better understanding of a particular area of
study. Learners can also interview people to gather significant information.
Project work can be used after learners gain a particular skill or ability. It can be done
individually or in groups. Learners can choose their own topics or you may assign
them. To ensure that the project goes well, you must tell the students the objectives
and encourage them to participate and buy their own tools. As for projects that are
done in class, you can help learners when needed. If you are teaching Form Six
students, give them more project work as it will give them exposure to how tertiary
education will be like.
3.4.7 Simulation Method

Many teachers seldom use this method because learners do not favour it. Due to this,
many teachers do not use it as it would waste time and does not benefit students.
However, this method can be used for subjects like Bahasa Melayu, History and
others. For instance, for the topic “The Development of the Communist Party in
Malaya and the Baling Conference,” you can choose students who are talented to
act out the events to make them more realistic.
If you use sociodrama simulation, students need to use scripts. If they just play
certain roles, then they do not need scripts. Simulation can be effective if you can
find an appropriate episode and select talented students to act out the drama. The
most interesting thing about this method is that it trains students to communicate
and become active learners.

3.4.8 Teaching Using Teaching Aids
For teachers with ICT experience, the usage of computer in teaching is appropiate. It
gives learners the opportunity to learn effectively (please refer to Figure 3.5). While
teaching, you can explain how to use the computer. Learners can learn various
topics like computer-related programs, computing ethics, Internet usage and others.
Unfortunately, not many learners get the opportunity as in a school, probably only
one class is chosen to be tested with the new method of teaching.
Figure 3.5: Usage of computer in teaching

Source: www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topik/130589/computer-assisted-instruction.
activity 3.5
1. One of the reasons why learners get poor results for Physics,
Chemistry, and Biology in the SPM examination is due to the lack of
exposure in problem-based learning. Discuss ways to overcome the
problem.
2. Team teaching is suitable in helping new teachers. If you are elected
as the head of the team for Science Form 3 subject, what would you
plan for the start of the term?
At present, some teachers use educational programmes which are aired on TV9 in
teaching. Those who are creative can use newspaper cuttings from students’ columns
in local newspapers like “Fokus PMR.” Bear in mind that teaching aids can enhance
teaching and help learners to understand a particular subject better.

Make use of the various types of teaching aids like flash cards, books, recorded
materials, models, pictures, audio-visual teaching aids, slides and many others.
SUMMARY
• Teaching is the process of disseminating knowledge or information, facts and
teachers’ ideas to learners.
• Teaching has to be learner-centred.
• The traditional teaching method is a one-way technique and consists of fewer
activities, which turn students into passive learners.
• Contemporary methods train learners to be active. These use two-way
communication, consisting of lots of activities and teaching strategies.
• The three most popular teaching theories are the Sim Teaching Theory, the Robert
Glaser Teaching Theory and the Taba Teaching Theory.
• The Sim Teaching Theory focuses on the teacher, students, objectives, contents
and surroundings.
• Robert Glaser’s Teaching Model emphasises teaching objectives, existing
knowledge and teaching and evaluation methods.
• Taba’s Model stresses on the levels of data arrangement, concept development,
inferences, concluding and application.
• The methods that are classified as traditional methods are expository, lecturing
and mastery methods.
• Many teachers prefer the lecturing method because it is easier and does not
require them to conduct in-class activities.
• Contemporary teaching methods include problem-based learning, discussion,
demonstration, project work, simulation, the use of teaching aids and others.
• Problem-based learning begins with the identification of a problem and ends
with the formation of a conclusion.
Concept construction Mastery method

Deductive exposure National education philosophy
Demonstration method Problem-based learning
Educational TV program Sim’s teaching theory
Expository method Simulation method
Inductive exposure Team teaching
Living skills

references
Budiman Sdn. Bhd.
Sulaiman Ngah Razali. (1997). Pedagogi: Teori dan praktik. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Asmah Haji Ahmad. (1989). Pedagogi 1. Petaling Jaya: Longman Malaysia.
Glaser, Robert (1962). Training research and education, with chapters by Glen L. Bryan
and others. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.

TOPIC 4 TEACHING PREPARATIONS  45
Topic  Teaching
Preparations
4
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Prepare the appropriate teaching aids;
2. Write a complete summary of teaching preparations;
3. Construct formative questions to test students’ comprehension; and
4. Teach and search for information using the Internet.
XX INTRODUCTION
An experienced teacher should has considerable experience in teaching preparation
which forms a crucial task in teaching. Teaching preparation has to be done carefully
to ensure an effective teaching. Even if you have been teaching for a long time, you
still need to do preparation before going to a class. To make sure your preparation
is concise, you need to state the objectives clearly and list down the contents to be
presented.
Figure 4.1: Information technology

Source: ocw.osaka-u.ac.jp
46  TOPIC 4 TEACHING PREPARATIONS
In this topic, we will explore various kinds of teaching aids that are usually
used in schools. As trained teachers, you should teach using methods that are
complemented by teaching aids. Then you should conduct formative evaluation
of your teaching indirectly or verbally, followed by other tasks. Due to the fast
development of information technology (please refer to Figure 4.1), you should
also equip yourself with the knowledge of using the Internet to enhance teaching
and learning. Using the Internet, you can find information related to the subject
you are teaching to enrich your knowledge as well as that of the students.
4.1 PREPARING OBJECTIVES AND

CONTENTS OF TEACHING
Every teaching session must have clear objectives. As a teacher, you need to know
what learners should gain by the end of the lesson. Therefore, before planning the
contents of each topic, you have to think of the objectives of your teaching and
write it down in the teachers’ teaching preparation book. The objectives or the aims
written should reflect the learners’ existing knowledge and ability, as well as the
syllabus and the curriculum. Besides that, the questions presented and the teaching
methods to be adopted should take into consideration all aspects of teaching to
ensure learners’ success in comprehending the lesson. In short, you need to plan
carefully the contents of your teaching especially the development part and you
need to pose questions that test students’ comprehension.
In teaching, objectives that are also known as explicit objectives are related to
positive changes that teachers hope learners will experience. The changes are in
terms of behaviour, cognitive development and skills that learners should gain by
the end of the lesson. For example, at the end of the lesson titled “Malayan Union,”
learners should be able to remember and note down the factors that led to the
(aborted) formation of the Malayan Union.
The following is an example of a teaching objective for the topic, such as Number
Pairs for Year One students:
Learning Outcomes
Pupils should be able to:
(a) State all possible pairs of numbers that total up to a given number;
and
(b) Use knowledge of addition in real life.

For experienced teachers, they would be confident that their objectives are achievable
if the contents are well-organized, questions reflect the lesson objectives and learners
give considerable attention. Hence, in every lesson, the teacher should state at least
three to four objectives that he or she wants to achieve by the end of the lesson.
Besides the objectives of the lesson, the teaching contents are also important. You
must write every topic to teach in the preparation book provided by the school.
Usually for each topic to teach, there are columns provided for you to fill in the
contents of your teaching. Figure 4.2 shows an example of the format for teaching
preparation that you will have to prepare:
Figure 4.2: Format of a teaching preparation

The following is an example of a daily teaching plan for the subject of Bahasa Melayu
written by a primary school teacher in Kuala Terengganu.
TIME/CLASS/ TOPIC/OBJECTIVE/CONTENTS/ACTIVITY/OBSERVATION/
SUBJECT EVALUATION
9.15–10.15 a.m. 6 Topic: National Day
Mawar Objectives:
B. Melayu Students are able to: Write an essay about National Day.
Learning Outcomes: Primary focus and secondary focus
Language System: Grammar – speech markers and vocabulary
Activities:
1. Play the National Day song.
2. Answer questions and write the answers.
3. Discuss speech markers in sentences.
4. Construct sentences.
5. Write an essay.
Curriculum: Moral Values: Love towards the nation and proud to be
a Malaysian.
Thinking Skill: Generate ideas
Reflection: Learners are able to write an essay.
DAILY PLAN (WEEK 11)
Theme Festivals
Topic National Day
Main Focus Construct correct sentences in an essay. Write body paragraphs
complete with topic sentences and complex sentences.
Side Focus Ask and answer a particular question correctly. Pose questions that
are relevant to the topic.
Objective By the end of the lesson, learners should be able to: Write an essay
about The National Day Celebration.
Steps Teaching and Learning Activities.
1. Let the students listen to the song ‘31 Ogos Kemerdekaan’ by the
late Sudirman.
2. Learners answer the questions posed by the teacher (7 questions)
1. When do we celebrate?
2. Where is it held?
3. How’s the situation?
4. Why is it celebrated?
5. Who are involved?
6. What are the activities?
7. How do you feel?
3. Learners jot down the given answers.

4. Discussion about the use of markers in sentences and paragraphs.

Vocabulary:
– Guests
– Father of Independence
– Parade
– Coloniser
– Patriotic
5. Learners construct complex sentences using appropriate markers.
Language System:
Grammar – Markers
– Simple sentences
– Complex sentences
Reflection and
notes
Figure 4.3: An example of a topic in a daily teaching plan for the subject of
Bahasa Melayu
Compare the example of teaching preparation in Figure 4.3 with your own teaching
preparation. Are there any similarities? Does it fulfils the requirements of the current
education system?
All information in the teaching preparation has to be written precisely and concisely
using the given format and it has to be brought to class. The common practice is
that the principal will check the teaching preparation record book. The teaching
preparation consists of three teaching stages, namely set-induction, development
and conclusion. Set-induction is the stage whereby teachers carry out activities
that stimulate learners’ interest. In the development stage, you need to prepare
the contents to be presented. Besides from that, it contains explanation, skills to
introduce, examples, teaching aids, reinforcement, questions, moral values and
others. Finally, in the conclusion stage, you evaluate learners’ understanding of the
lesson to ascertain that the objectives of the lesson are achieved. You can also give
homework to be completed by the learners at home.
Generally, the teaching plan serves the following purposes:

(a) A complete reference to you.
(b) Easier for you to remember.
(c) Can be used by a replacement teacher.
(d) Your teaching will not digress unnecessarily.
(e) Build confidence towards the lesson and it goes smoothly.
(f) You can choose the appropriate teaching aids.
(g) You can control the class better.

(h) Prepare suitable questions.

(i) Ascertain parts of the syllabus that has been completed.
(j) Prove that teachers have put in the work.
activity 4.1
1. Why do you need to prepare the objectives and outcomes of

teaching?
2. Look at one of the teaching summaries you have done and indicate
whether the objectives were met or otherwise.
4.2 TEACHING AIDS

Where do you teach at present? Does the school provide a variety of teaching aids?
If aids are provided, how many times do you borrow them? Teaching aids are used
to arouse learners’ interest towards the lesson. They also assist you in your two-way
interaction with the learners and they stimulate learners’ response. Those who have
attended courses on Educational Technology would have developed more confidence
in using the computer in teaching and would see its effectiveness in achieving
teaching objectives. Unfortunately, today there are still many teachers who rely on
the traditional method of teaching using the textbook despite the development of
educational technology. Table 4.1 presents the different types of teaching aids:
Table 4.1: Categories of Teaching Aids
Type Name Notes

Visual Aids 1. Charts (pictures, drawings, cartoons, Charts combine two media
graphs, illustrations and lines) namely graphic and pictures
2. Poster.
3. Blackboard.
4. Model (with scale, shapes dan
dummy).
Photography Camera (Compact, SLR camera, Photography is useful in
Reflects Duo-focal, View Camera, education to emphasise
Film and Polaroid Camera). certain concepts.

Screening 1. Overhead Projector (OHP) and Used in class, lecture halls

Media transparencies. and seminar halls.
2. Slide Projector (manual, automatic
and semi-automatic).
3. Video and Television.
Audio 1. Radio and radio broadcast. Audio media is a system
used to send or receive voice
2. Audio recorder and audio tape.
or sounds electronically
3. Cassette-radio recorder. through cables.
Computer 1. Desktop. Computer system integrates
input, processing, output and
2. Laptop.
storage units.
Generally, the selection of teaching aids is a complex process as teachers need to

take into account ways to handle them. The usage of teaching aids requires more
time and effort as some need to be matched with the teaching objectives, topics
and contents.

The following are examples of teaching aids for the topic, “Electronics” in Living
Skills. Among the teaching aids are:
• Pliers
• Wires
• Screw drivers
• Hand equipment
These aids are considered live models and they should be prepared by the school
in the living skills workshop. If the equipment is not provided, students will not
be able to carry out certain activities.
4.3 TEACHING METHODS

We have discussed several teaching methods in Topic 3. Based on the discussion,
you were required to plan and select the methods to be used before teaching.
However, before preparing your teaching plan, teachers with experience will take
into consideration several aspects including learners’ ability and interests, the
contents to be taught, school facilities and the equipment in the classroom.

4.3.1 Science
Those who are teaching Mathematics may not need many teaching aids as the lesson
requires learners to use their cognitive ability in solving mathematical problems. The
science subject, on the other hand, requires you to prepare at least one teaching aid
every time you go to the science lab to ensure all learners are involved and they can
conduct their own experiment and observation. In addition, teachers have to make
sure there are sufficient tools so that group work can be conducted in class.
In the Science class, you should use methods such as expository, demonstration,
problem-solving or discovery and discussion. The application of various methods
stimulates learners’ thinking to generate ideas. For example, when you teach the
topic, “Cells in the Human Body” for Form 1, you can use methods like demonstration
of organs, cells, systems and their functions in the human’s body. The model of the
human body in the science lab can assist learners in understanding and analysing
each organ in the model. Examples of organs are eyes, heart, liver and others.
4.3.2 English Language

The english Language is a subject that a certain number of students find it difficult
to master or score in exams. Therefore, as a teacher you have to be concerned about
it and find means to overcome the problem. Methods like in-class discussion, usage
of educational programmes on television and inquiry technique can build learners’
confidence to speak in class. As for teachers in remote area schools, you should
include activities like question and answer sessions, drama, writing and in-class
reading or you can conduct the class in the language lab. If you do not include
such activities, students will feel bored and become passive. For instance, if you
are teaching “Future Tense,” try to use conversational activities and discussion. By
doing this, learners are encouraged to speak to their friends to show the usage of
“Simple Future Tense” sentences and to show the difference between active and
passive sentences.
4.3.3 History
If you are a History teacher or have taught History, think of the methods that you
have used. There are students who dislike History because of the outdated teaching
methods used by teachers. One way to solve the problem is to give learners the
opportunity to express their ideas or opinions. Every student should be given the
task to speak about a particular topic according to the teacher’s teaching plan. If the
school has a resource centre for the History subject, you can paste pictures, posters
and articles related to History. The articles can be found in newspapers, magazines
and journals. You should also try to find pictures of national figures, historical

events and others. Then, you can encourage your students to read the articles and
view the pictures in the resource centre.
As a teacher, you need to be active in searching for new methods. You must try to
vary your methods from time to time depending on the topic, time allocated and
teaching objectives. Using the same methods repeatedly will make your students
feel bored during your lessons.
ACTIVITY 4.2
1. List the teaching aids that are categorised as non-screening visual

aids.
2. What teaching aids are suitable in teaching most of the topics for the
English Language subject?
3. Explain the steps in handling the usage of OHP when doing the
preparation to teach.
4.4 WHAT DO FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE

EVALUATIONS MEAN?
The teaching and learning process will not be effective without assessing the
students. That is why our education system considers various types of evaluation
that are produced either by the teachers or by the Ministry of Education in public
examinations. Have you ever served on the panel responsible for constructing the
PMR examination questions? Have you ever marked the SPM examination papers?
If you have experienced in setting or marking public examination papers, you are
fortunate as the experience is highly valuable.
4.4.1 Formative Evaluation

Teachers cannot run away from the responsibility of preparing questions and tests.
Questions and tests are considered as one of the student evaluations. One type of
evaluation is called formative evaluation. This evaluation is conducted to identify
learners’ strengths and weaknesses, as well as their abilities and individual progress.
Therefore, formative evaluation is mostly done orally, or through observation,
checklist, interview, project paper, report writing and discussion and formal
evaluation. Formal evaluation could be in the form of objective questions and essays.
Usually questions are formed from easy to difficult ones. Based on the questions,
you can measure students’ behaviour and development. The following are some of
the characteristics of questions and tests used in formative evaluation:

(a) Constructed formally and informally.

(b) Can be constructed while teaching through precise and concise questions
according to the needs of the unit.
(c) Ongoing evaluation by teachers.
(d) Evaluation emphasises cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains.
(e) Identify learners’ mastery individually, in groups and as a whole after each
unit or topic has been completed.
(f) Increase the number of questions that test learners’ comprehension of the
concepts presented.
(g) Questions asked are to instantly resolve their weaknesses.
(h) Enable teachers to evaluate the effectiveness of the teaching.
(i) Evaluation is not to give grades or to determine in-class placement.
(j) More suitable for tests that evaluate learners’ mastery or understanding of a
small unit or a particular unit.
In general, formative evaluation is to check students’ progress and effectiveness

of the teaching. Based on the evaluation, you can plan more meaningful teaching
in future.
4.4.2 Summative Evaluation

Summative evaluation is a formal evaluation to identify and compare learners’
achievement. After the comparison has been done, students will be placed according
to their achievement. The tests are done in the middle of the year or at the end of
the year. Among the examinations are Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR),
Penilaian Kendalian Berasaskan Sekolah (PKBS), Penilaian Menengah Rendah
(PMR), Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM) and Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia
(STPM).
Not many are involved in summative evaluation because it is a meticulous task

requiring in-depth knowledge to design each question. Normally, questions
are constructed by the Education Department and the Ministry of Education.
Nevertheless, you may be asked to designed questions based on your area of
expertise.
Characteristics of summative evaluation are as follows:

(a) Involves giving grades and certificates, comparing learners’ achievements and
getting information about learners’ ability.

(b) The main mode of evaluation is examination that comprises objective tests,
essay, equivalent tests, teacher-generated tests and assignments.
(c) More suitable for norm reference tests.
4.5 PREPARING ASSIGNED TASKS

Your task as a teacher is not only to teach but also to prepare questions to test the
students’ understanding. Questions can be asked while teaching or at the end of
the month or term. The questions are to test their understanding of the topics you
have taught. You can choose the questions from the textbook or you can use past
years’ exam questions or your own freshly-set questions. Encourage learners to
keep questions that they do for revision purposes. The following are appropriate
ways of preparing questions:
(a) Take examples from the textbook or other sources.
(b) A creative teacher can design his or her own questions.
(c) Write questions on the board.
(d) Distribute printed questions.
(e) Discuss the questions you have constructed with your peers to ensure
quality.
(f) Make sure the time allocated to answer each question is sufficient.
(g) Teachers can test students in class.
(h) Give clear questions that will not confuse students.
(i) For classes that will sit for public examinations, teachers can put to use past
years’ exam questions.
(j) Questions given can be used for a single period lesson.

Questions can be classified into two types: objective and subjective.
Guidelines in producing objective questions:

(a) Start with easy questions, followed by difficult ones.
(b) Multiple choice questions should be arranged according to format. Choice of
distractors should be acceptable.
(c) Illustrations and charts should be presented clearly.
(d) Ensure that the language used is clear.
(e) Ensure that questions are designed precisely and concisely.
(f) You need to prepare accurate answers.

(g) Give accurate instructions, time and marks for each question.
(h) It is entirely up to you to keep or allow students to take home their papers
after the exam.

Guidelines in preparing an essay or subjective question:
(a) Fewer questions but time given is usually more than one hour.
(b) Explain the meaning of each question precisely.
(c) One question can be divided into several parts. Indicate the marks for each
question as there is a probability that each question will carry different
marks.
(d) Write the instructions and time allocation on the front page of the examination
paper.
(e) The number of questions should match the time allocated.
(f) Questions should be of good quality and pose some challenge to test learners’
ability.
(g) You can write inspiring comments after marking the test papers.
(h) Most questions may not have an exact answer. Therefore, you must state the
marking criteria.
Further discussion on the concepts of tests, evaluation and examinations will be

presented in Topic 8.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1. Describe formative evaluation in your own words.

2. What does summative evaluation mean?
3. State the guidelines in designing objective questions.
4. Classify the types of objective questions.

4.6 COMPUTER APPLICATION AND INTERNET

SERVICE IN ENRICHING TEACHING AND
LEARNING
The Internet is a good source for teaching preparation. You can get current
information from related websites. Have you ever done this? Basically, the
application of Internet in education can be divided into three main categories as
presented in Table 4.2:
Table 4.2: The Use of Internet in Education
Facilities Application
Electronic Mail (e-mail) Communication, Project
Discussion Group (Listserv) Discussion, Project
World Wide Web Gather and Publish Information
Source: Mohd Yusof Ab. Hadi (2002).
The Internet has given the opportunity to many people to gain information in
any particular area (please refer to Figure 4.4.). It is useful to enhance teaching
and learning and to discover current issues. For instance, students can get current
reference materials for subjects like English Language, Bahasa Melayu, History
and others from the Internet. If you teach ICT, you need to possess excellent
computer skills to present an effective lesson using computers. You should also
explain the correct ways of using the computer to your students.
The benefits of teaching and learning using the Internet are:
Figure 4.4: These two students are searching for information through the Internet

(a) Learners can learn about a particular subject at any time.

(b) It can enhance communication between the teacher and learners.
(c) Learners can learn independently after acquiring the skills of using the
Internet.
(d) Increase knowledge of current issues.
(e) Saves time as learners do not have to go to the library to find reference
books.
(f) Learners become more open minded and their ability in using the English
language may be enhanced.
Unfortunately, not all schools are equipped with the Internet especially schools in
remote areas. Many have problems getting online connection. Besides that, not all
teachers utilise computers in teaching.
AcTIVITy 4.4
1. At present, there are various computer facilities in schools. What

are the best ways to ensure that learners maximise their use of the
facilities?
2. State several objectives of using the Internet. Based on your
experience, what are the most frequent reasons?
SUMMARY
• The daily lesson plan should include learning objectives or learning outcomes
that are stated in the teaching record book.
• All information required to be filled in the teaching record book must be
completed.
• Teachers are encouraged to use various teaching aids such as charts, posters,
board and models.
• Formative evaluation aims to identify learners’ strengths and weaknesses and
their ability as well as progress.
• Formative questions can be formal or informal.
• Formative evaluation is not to give grades to students.
• Summative evaluation is to ascertain learners’ achievement and make
comparison with other students. Examples of summative evaluation are PMR,
SPM and STPM.
Audio media Internet

Charts Objective questions
Discussion group Photographic media
Education technology Subjective questions
Electronic mail (E-mail) Summative evaluation
Formative evaluation Teaching aids
ICT
references
Asma Abdul Rahman. (2002). Instruksi dan pembelajaran berasaskan teknologi: Satu
penilaian semula. Konvensyen Teknologi Pendidikan ke 15. (pp. 67–74). Kuala
Lumpur: Persatuan Teknologi Pendidikan Malaysia.
Kamarudin Hj. Husin. (1989). Pedagogi 3. Petaling Jaya: Longman Malaysia.

Budiman Sdn. Bhd.
Muhamad Hasan Abdul Rahman. (2000). Media pengajaran penghasilan bahan

pengajaran berkesan. Serdang: Penerbitan Universiti Putera Malaysia.
Noraini Idris, Esther Gnanamalar Sarojini Daniel dan Rohaida Mohd Saat. (2004).
Teknologi dalam pendidikan sains dan matematik. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit
Universiti Malaya.
Mohd Yusof Ab. Hadi (2002). Sumber komputer dan sumber pengetahuan daripada
Internet: Satu kajian kes di kalangan pelajar-pelajar sekolah menengah teknik aliran
teknikal. Prosiding seminar Kebangsaan Sains, Teknologi dan Sains Sosial,
Kuantan: UiTM, Cawangan Pahang.

60  TOPIC 5 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IN SOLVING LEARNERS’ CONFLICT
Topic  Classroom
Management
5 in Solving
Learners’
Conflict
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Prepare various activities appropriate for classroom management;
2. Identify students who are facing conflicts;
3. Make students aware of the importance of communication; and
4. Guide students on how to solve conflicts on their own.
XX INTRODUCTION
Have you ever taught in a secondary school? What are the problems and challenges
you faced? Were you able to overcome the challenges and problems? Were you able
to create a conducive classroom environment and overcome disciplinary problems?
Many teachers face problems handling secondary school students who are going
through teenage life. These students face a lot of internal and external conflicts
that can affect their learning process and academic achievement. Among the
conflicts faced are personal problems, relationship problems, examination pressure,
emotional problems, family problems and others. Therefore, you have to be aware
of the problems that students in this age group face.

TOPIC 5 Classroom management IN solving learners’ conflict  61
In this topic, we will discuss ways to reduce students’ conflicts. Among the
topics to be discussed are classroom management, cooperation in learning, good
communication and listening skills among learners and lastly, ways to encourage
learners to solve their problems.
5.1 CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom management is a crucial part of a teacher’s job. It refers to the physical
being of the classroom, time management and learners’ attendance, learners’
movement, learners’ disciplinary problems and others.
(a) The physical being of a classroom refers to the size of the classroom,
arrangement of chairs and tables, cleanliness of the classroom (like whether it
is dusty or full of rubbish), decorations on the walls including pictures, notice
board, learners’ duty roaster, cleanliness of the blackboard, brightness of the
classroom and the facilities provided.
(b) In terms of time management, learners are required to be in the classroom
during lessons. Learners are not allowed to cut class or come in and go out
of classes without teachers’ permission. Learners who do not obey the rules
will need to be reprimanded. In addition, teachers need to set a good example
of time management by completing the activities planned within the given
time.
(c) Learners are required to discipline themselves. They cannot go anywhere
they like without the teacher’s permission, disturb friends, make noise and so
on. Usually, the monitor is given the responsibility of collecting and sending
exercise books to the respective teachers. Teachers also must ensure that the
learning environment is not noisy and chaotic.
(d) Disciplinary problems are everyone’s responsibility. Some disciplinary
problems are considered a serious offence such as fighting in class, speaking in
a rude manner, disobeying teachers, smoking, stealing, bullying, breaking the
school’s dress code, bringing weapons like knife to school, bringing drugs to
school and acting violently towards teachers and peers. Disciplinary problems
can create conflicts among students. This issue will be discussed further in this
topic.
(e) The up keeping of learners’ records like Registration Record, Attendance
List, Achievement Record, Progress Record, School Fees Record, Textbook
Borrowing Scheme Record and others are teachers’ responsibility. The records
should be managed systematically and if required, they should be brought to
class to get learners’ confirmation.

In terms of management, you must be able to manage your class wisely. Today’s class
control has changed. In the past, the position of chairs and tables were permanent
but today they can be moved according to the teachers’ needs. Similarly, in the past,
62  TOPIC 5 Classroom management IN solving learners’ conflict
learners were required to stay quiet but now the situation is more flexible. Learners
are encouraged to move around and discuss in groups. This encourages learners to
become more active and more open to discuss anything with you.
5.2 LEARNERS’ CONFLICTS: EARLY SIGNS

One of the problems that teachers have to deal with is learners’ conflicts. When
students face conflicts, teachers need to resolve them as they can have a negative
impact on the learning process. Sometimes, you might be unable to detect the
conflicts because they are not transparent. However, most of the time you would be
aware that they are facing conflicts when they are involved in disciplinary problems
inside and outside class.
Those teaching in secondary schools would encounter all sorts of problems or

conflicts caused by learners. This is because most learners in their teenage years
activity 5.1
1. What does classroom management mean?

2. What types of classroom management do you know?
would face a lot of internal and external conflicts. The following are some of the
sources of conflicts among learners and their early signs:
(a) The teacher’s teaching methods does not stimulate the learners’ interest. Hence,
the latter might get bored, lose interest in learning and start disliking the
teacher.
(b) Learners finding it is hard to follow certain “difficult” subjects like Additional
Mathematics and Physics.
(c) Teachers give too much homework and learners are unable to finish them.
The pressure and conflict increase when teachers reprimand them for not
completing the homework.
(d) Students experience low self-esteem when they see some of their classmates
being better than them.
5.3 MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES TO SOLVE

LEARNERS’ CONFLICTS
You should be creative in managing learners’ conflicts. You cannot let them face
conflicts on their own as that will lead to negative behaviour. Therefore, the ways to

solve the problem entirely depends on your experience and wisdom. You can discuss
with other teachers like the school counsellor or the principal. You could also attend
seminars on managing students’ disciplinary problems and issues related to today’s
teenagers. The following are suggestions on how to solve learners’ conflicts.
5.3.1 Competition versus Collaboration

Collaboration is a technique whereby learners are put in groups in order to work
together. Competition among learners refers to a technique whereby learners
compete between groups. However, this particular method puts the low achievers
at a disadvantage thus making them face conflicts and feel emotionally disturbed.
Table 5.1 shows the difference between collaboration and competition:
Table 5.1: Differences between Competition and Collaboration
Competition Technique Collaboration Technique

All learners are given the same task and Tasks are given based on groups and the
a standardise evaluation is conducted. good students can help the weak ones.
Based on that, teachers would find out Evaluation is based on individual ability.
that some learners get a high score and
some do not.
Teacher gives positive reinforcement such Marks given are based on overall
as reward and praises to learners who achievement of every group and not
score high marks in each task without based on individual achievement.
considering their groups.
In the lecturing technique, teachers In the grouping technique, teachers can
assume that all learners face no problems. monitor and assist learners.
There is restricted interaction. Teacher There is two-way interaction between
gives reinforcement to good students teacher and students and students feel
while weak ones feel left out. appreciated.
Many agree that competition-based teaching can motivate learners. However,

we have to consider weak students as they may feel left out. In contrast, teaching
techniques that are collaboration based can build learners’ confidence. They can
build learners’ knowledge structure and allow them to show their individual
potential. Learners can also work collaboratively in co-curricular activities (please
refer to Figure 5.1). The following are guidelines in the implementation of the
collaborative teaching technique:
(a) Ensure that sufficient time is allocated for each task.
(b) Ensure that learners are aware of the teaching objectives.
(c) The teacher should give clear instructions.

(d) Give equal opportunity to each group member.

(e) Encourage learners to interact with one another and work together.
Figure 5.1: Co-curricular activities like camping

can reduce learners’ stress due to conflicts
activity 5.2
1. State some examples of competition-based techniques and

collaboration-based techniques that can be implemented in the
process of teaching.
2. What are the benefits of collaboration to learners?
5.3.2 Communication
Communication involves in our everyday behaviour. Do you communicate
frequently with your students? Do you entertain learners’ queries and help them
with their problems? Actually, communication plays an important role in teaching
and learning. Communication involves source, receiver, sender, encoder, channel,
decoder, response and feedback. Communication can be divided into verbal and
non-verbal communication.
Many use interpersonal communication that involves a big group in their everyday
communication. This kind of communication can succeed if it is two-way. It is the
same with teaching. The teaching and learning process will become successful if
communication is two-way and both parties enjoy good interaction. Both teacher
and students also should possess good listening skills.

At present, many learners refuse to communicate because they face various internal
and external conflicts. Hence, you need to utilise a range of techniques to encourage
communication. The teacher’s attitude also plays a role in promoting a pleasant
learning condition. Some of them are:
(a) Encourage learners to attempt something new.
(b) Teachers should possess a good disposition and be friendly to all learners.
(c) Teachers should understand learners’ feelings and possess an agreeable nature
when dealing with learners’ suggestions.
(d) Teachers should be open to learners’ opinions and strive to reach a
consensus in making decisions.
(e) Guide learners to answer questions.
(f) Appreciate and praise learners.
(g) Involve learners in various co-curricular activities.
(h) Sympathise with learners’ problems and conflicts.
Besides that, you need to create an effective communication environment when
teaching through the following means:
(a) Show a positive attitude and encourage two-way communication.
(b) Be friendly with learners and respect them.
(c) Find out learners’ background, progress and problems.
(d) Be an active listener and care about learners’ problem.
(e) Teacher relates to learners’ background knowledge when teaching and starts
the lesson from easy to difficult.
(f) Avoid labelling learners with bad and negative words.
(g) Use simple language and give clear instructions.
(h) Always discuss with learners and be open-minded with their queries.
(i) Maintain eye contact with learners and call learners’ by name when asking
them to participate.
5.3.3 Listening Skill

In the teaching and learning process, both teacher and students must possess good
listening skills and similar to communication process, it has to be a two-way act.
Two-way means the sender and the receiver of the information must be able to
understand the message and be able to respond. If both parties do not possess the
desired listening skills, communication will break down.

5.4 SOLVING CONFLICTS

Some of the topics that we have discussed are related to suggestions or alternatives
to reduce conflicts. Among them include the collaborative method of teaching.
Besides that, teachers are to prioritise the role of communication and listening skill in
solving learners’ conflicts. Then, teachers should look at learners’ responses to check
whether the approaches are effective. Nevertheless, you need to advise learners to
solve conflicts on their own. Hence, the last few topics in this unit discuss learners’
role in solving their own conflicts.
Conflict solving is crucial as conflict disrupts the teaching and learning process.
As mentioned earlier, learners’ conflicts include emotional, mental and social
aspects. When faced with mental conflicts, learners’ achievements are most
likely to drop, making them feel even more pressured and frustrated (please
refer to Figure 5.2). Learners are also exposed to peer influence that can change
their behaviour and affect their way of thinking. Therefore, you must know the
effective techniques in teaching.
Figure 5.2: Under pressure

Source: mun.ca
As the teacher, you have to find out learners’ problems and conflicts. You cannot
simply ignore the problems and leave them to be solved by the principal, class
teacher and school counsellor. Among the steps are:
(a) Provide a clean and healthy school environment.
(b) Prepare a duty roster for learners to clean the class.
(c) Explain the school’s rules and regulations.
(d) Do not create petty school rules.
(e) Instil moral values when teaching.
(f) Try to integrate the relationship between the curriculum and real life.
(g) Respect learners.
(h) Always in the know of learners’ learning problems and check their
homework.
(i) Avoid class stratification.
(j) Give attention to learners who face conflicts.
(k) Encourage group discussions and reshuffle their grouping.
(l) Cooperate with the counselling teacher.
5.5 HELPING LEARNERS DEAL WITH

CONFLICTS
Can learners solve their own conflicts? Yes, if you teach them the basic skills.
Learners who experience conflicts have much to learn and would benefit from advice
from teachers and the school counsellor. After some time, they will become more
confident and are able to solve new conflicts. The following are ways of helping
learners deal with their conflicts:
(a) Form a group in or outside class that can create a close bond to reduce pressure
due to conflicts. Hence, weak students will not feel isolated or unappreciated.
Sometimes, teachers do not need to tell learners to help one another as they
themselves are aware that they need to cooperate with one another. They share
the burden in learning as they realise it makes learning easier and saves time.
Usually, the good students are willing to help the weak ones.
(b) Create a peer support system. Through this concept, learners who face conflicts
can share their problems with peers who possess leadership qualities. They
would get advice and support as every member can become an active listener.
Thus, learners are able to discuss issues based on the open questions discussed.
In general, the peer support system helps learners to explore and understand
their problems, generate ideas, evaluate their alternatives and choose the best
option. If they are unable to reach a decision, they can seek advice from the
school counsellor.
(c) Engage in co-curricular activities. During the activities, learners can talk about
their conflicts. They may indirectly ventilate their conflicts while having a
conversation.

In conclusion, a peer support system can help to resolve learners’ conflicts. This
is because peers play a bigger role than parents and teachers in a student’s life.
Students are more comfortable sharing their problems with peers.

activity 5.3
1. Explain some of the techniques to help learners resolve conflicts on

their own.
2. What is the significance of the peer support system?
SUMMARY
• Classroom management includes managing the physicality of the class, time
management, students’ discipline, students’ record keeping and others.
• There are many sources of learners’ conflicts like learners finding the teaching
boring, uninterested to learn and feel under pressure. In addition, they have
low academic achievement. Peer influenced, family problems and others also
contribute to the conflicts.
• The collaborative technique can reduce learners’ conflict.
• The competitive technique can increase stress among learners.
• Communication is crucial in the teaching and learning process.
• Teachers need to create a friendly and encouraging communication
environment.
• Some of the barriers to communication are noise, harsh words and unclear
handwriting on the board.
• Teacher and students must become active listeners.
• Clear classroom and school rules and regulations help reduce learners’
conflicts.
• Learners facing conflicts tend to speak harshly, play truant, hate school and
become anxious.
Academic achievement Decoder

Co-curricular Encoder
Collaboration technique Generate ideas
Competitive technique Listening skill
Communication Peer support system
Conflict Reference skeleton
Counsellor
references
Sharifah Md. Nor. (2000). Keberkesanan sekolah: Satu perspektif sosiologi. Serdang:
UPM.
Sulaiman Md. Yassin, Mohd Salleh Lebar dan Azlina Abu Bakar. (2002). Komunikasi
dalam pengajaran dan kepemimpinan pendidikan. Shah Alam: Karisma Publications
Sdn. Bhd.

70  TOPIC 6 SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM MEMORY IN LEARNING
Topic  Short-Term
and Long-
6 Term Memory
in Learning
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Classify the types of memory;
2. Compare short-term and long-term memory;
3. Explain the factors causing forgetfulness; and
4. Guide learners to increase memory retention.
XX INTRODUCTION
Memory is very important in the process of teaching and learning. If students are
unable to recall what have been taught, it means the teaching and learning process
was not effective. Therefore, teachers must choose the right technique when do
teaching. Do you know why learners find it difficult to recall what they have learnt
less than an hour ago? This is because memorising is a complex process. Not only
do we have to teach them to remember spontaneously, we also need to get them to
store information what they have learnt in their long- term memory. For example,
what they have learnt in Form Two have to be recalled in Form Three. This is
especially true when learning concepts and formulas in Mathematics and Science
subjects. If students are not able to recall, they will face problems in answering
examination questions. Hence, in this topic we are going to discuss ways to enhance
learners’ ability to recall and some suggestions on techniques to enhance learners’
memory retention.

TOPIC 6 SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM MEMORY IN LEARNING  71
6.1 HUMAN RECEPTION OF INFORMATION

AND MEMORY
The main objective of learning is for learners to store the information in short-term
and long-term memory. If learners are unable to recall, that means they are unable
to apply the knowledge gained especially when questioning in class, answering
examination questions and relating to everyday life. This problem does not only
occur among learners but among all human beings. If you are unable to recall
what you have read today on the following day, then the information is no longer
meaningful.
According to Lindsay and Norman (1972) in their book entitled, Human Information
Processing, memory is a dynamic unity that plays an important role in arranging
information that passes through the storing and recalling process. Thus, memory
is a mental process that is connected to learning, storing and recalling.
Memory is abstract as it cannot be seen. Actually, mental processes depend on

the thousands of cells in the brain called neurons and our brain is divided into
several parts whereby the most important part in information registration process
is the cerebrum. This part plays the role of retrieving information. According
to a renowned scientist, Asimou, the human brain can store a quadrillion data
throughout a human’s life span.
Actually, a human’s ability to store information is limited especially when the

information received is complex and beyond comprehension. For Form Five
learners, for example, those in the science stream find that Physics and Additional
Mathematics are difficult subjects to score high marks. They find that it is hard to
recall and apply formulas if they are low-ability learners. Normally, low achievers
get left behind when learning becomes more challenging because they are shy to
ask the teacher about what they do not understand.
A psychologist, Sigmund Freud (1915), mentioned that a person’s memory

is stored in conscious, sub-conscious or unconscious memory (please refer to
Figure 6.1). His assumption was that conscious memory was easier to recall while
unconscious memory took time to recall.
Figure 6.1: Sigmund Freud

Souarce: asfolhasardem.wordpress.com
Those of you who are in your thirties are fortunate because what you have learnt,
read and received through experience can be stored and recorded well. For those
in their eighties, their memory has deteriorated. This is due to the fact that they
have been storing all sorts of information since their early childhood. Hence,
their memory storage has reached the maximum capacity. Imagine the process of
recalling what have happened when they were small. Research has proven that we
could normally recall events as far as when we were four years old.
AcTIVITy 6.1
1. What do you know about memory?

2. Based on your experience, how long can you remember information
that you have read?
6.2 TYPES OF MEMORY

Generally, there are three levels of memory processing:
• Information and registration sensory (encoding)
• Storing Process
• Recalling or Retrieving Process
Information to be encoded comes from our visual and auditory organs. When the
information comes in, it will be encoded and stored in short-term memory and
long-term memory. Whenever required, the information will be retrieved. Like if
you went to Hong Kong ten years ago, you can still recall certain places you have
visited at any time. However, not all memory stored in the long-term memory is
easily recalled. Sometimes, when a person is under pressure, he or she could not
retrieve the required information.
As the duration of storage for each level is different, Atkinson & Shiffin (1968)
divide them into three levels of main storage, namely, sensory storage, short-term
storage and long-term storage (please refer to Figure 6.2):
Figure 6.2: Three memory levels

6.2.1 Sensory Storage

The information is taken in for a fraction of a second in short-term sensory storage
(STSS). It involves brief storage of stimuli. If you were asked to recall ten letters
placed by someone in an order within one second, you may not be able to do so
correctly. If you are able to do so, it is assumed that you have very strong recalling
ability.
6.2.2 Short-Term Storage

You may be able to recall the colour of the clothes you have wore this morning.
But you may not be able to recall the colour of the clothes you wore yesterday.
Generally, we can recall information received half a minute before. After that, the
information is quickly lost.
Factors related to short-term memory are:

(a) Short-term memory is limited to one minute storage. Therefore, it can
disappear any time. For example, we can remember the plate number of the
car that passes in front of our eyes but to recall the number an hour later
would be difficult.
(b) When there is a lack of concentration, the information stored will disappear.
(c) According to George Miller (1956), short-term memory has limited capacity. Its
capacity is between 5 alphabets or numbers (7 – 2) up to (7 + 2). For instance,
we find it is difficult to remember our identity card number made up of 12
digits. However, we find it is easier to remember if we divide the numbers into
groups or make them meaningful like dividing the number into three parts.
For example, the number 490114115135 can be remembered better if divided
into three parts like 490114-11-5135.
(d) Short-term memory is normally used to store someone’s message and
important dates.
(e) To retain short-term memory, it has to be rehearsed several times.
(f) Some short-term memory can be stored as long-term memory.
(g) There are two main classes of memory retrieval: explicit memory and implicit
memory. Explicit memory refers to conscious retrieval of information. Implicit
memory, on the other hand, refers to the usage of stored information without
trying to retrieve it as some information is often retained and used without
us realising it.

6.2.3 Long-Term Memory

Can you easily recall historical events you have learnt in Form Five? If you can still
recall the history on the steps towards celebrating Malaysia’s Independence, you
must have a strong memory.
Long-term memory is the last component in the types of memory. Long-term

memory is very important. If we have a healthy brain, we are able to remember
meaningful events as long as we live.
Long-term memory depends on:

(a) The materials that are stored in long-term memory such as rehearsal, reading,
verbalising and recalling.
(b) Meaningful coding process. For example, we can remember a key number that
is meaningful like 2121, 2525 and so on.
(c) Examples of information in long-term memory are visual, phonetic and
semantic information.
6.3 TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

Long-term memory has a particular storage system according to the types of
memory. Tulving (1972, 1985, 1987) suggested the memory to be divided into three
namely: episodic, semantic and procedural memory (please refer to Figure 6.3):
Figure 6.3: Types of long-term memory

6.3.1 Episodic Memory

Episodic memory is related to one’s important events experienced at a particular
time and place. This type of memory is easily retrieved because it is about
experience, mostly good memories. For example, the memory of your own
wedding, and the romantic episodes which led to the wedding (please refer to
Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4: Episodic memory

Source: zastavki.com
6.3.2 Semantic Memory

Semantic memory is related to facts, regulations and principles. It involves
meaningful information that is stored in the memory but has nothing to do with
personal experience, time and place. For example, you ask your students to write
an essay about “Road Safety.” Based on the topic, learners have to think about the
characteristics and concepts of road safety, traffic regulations and others.
6.3.3 Procedural Memory

This kind of memory is related to everyday tasks. For example, you can remember
better what you do every day. For instance, you start your day with morning
prayers at 6.30am, followed by going to school at 7.30am. At 2.00pm, you go home
and rest until evening and spend time with your family members.
AcTIVITy 6.2
1. What do you understand by the term “sensory memory”?

2. What is short-term memory? How does it happen and why does it
dissapear fast?
3. What are the differences between short-term and long-term memory?

6.4 FORGETTING
Imagine yourself teaching your students about world climate. On the following
day, you ask your students questions related to yesterday’s teaching contents. One
student cannot answer the question because he or she is unable to recall what has
been taught. Why does this happen? What is your reaction?
In this case, it is hard to be angry because you do not know who to blame, either
student or yourself as your teaching may not be effective. Actually, this situation is
related to short-term and long-term memory. If the student is unable to remember,
that means there is a probability he or she will totally forget the information unless
he or she re-reads everything.
Memory and forgetting are connected with one another. If a person is unable to
remember or memorise a particular point, that means it has been forgotten. In other
words, forgetting is failure to recall what we have read, heard, seen and tasted. This
can become a major problem to some people and forgetting may occur temporarily
or permanently. It can happen to anyone including kids, students, adults and senior
citizens.
Forgetting can be divided into three parts: fading, interference and repression.
(a) Fading happens when the information has been stored too long and is hardly
recalled. This means that if we keep a piece of information for too long and
we do not use it, it will be difficult to retrieve it after some time.
(b) Interference occurs due to distractions to the long-term memory. For example,
a Form Five student tells you that he or she is unable to remember the formula
learnt in Physics due to some problems he or she is facing. Distractions may
include problems such as quarrels with peers, family disharmony and so on.
These can cause the student to feel anxious, thus interrupting his ability to
retain what was learnt.
(c) Repression happens due to a person’s emotional distraction whereby the
person wants to forget some memory stored in the long-term memory. For
example, a student who went for a school trip almost died when he had an
accident on his way from Kuantan to Langkawi. So, the student refuses to
remember explicit details about the accident such as the time and date. This is
because many prefer not to recall unhappy experiences.

6.4.1 Factors Causing Forgetfulness

The human being’s ability to memorise and recall experience and information is
limited. Retrieving long-term memory codes is a complicated process because long-
term memory comprises unlimited permanent information as well as concepts that
possess their respective arrangements. Therefore, retrieving process may have to
go through hidden codes and codes that are hard to retrieve.
According to psychologists, sometimes a person is unable to retrieve the required

codes from long-term memory. In this case, forgetting does not occur. What occurs
is one’s failure to retrieve the information. This is what we call Theory Decay
which refers to the fact that a person is unable to recall because the memory has
gradually faded. If the person wants to retain the memory, he or she will have to
use the memory frequently.
Some people are unable to remember certain information due to overlapping of

information in the memory stored. For example, you meet your old principal,
Mr. Yassin, during Teacher’s Day and he tells you that his apartment number was
B-1278. Half an hour after that, you meet another friend named Mr. Karim who
lives in the same area and tells you that his apartment number is D-1378. Two days
after that, you are invited by Mr. Karim to his house. Your first attempt to find his
house fails because you thought his apartment number is B-1278.
This is called Proactive Overlapping Theory, which refers to interference between

new and old information. The new information is mixed up with previously learnt
information (please refer to Figure 6.5):
Figure 6.5: Proactive Overlapping Theory
If you try to find Mr. Yassin’s house numbered B-1278 the following day, you may
not be able to find it the first time due to retroactive overlapping. Retroactive
overlapping here refers to the interference between old and new information
whereby the previously learned information becomes mixed up with new or
almost similar information. Thus, in this case, what you will find is D-1378. In
order to recall the actual number, you have to go backward a bit as presented in
Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6: Retroactive Overlapping theory
With reference to this theory, you should teach your lessons systematically and
avoid asking questions that can confuse learners. Teach students one by one
systematically following a particular pattern. Avoid asking them to remember fast.
You should let them retain their memory well first.
We have discussed briefly the types of memory, what forgetting means and the
theory that explains the causes of forgetting. Therefore, we have to refer to the
respective theories when planning our teaching to ensure the effectiveness of the
teaching and learning process. The following are factors causing forgetfulness:
(a) Learners do not give full concentration on the lesson.
(b) Unsystematic teaching makes it hard for learners to follow.
(c) Learners do not understand teacher’s teaching. Teaching that mixes various
formula or concepts cause learners to forget the teaching easily.
(d) Some learners are not interested to learn because the teacher’s explanation is
not clear.
(e) Teachers give less practice and revision than what is needed.
(f) Learners who experience emotional problems are prone to forget what is
taught.
(g) Learners encounter interference in learning experience. The interference can
be divided into two namely: proactive and retroactive. Proactive interference
means learners learn a few difficult topics one after another. In these
circumstances, the learners find it hard to remember and the information
makes them easily confused. Retroactive interference works backwards
whereby old information interferes with new information.
(h) If students learn too much there is a tendency that they will easily forget the
information. Do not force them to learn for hours.
(i) Learners have limited time to recall. Weak students require more time.
(j) Learners do not write sufficient short notes.

(k) Teachers lack the skill to teach learners on how to memorise.

(l) A person is unable to remember a particular situation or place if the situation
has changed a lot. For example, if we seldom go to a particular city, there is
a possibility that we may not be able to remember the names of the streets,
places and others.
(m) Age factor influences memory retention.
(n) Health problems and hand injuries due to an accident can affect memory
retention.
AcTIVITy 6.3
1. What is forgetting?
2. What are the types of forgetting?
3. What are the meanings of overlapping proactive theory and retroactive
overlapping theory?
6.4.2 Enhancement of Learners’ Memory Retention

We have discussed the factors causing learners to forget what have been learnt.
Now, we look at ways to enhance learners’ memory retention. If a student is
unable to recall what he or she has learnt, the student will not be able to answer
examination questions well.
Some general measures to enhance learners’ memory retention are as follows:

(a) Explain the objectives of the lesson to the learners. Then, make sure all learners
pay attention to your teaching.
(b) Encourage learners to revise the topics learnt as soon as possible. If learners
are aged seven to nine, they can read loudly. Ask those aged nine and above
to read silently.
(c) Teach systematically. Make the lesson interesting. Ensure that the contents flow
well and are arranged from easy to difficult. For difficult subjects like Science,
you need to organise the contents well. Ask questions after giving explanation
to get students to remember better.
(d) Avoid getting students to memorise too much. If they do not understand, then
memorising will not have any impact.
(e) Let learners take a 10 minutes break after each hour of teaching.

(f) Try to maximise the usage of teaching aids to enhance learners’ comprehension
and memory retention.
(g) Try to relate previous learning experience to new ones.
6.4.3 Practice to Help Learners Memorise

There are many ways to help learners enhance their memory. The following are
some of the ways highlighted by experienced educators:
(a) Mnemonic strategies: Try to relate your teaching to something meaningful.
For example, the National Education Philosophy emphasises development of
students’ physical, emotional, spiritual and intellectual potential. You come
up with an acronym for it like “JERI.” This will enable you to remember better.
The mnemonic strategy helps a person to remember people’s name, important
points, numbers, telephone numbers, important dates and others.
(b) For primary school students, you can use the storytelling technique because
children love it when they are told stories.
(c) Singing in chorus also can encourage learners to remember better.
(d) You can use a checklist to ensure that what you want to teach goes accordingly.
Encourage learners to prepare their own checklist.
(e) Break a series of numbers like phone numbers that have more than seven
digits into two or three parts.
(f) Stress on the important points when you start a lesson and at the end of the
lesson. If you ask students to remember 20 names within a short period of
time, they may only remember some names from the earlier part and the end
part. For example, flower, money, aeroplane, car, Kuala Lumpur, air, water,
women, school, principal, TV, Radio, book, pen, Giant, clothes, rice, bus, ticket,
Singapore. Students may find it hard to remember the 14 items mentioned in
the middle of the list.
(g) Imagination practice can speed a person’s memory retention. This practice
strengthens the usage of one’s right and left brain. For instance, if a student
is required to match the names for two groups within the given time, the
student may be able to do it. Group A: Terengganu, Kelantan, Selangor, Kedah,
Sarawak, Sabah, Perlis, Perak, Pahang, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapura. Group
B: Prawn, Dayak, paddy, batik, Batu Caves, crackers, Lion, Jawa, timber, oil,
snake park and tin ore. So, in this situation, learners are able to connect the
items in group B with the names of states in group A.
(h) Association practice also speeds up a person’s memorisation. For example,
if students are unable to remember the capital city of Nigeria, then you can
associate it with several series of letters until they are able to remember.

(i) Repetition practice should be conducted to enhance long term memory. For
instance, if you have finished teaching a particular topic for an hour, ask
students to rest and then repeat for five minutes. Repeat again before the end
of the week for three minutes. Then, in one month’s time, repeat for three
minutes. Lastly, repeat before the end of the sixth month for three minutes.
Repetition enhances learners’ memorisation. If repetition is done every day
and with extra minutes, it is more effective. However, you may not have
enough time for that.
(j) Learners are encouraged to do revision early in the morning as it is usually
more conducive. Reading at this time can help one remembers better.
In conclusion, the practices we have discussed are almost similar to mind
mapping. Among them are the usage of acronyms or key words and concept
association. Besides that, in a mind map different colour and pictures are
used and the main points can be underlined. Learners are also encouraged to
draw lines and arrows to the central point to speed up memorisation. In short,
mind mapping helps one to become creative as the illustration is precise, clear,
contains meaningful words and interesting colours.
AcTIVITy 6.4
1. Explain ways to enhance weak learners’ memorisation in various

subjects.
2. What does mind mapping mean? Explain the ways to use it in
enhancing one’s memorisation.
SUMMARY
ACTIVITY 6.4
• Memory is a dynamic unity that plays an important role in arranging
information that goes through storing and retrieving process.
• The human’s capacity to store information in short-term memory is limited.
• The memorisation process undergoes three levels: registration of sensory data,
storing of data and retrieving of data.
• The three levels of memory storage are sensory storage, short-term storage and
long-term storage.
• Sensory memory storage happens very fast, that is about a quarter second.

• Short-term memory storage is for less than a minute and it could be lost at any
time.
• Short-term memory bears the capacity of storing about five alphabets only.
• Short-term memory can become long-term memory if it is used continuously.
• Long-term memory can be divided into three: episodic, semantic and
procedural.
• Semantic memory refers to information related to facts, principle and laws.
• Episodic memory is about time, place and memorable experience.
• Procedural memory occurs based on a particular sequence.
• Forgetting can be divided into three; fading, interference and repression.
• Forgetting is due to several factors like proactive overlapping and retroactive
overlapping.
• Proactive overlapping means memory from early learning.
• Retroactive overlapping means memory from later learning.
• There are many ways to increase memory retention such as mnemonic
strategies, mind mapping and others.
Conscious Proactive overlapping theory

Conscious mind Procedural memory
Encoding Repression
Episodic memory Retroactive overlapping theory
Fading Semantic memory
Interference Short term sensory storage
Long term memory Short term memory
Mind map Unconsciouss
Mnemonic

references
Azizi Yahya, Asmah Subuh, Zurihanmi Zakariya dan Fawziah Yahya. (2005).
Aplikasi kognitif dalam pendidikan. Bentong: PTS Professional.
Ab. Fatah Hasan. (1992). Penggunaan minda yang optimum dalam pembelajaran. Johor
Baharu: UTM.
Mohd Salleh Lebar. (1999). Memahami psikologi. Kuala Lumpur: Thinker’s Library.
Mohd Daud Hamzah. (1990). Pembelajaran dan implikasi pendidikan. Kuala Lumpur:
Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Peter H., Lindsay, & Donald A. Norman (1972). Human information proceding: An
introduction to psychology. New York: Academic Press.
Tulving, E. (1972). Episodic and semantic memory. In E. Tulving & W. Donaldson

(Eds.), Organization and memory. New York: Academic Press.
Tulving, E. (1985). How many memory systems are there? American Psychologist, 40,
385–398.
Tulving, E. (1987). Multiple memory systems and consciousness. Human Neurobiology,

6, 67–80.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magic number seven, plus or minus two. Some limits on our
ability to process information. Psychology Review, 63, 81–97.
Mohd. Daud Hamzah. (1990). Dorongan dan pembelajaran. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka.

84  TOPIC 7 SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-VALUE
Topic  Self-Concept
and Self-Value
7
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the meaning of independent learning and the concept of self-
value;
2. Elaborate on the factors that influence independent learning;
3. Identify high and low concepts of independent learning; and
4. Explain the ways to increase self-dependence and self-value.
XX INTRODUCTION
In the past topics, we have discussed learning styles, teaching methods, teaching
preparation, learners’ conflicts, memory and forgetting. Now, we move to
learners’ self-concept and self-value that relate to behaviour formation, lifestyle,
personality, potential and academic progress. The development of learners’ self-
concept should be considered by teachers as not all learners possess a positive
self-concept. Some have low or negative self-concept. When learners have low or
negative self-concept, their studies will be affected. Hence, in this topic, we will
discuss the various factors that influence the learner’s self-concept and self-value.
There are some students who are unable to understand and value themselves.
Thus, as teachers, we need to boost their self-value so that they can become more
confident to be successful learners.

TOPIC 7 SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-VALUE  85
7.1 DEFINITIONS OF SELF-CONCEPT AND

SELF-VALUE
Have you ever faced a situation where the student you labelled as lazy changed and
became very hardworking when elected as a school prefect? How does this happen?
What changed his personality and attitude? How do you increase any learner’s self-
esteem? These are the questions that we will discuss further in this topic.
According to Robert D. Myrick (1987) in his book entitled Development Guidance and
Counselling: A Practical Approach, self-concept and self-esteem are the result of human
interaction.
Carl Rogers (1951) mentioned that self-concept comes from our own definition
(please refer to Figure 7.1). Shavelon and Bolus (1982) stated that self-concept is one’s
perception of oneself. Perception refers to beliefs, feelings, behaviour and self-value.
It is different from other people. Cohen (1959) on the other hand viewed having high
self-concept as appreciating oneself, being ambitious and others. Some people may
have low self-concept so they lack self-confidence and easily give up.
Figure 7.1: Carl Rogers

Source: net-therapie.com
Based on the above definitions, it can be concluded that self-concept is related to

behaviour, one’s self-belief and self-evaluation. It is also related to one’s strengths
and weaknesses. One’s belief whether he or she is strong or weak is also dependent
on what others think of him or her. What other people think may be more acceptable
because they based it on what they see.

In conclusion, self-concept is one’s perception, acceptance and evaluation towards

himself or herself. This means that if one realizes his weaknesses in his study and
his difficulty in making friends, then he can ask for advice for his teachers. With help
from the teachers, he will be able to build his self-confidence and realize his dream of
becoming a successful student.
Self-value is part of self-concept. Self-value is closely related to one’s self-confidence

and success. Therefore, you have to give good evaluation to students. Do not give
low evaluation and avoid having negative perceptions towards your students.
Self-value is associated with the extent a person like himself or herself based on
various factors like attitude, feelings, perceptions and others. If a student always
appears happy that means his or her self-value is always high. In contrast, students
with low self-value will appear unhappy. If you see a student behaving this way, you
should advise him or her to think positive by accepting himself as they are.
Abraham Maslow (1954) said that appreciation of oneself is needed in one’s personal
development (please refer to Figure 7.2):
Figure 7.2: The hierarchy of Maslow’s self-value
Based on the illustration, a human being is always seeking satisfaction and

value of oneself. In this case, some individuals may not be able to accomplish
these needs. It is the same with students. Thus, self-value has to be inculcated
so that learners will value themselves. Inspire and motivate students with low
self-esteem continuously. This will boost their self-esteem and enable them to
compete with good students who possess high self-esteem.
Factors that are related to self-value are:

(a) An individual’s ability and self-confidence.
(b) Self-value influences one’s action, either positively or negatively.
(c) We have to know ourselves.

(d) We are responsible in improving our self-value.
(e) We should appreciate ourselves.
(f) We may not be able to think realistically about ourselves. Hence, we need to
consider others’ evaluation of us.
(g) Respect and love one another.
(h) Appreciate support given by other people.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. What is the meaning of self-concept?

2. Why must a person value and evaluate oneself?
7.2 FACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNERS’

SELF-CONCEPT
In the early part of this topic, we discussed definitions of self-concept and self-
value. You have also seen that self-value is part of self-concept. Therefore, both
concepts sometimes share similar characteristics. Now we continue with the
factors that influence learners’ self-concept.
You may see distinctive behaviours and personalities shown among your
learners. Therefore, you should not judge or label your students too fast and give
remarks that would affect others’ perception towards them. What you should do
is to monitor their behaviour first and check their background to find out why
they behave in such a manner because there are several factors that influence
learners’ self-independence:
7.2.1 Heredity
Generally, learners’ self-concept is influenced by past experience. However,
heredity also plays an important role. For example, if a student shows interest
in business, likes to sell things in school, love the commerce subject, then this
particular student may have come from a family that loves to do business. The
same goes when we see a friendly student who likes to make friends, who
is kind-hearted and obedient. There is a high probability that this particular
student comes from a good family. In short, parents play a significant role in the
development of children’s self-concept.
7.2.2 Influence from Parents

If you see that your students love to study, ambitious, like to do house chores,
they may have come from well-disciplined families and are aware of the
significance of education. These parents do not necessarily belong to the high
socio-economic status group but may come from the middle and low socio-
economic groups. Some students come from under-privileged families but they
have a positive attitude towards learning because their parents highly support
them to succeed in their studies (please refer to Figure 7.3). These parents realize
the importance of education and they do not want their children to be left behind.

Figure 7.3: Supportive parents

Source: ea.e-renfrew.sch.uk
7.2.3 School Discipline

School discipline can influence the development of learners’ self-concept. Just
look at successful and renowned schools. These schools instil good discipline
among students. Besides, they are usually administered by principals who
possess outstanding leadership qualities. In contrast, schools of low discipline
quality can cause learners to become less inspired and lack the competitive spirit
in the areas of academic and sports performance. Hence, the principal has to
think of ways to produce learners with a positive self-concept. Bear in mind that
firm, inflexible discipline puts pressure on students and creates negative feelings
towards the teacher.
7.2.4 Influence from Society

Generally, students in boarding schools and urban schools are the ones that gain
outstanding results in the SPM examination. Remote schools, on the other hand,
produce fewer learners with good results. This could be due to the influence from
society. Some teachers are uninterested in teaching in remote schools and this can
hinder learners’ success in learning.

Parents who do not attend ‘Parent-Teacher Association’ meetings can also weaken
the teachers’ motivation. Besides that, as a teacher you should strive to open your
students’ minds. Take them for field trips to big cities so that they can become
more open and receptive in terms of perception, behaviour and self-concept. In
addition, society should be educated on the high value of investment in their
children’s education.
7.3 DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNERS’

SELF-CONCEPT
We have discussed the factors that influence learners’ self-concept such as
heredity, parents, school, and society. Actually, learners’ development of self-
concept starts when they are in pre-school and it continues when they enter
primary and secondary schools. Whether their self-concept changes positively
depends on the parents and school environment.
When in school, learners will mix with others who are of different races and
religions. Hence, they will start comparing themselves with others. Peer influence
is crucial, Negative influence from peers can be avoided if the student possesses
high self-confidence in himself or herself.
Students in primary school love to imitate other students. For instance, if a

friend has a school bag that costs RM30.00, they would want a similar one. Some
learners are inspired to performs as good as their peers who score full marks in
every Mathematics test. In short, learners start learning about their own ability,
physical capability and social skills during primary education.
You should also observe and monitor learners’ personalities as they become
teenagers because at this particular developmental stage many learners
experience drastic changes. If the changes are positive then it will be easier for us
to teach them. However, if they are negative changes, it will take a lot of time to
overcome them. Changes at this level normally involve feelings, interest and the
search for one’s own identity. They start seeing their direction in life and want to
make their own decisions. They also mix with peers who share the same interest
and self-concept.
Learners with a high self-concept are normally hardworking, like to ask teachers
what they do not understand, and are ambitious. Some like to predict the results
of the exams they take and want to progress in their studies. This is a positive
indicator in the development of one’s self-concept and self-value. Nevertheless,
do not put too high hopes on the group of learners who possess moderate self-
concept and self-value.

ACTIVITY 7.2
1. What are the factors that influence learners’ self-concept?

2. Have you seen the changes in learners’ self-concept for four years in
primary school? Describe briefly.
7.4 HIGH AND LOW SELF-CONCEPTS

We have discussed the development of learners’ self-concept from pre-school
till they become teenagers. The developments are influenced by socio-cultural
background and education. As a teacher, you are able to see whether learners
possess high or low self-concept. Learners with high self-concept possess the
following characteristics:
(a) Ambitious.
(b) Like to talk to peers when they face learning difficulties.
(c) Socialise with peers who possess good personalities.
(d) Ready to accept responsibilities given by teachers.
(e) Satisfied with what they have achieved and always strive to upgrade
themselves.
(f) Know how to improve themselves.
(g) Possess high motivation.
(h) Possess abilities in many aspects.
(i) Have pride in themselves.
(j) Have an inquisitive nature.
(k) Know their future direction after secondary education.
Learners with low self-esteem portray the following characteristics:

(a) Not ambitious.
(b) Lack intrinsic motivation and easily give up. Only do tasks when asked by
the teacher.
(c) Dislike doing challenging work.
(d) Lack self-confidence and always asking for peers’ assistance.
(e) Lack interest in learning.
(f) Shy and lack self-confidence.
(g) Untidy appearance.

(h) Like to blame others.
(i) Always appear sad and unmotivated in class.
You have to understand all about learners’ self-concept. Do not let learners have
low self-concept. Always motivate learners to forget their emotional and social
problems.
7.5 ENHANCING LEARNERS’ SELF-CONCEPT

AND SELF-VALUE
The final discussion in this topic examines ways to enhance learners’ self-concept
and self-value. The following are suggestions related to school environment:
7.5.1 Do Not Exert Undue Pressure

You have been teaching a particular class for quite some time. Generally, you
know each learner’s ability based on the results of their tests and examinations.
As a result, you are able to identify good, moderate and low achievers. As the
learners’ ability varies, you should not exert undue pressure on all the students.
Instead, you should motivate the low achievers and build their confidence by
giving extra classes. If you demotivate them and give less attention to them,
they will feel left out. They will also accuse you of unfairness if you give more
attention to the good students.
7.5.2 Tightening Relationship with Peers

There are several ways to get students to learn together and among them are
group discussion and project work. When learners have more friends, their self-
concept will improve. The relationship with peers builds learners’ communication
skills and confidence. Besides that, they become good listeners. In addition,
through the assistance of the school counsellor and counselling teachers, some
students able to become part of the peer support system.
7.5.3 Provide Various Facilities

Schools are normally provided with various facilities like library books, teaching
aids, computers and sports facilities. However, some schools do not manage the
facilities well like some libraries do not practise good and systematic election
of librarians, or teachers are not given exposure to use the school teaching aids.

Hence, as teachers you should put to maximum use the facilities provided in the
school. By doing that, you will be able to measure learners’ true potential.
Besides that, some learners have developed the confidence to use the various
facilities provided like the computer lab (please refer to Figure 7.4). Some also
feel proud to be elected as librarian or being selected to represent the school in a
particular sport. Being given the opportunity and responsibility learners would
be able to develop their self-concept and self-value.
Figure 7.4: Computer lab

Source: mec.ac.in
7.5.4 View Successful People as Role Models

One’s success does not depend on one’s wealth and appearance but on the
person’s effort and leadership qualities. Therefore, you should tell your students
that many successful people come from remote areas and they succeed because
they are determined and possess a healthy self-concept. They believe in
themselves and their abilities to succeed in a particular academic discipline.
7.5.5 Sharpening Talents and Increasing Ability

You have to sharpen your students’ talents. These talents become obvious when
they do their practical work, co-curricular activities and others. The Malaysian
sprinter, Nazmizan Mohamad, hails from a remote area in Terengganu but
became the fastest man in Southeast Asia in the SEA Games in Vietnam. His talent
on track has been outstanding since he was in secondary school and with the help
of his physical education teacher, he competed at state and country levels. Now,
his self-esteem is as high as other outstanding sportsmen.
Learners are inspired when they are selected to join certain courses or
competitions due to their distinctive talent. Once their talent is acknolwedged,
their self-concept will increase and they will feel more confident of themselves.
You must tell your students that university is not only for those with high IQ but
also for those with good achievement or talent in a particular area.
7.5.6 Provide Religious and Moral Education

Learners should be given moral and religious education so that they can become
successfully balanced person.
7.5.7 Avoid Over-Comparison with Others

Avoid pressuring moderate learners to perform like excellent learners. Learners of
moderate self-concept should be given motivation, encouragement and support.
If a student gets two A1 in a trial examination, that should be good enough as the
result reflects the student’s ability. You cannot compare the student with a student
who obtained 7 A1.
7.5.8 Change the Negative Attitude

Encourage learners with low self-esteem to stop having negative thoughts
about themselves. Instead, inspire them to be strong and not to give up easily.
For example, tell a Year 5 student who gets 60% in a Mathematics test that if she
works harder she can get 80%. This will make the student feel motivated and
inspired to work harder.
Another way is to advise learners with low self-esteem to be careful in completing

given tasks. If they are always careless, tell them that they will make fewer
mistakes if they are more careful and believe in themselves. If they get 80% in a
Mathematics test, tell them that is not luck but the success is due to their careful
selection of the answers.
As for the shy students, you should praise them more and acknowledge their
work. You can do this by giving them responsibilities to carry such tasks as to
collect exercise books and send them to the teacher.
Do not belittle your students by using harsh and humiliating words like “lazy,”
“shy,” “slow” and “quiet.” Instead, use encouraging words that will make
students love you and develop their confidence to speak better. At the same time,
this would increase their self-value.
Finally, encourage learners with low self-esteem to feel good about themselves.
Tell them not to believe the negative words they heard like “you are weak in the
English Language and you will never be able to speak English.”

ACTIVITY 7.3
1. What do high and low self-concepts mean?

2. State several ways to increase weak learners’ self concept and self-
value.
• Self-concept is related to attitude, beliefs, feelings and what a person thinks

about himself or herself.
• Self-value is part of self-concept.
• Self-value is closely related to one’s confidence and success.
• There are a lot of factors that influence a person’s self-concept like heredity,
parents, school discipline, and society.
• The development of one’s self-concept starts from childhood years, schooling
years till adulthood.
• Self-concept and self-value vary among individuals.
• Those with high self-concept possess qualities like confident, ambitious,
courageous, clever, good at communicating, hardworking, wealthy, and
sociable.
• Low self-concept makes a person feel less confident, less ambitious, low
spirited, scared, lack communicative ability, become a loner, less appreciated
by others, scared to try, and think less of himself or herself.
• Students with low self-concept and self-value require assistance in upgrading
their presentation and appearance.

Academic achievement Pessimistic

Acknowledgement School discipline
Counsellor Self-appreciation
High self-concept Self-competence
Leadership quality Self-concept
Low self-concept Self-esteem
Motivation Self-image
Personality Self-value
Abdullah Hassan dan Ainon Mohd. (2006). Guru sebagai pendorong dalam darjah.
Bentong: PTS Professional.
Azlina Abu Bakar@ Mohd. (2002). Psikologi personaliti individu. Shah Alam:
Karisma Publications Sdn. Bhd.

96  TOPIC 8 Fostering Learners’ success through evaluation
Topic  Fostering
Learners’
8 Success
through
Evaluation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Guide students to succeed in learning;
2. Explain the definitions of test, measurement, evaluation and
examination;
3. Build a constructive test; and
4. Perform an evaluation and report on your students.
XX Introduction
We have discussed ways to improve learner ’s self-concept and self-value in
Topic 7. When learners’ self-concept and self-value have increased, they will be
ready to concentrate on their studies. We know that all learners want to succeed in
their studies after primary and secondary education. To ensure their success, you
should equip your students with knowledge. You should also evaluate learners’
ability using tests that are reliable and valid. In testing learners, you should be aware
of various tests like norm referenced test, criterion referenced test, standard tests
and others. These will be discussed in this topic.

TOPIC 8 Fostering Learners’ success through evaluation  97
At the end of this topic, we will discuss briefly ways to conduct evaluation towards
test and examination results. This includes the calculation of mean, median, mode
and range. These tests are important in assessing and comparing learners’ ability
as well as measuring the effectiveness of your teaching.
8.1 WAYS TO SUCCEED IN LEARNING

Every parent wants their children to succeed in their studies and gain good results
in examinations. Hence, nowadays we see parents sending Year Four students for
extra classes after school. This scenario shows that parents and students are aware
of the importance of success in learning.
You will feel relief if you find out that your learners have started thinking about their
future. To ensure the realisation of their ambition, you should motivate them and
give them advice such as on the importance of knowledge and time management.
8.1.1 Increased Knowledge

Every student must try to increase their knowledge (please refer to Figure 8.1).
School is one of the best places for knowledge enhancement, hence teachers have
to generate and provide the best source of knowledge for students. Teachers have
to advise learners to sharpen their learning skills and use them appropriately.
Learners should be encouraged to construct a positive attitude and personality
towards learning. That means they should read a lot, do homework, see teachers
when they have questions, go to the library regularly and do not play truant.
Learners are also encouraged to adopt a proactive attitude:
Figure 8.1: Students should increase their knowledge to succeed

Source: insideoutpm.ca
(a) Work hard no matter where they are.

(b) Know how to adapt to the school environment.

(c) Use the functions of left and right brain in solving problems.
(d) Make decisions based on various alternatives and values.
(e) Have confidence in themselves to succeed.
(f) Study hard and work together with peers.
(g) Learn from mistakes.
8.1.2 Time Management

Not only teachers must have good time management, students must have too.
Do you know that many learners succeed in their examinations due to good time
management? Nowadays, students have limited time after school to read, revise
and do their homework. So, they must manage their time wisely. There are many
ways to manage time effectively as shown in Figure 8.2:
Figure 8.2: Time management

Source: impulsion2point0.wordpress.com

Characteristics of learners who manage time well:

(a) Plan between study time and rest or play time.
(b) Spend less time watching TV, listening to the radio and loafing at shopping
malls.
(c) When they have spare time, they will read to give themselves knowledge.
(d) Do not procrastinate.
8.2 DEFINITIONS OF TEST, MEASUREMENT,

EVALUATION AND EXAMINATION
Being an experienced teacher, you have gone through the process of constructing
examination questions, evaluating students and others. It feels great when many
students succeed but you feel unhappy when your students fail and you are called
by the principal. The reason why your students fail could be that the tests you
designed were not reliable and objective. They may not reflect the difficulty index
and the contents of the textbook.
Hence, the questions require revising so that any test or evaluation given to students
will benefit them. This will develop open-minded learners who reflect and do well
in examinations. We do not want to test students’ ability in memorising only but
to test their ability to think and solve problems.
8.2.1 Testing
Testing is a limited concept. It is a technique to measure a person’s achievement or
behaviour. It can be written, oral or practical. The tests are conducted by teachers
in class at the end of a topic learnt. This way, the teacher is able to assess student’s
ability, mastery and allocate the appropriate marks. One of the reasons for testing
is to place learners in a suitable group so that they can do revision and prepare for
tests together.
8.2.2 Measurement
Measurement is a bigger concept than evaluation. It is a process to assess learners’
ability and to check what they have achieved. Normally, measurement is based
on a particular standard. A teacher uses student’s result to compare with another
student’s result. The result is in the form of numbers. In measuring student’s ability,
teachers use tests, questionnaires, check lists and scales. The measurement is limited
to quantitative analysis using numbers to represent the results thus there will be no
indication of good or weak learners. Ordinal scale is the measurement tool used to
indicate students’ in-class position according to marks gained while interval scale is
used for marks and grades in order to determine learners’ achievement and compare
the results among them. One of the reasons for analysing the measurement result
is to use it as a criterion reference for some parties.
8.2.3 Evaluation
Evaluation is of a bigger concept than testing and measurement. It includes
interpreting tests. It refers to a systematic process of gaining information about
learners’ achievement. The evaluation procedure includes testing, measuring,
examining and analysis. Marks and measurement are used to evaluate whether
the result is good or bad. Evaluation can be done based on a teacher’s knowledge,
learners’ learning, background, interest and others. The result of the evaluation
enables the teacher to make further decisions like changing the method of teaching.
Among the reasons for evaluating are to gather information about learners’
achievement, identify the strengths and weaknesses of teaching and record learners’
achievement and profile.
8.2.4 Examination
Examination (please refer to Figure 8.3) refers to one of the ways to measure
learners’ ability. It also functions as a measuring tool to determine learners’
ability based on a standardised marking system that will show whether the
students pass or fail. To become a successful learner, one needs to get good results
in examinations like UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM. Besides that, there are other
types of exams administered by the school or with the Education Department like
mid-term exams, final exams and trial exams.
Figure 8.3: Examination

Source: abagisingako.wordpress.com

activity 8.1
1. How do you improve your learners’ success in learning?

2. State several ways a learner should manage his or her time.
3. Explain the definitions of testing, measurement, evaluation and
examination.
8.3 TYPES OF TESTS

Tests are divided into a few types like criterion reference test, norm reference test,
standardise test, teacher constructed tests, behavioural test and written test. Each
test carries a different function.
8.3.1 Criterion Referenced Test

This type of test is usually conducted after a teacher has finished a topic or certain
parts of the lesson. The passing mark is determined prior to the test. Then, the
result is compared with the established criteria like learners have to answer three
questions correctly. If a student managed to answer only two questions correctly,
that means he failed to fulfil the fixed criteria.
This type of test is suitable for formative evaluation to assess learners’ ability in
specific skills. Have you ever used this method? Do you use other teaching method
to fix the undesirable result? Or do you just ignore the problem? This test does not
determine learners’ in-class position and it is not used to compare performance
among the students. Whether learners pass or fail entirely depends on whether
they are able to fulfil the established criteria.
8.3.2 Norm Referenced Test

This type of test is used to compare the performance among students. At school
level, this test is administered at the end of a term or an academic year. The questions
are arranged from easy to difficult. The scope of the questions reflects the whole
curriculum. The level of difficulty is 25% easy, 50% moderate and 25% difficult. For
public examinations like UPSR, PMR and SPM that are managed by the Ministry of
Education, the school will make the comparison in terms of results of the candidates.
For example, the percentage of students who passed, who got 5A1, 7A1, achievement
according to subjects and others. Then, the school will stream the students according
to their results.

The distribution of score in norm referenced test will be done to calculate the number
of students who can be categorised as excellent, good, pass and fail, meaning the
determination of grades. If the number of students who get the passing mark is
high, then the passing mark will be increased. The overall result will be determined
later.
8.3.3 Standard Test

This particular test possesses an established reliability, validity and objectivity. This
test requires a huge sample. This test is constructed carefully as compared to criterion
reference test. It takes into account the aims of the contents and the way questions
are selected. In the test, candidates are given standard instructions and the same
time allocation. The marks given can be used to compare the achievement among
students. Among the standard tests used in school are achievement and ability tests.
The achievement test aims to assess learners’ achievement while the ability test is
to measure learners’ achievement, compare the achievement with other learners in
the class, school, district and state.
8.3.4 Teacher Constructed Test

This test is used as in-class evaluation whereby the teacher will build his or her
own questions. The test aims to check learners’ understanding of the lesson taught
and it is normally done at the end of a month or a term. The format can be in the
form of objective questions or essays. Based on the result, teachers can compare
learners’ achievement.
8.3.5 Attitude Test

This is normally done on individual student to find out learners’ behaviour. It is
aimed at determining students’ understanding and ability of a particular skill.
Among the activities administered are drawing, crossword puzzle and others.
8.3.6 Written Test

This test focuses on writing. You may use this test frequently in-class like objective
and essay tests. An objective test normally comprises of multiple-choice questions,
fill in the blanks and true or false questions. Both tests, objective and essay, can be
used in formative evaluation like students are tested after they finished learning a
topic. This is to check on learners’ progress.

Besides the types of tests mentioned above there are other types of test like diagnostic
test, speed test and mastery test. The functions of some of the tests are similar to
the ones mentioned earlier.
activity 8.2
1. Compare and contrast the norm referenced test and the criterion
referenced test.
2. Explain the characteristics of a standard test.
8.4 SCHOOL-BASED EVALUATION

Making evaluations of what learners have learnt is your responsibility. This is one
way to check learners’ progress. If you are teaching two different subjects, you have
to conduct ongoing tests until the end of the year. So, the evaluation done by the
school is called school-based evaluation. For primary school it is called Primary
School Evaluation (PKSR) and for secondary level, it is called Secondary School
Evaluation (PKSM). You should take serious consideration on what to evaluate as
it involves students’ achievement and ability in their studies. It also helps enhance
teachers’ teaching method.
In general, the evaluation principal of both primary and secondary school is similar
such as:
(a) Identify student’s progress based on the objectives of KBSR and KBSM. If there
are weaknesses in the teaching methods, teachers need to make the necessary
adjustments.
(b) Increase student’s achievement based on the respective teachers’ guide.
(c) Teachers can conduct evaluation continuously in class.
(d) Conducted as a formative evaluation.
(e) Administered by teachers, either in groups or with the assistance of the
Education Department.
8.4.1 Construction of Test

To ensure the quality of evaluation and to enhance success among students, you
need to construct a systematic test. The test may be administered once a month,
once a term or at the end of the term. students will feel more confident when

they gain good results in a test or an evaluation. As for those who fail, they can
improve themselves. Among the factors that need to be taken into consideration
when constructing tests are validity, reliability and objectivity. Other aspects to be
considered are the administrative and interpretive aspects.
(a) Validity means the extent to which the test meets its objective. Validity refers to
the contents, prediction and convergence. The validity of contents means the
latter is accurate and reflects the table of test specifications. Based on the table,
the parts to be tested are ability, items used and the overall topic. There are
three types of validity. The first one is concurrent validity. Concurrent validity
emphasises on whether we really measure what we want to measure. The
second one is predictive validity. This refers to the ability of the test in predicting
what it should be able to predict like a candidate’s ability. For example, the
SPM trial examination is used to predict the real SPM examination. Lastly, we
have convergent validity, which means the degree to which a particular test is
similar to another test that is theoretically similar. For instance, when learners
are given a test whereby the set of questions is similar to the set of questions
in a previous test, learners should gain almost the same results.
(b) Reliability means the candidates’ achievement is consistent in several items
tested within a period of time. For example, we give a mathematics test to a
particular student and he or she scores 60 marks. After a week, we give the same
questions and the candidate gets the same mark. This shows that the questions
are of high reliability. Nevertheless, reliability depends on learners’ emotions,
the ways they answer the questions and the ways answers are corrected or the
attitude of the markers themselves.
(c) Objectivity means the accuracy of one’s marking of candidates’ answers. A
test is considered accurate if the examiner gives almost the same marks to
similar answers given by candidates. It is quite difficult for examiners to reach
an objective level when marking essays as compared to objective questions.
Nonetheless, objectivity can be reached if there is a moderation of marking.
(d) Administration means the smoothness of the process in preparing the
test like the time-table, clear instructions, good control of the examination
hall, preparation of table and chairs to the marking of answer sheets. If the
examination goes smoothly without causing any problems to the learners,
that means the administration of the examination has high administrative
validity.
(e) Interpretation refers to the extent the results of the examination can be
interpreted clearly. It comprises of marks, in-class position of the candidates,
strength of the candidates, items of the questions and their suitability in terms
of objectivity and teaching. If the examiners can interpret easily, then the results
will consist of high interpretation characteristics.

Those are some principles that need to be taken into consideration when constructing
a test in school based evaluation. Besides that, there are Centralise Evaluations that
are conducted by the Ministry Of Education, Malaysia. The examinations comprise
UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM. Since 2000, the system for SPM has been changed to
Open Certificate. This means that only passed subjects will be recorded in the open
certificate. The grading is given by The Examination Committee.
8.4.2 Table of Test Specifications

Here we move further by discussing the construction of a more systematic test
using the table of test specifications. The table is not only useful for a particular
class but also for all candidates sitting for the examination. When designing a test,
you need to think about its objectivity, functions and area to be tested. When these
factors have been determined, you can construct a more systematic table of test
specifications. In other words, you do not design the questions without thinking
about the difficulty level.
The followings are some explanations about table of test specifications:

(a) Requires a particular format and length of question.
(b) Determines sufficient time allocation that usually does not exceed two and a
half hour.
(c) Contains well-balanced difficulty level.
(d) The number of skill-based questions matches learners’ ability.
(e) Allocation of percentage following the contents taught.
(f) Types of questions whether only objective questions or essay questions. The
objective test, requires a lot of objective questions to provide learners with
sufficient samples that are suitable with their attitude towards the contents of
the test.
(g) Emphasis based on the topics and appropriate allocation of marks.
(h) If the syllabus comprises too many topics, then limit the test to important topics
only.
(i) Adheres to Bloom’s taxonomy like knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation. For primary school, focus on comprehension
and knowledge. While for secondary school, focus on all areas such as analysis,
synthesis and evaluation. Nonetheless, it depends on the topic, types of
evaluation and the subject.

8.4.3 Steps in Constructing a Test

Do you still remember the test you have constructed? Do you follow a particular
table of test specifications? If you have never used a table of test specifications as
a guideline when constructing a test, you are advised to do so. It is easier and can
lead to high reliability and validity. Once you have gained the knowledge on how to
use the table of test specifications, you can construct a more systematic test. Below
are some tips to follow:
(a) Questions normally start from easy to difficult.
(b) Contains sufficient number of pages and clear instructions.
(c) Tests are based on what ought to be tested.
(d) Employ simple language.
(e) Use two languages if required like in Mathematics and Science.
(f) Construct a checklist of the items to be questioned like number of questions
for each part, the determined difficulty level, types of objective and essay
questions, number of questions, quality of the questions, learning objectives,
marking scheme and others.
(g) You can also conduct a pre-test to check on the weaknesses of the questions.
8.4.4 Marking Scheme

Before marking essay questions, you have to produce a marking scheme or a
suitable model answer. You can also do holistic marking after you have marked all
test papers whereby marks are given based on the explanation and presentation.
A lengthy explanation does not necessarily warrant high marks. Besides that, you
can use analytic marking which is based on the units of facts given and the ideas
and information that are meaningful and concise. The objectives of marking scheme
are:
(a) To examine quickly.
(b) To be fair and meet the requirement of the questions and answers.
(c) Give a clear description of learners’ true achievement.
(d) Can explain to learners the requirement of the test. This way, learners will be
able to answer accurately and succeed in the public examinations.

activity 8.3
1. Define School Based Evaluation?

2. What are the characteristics of a good test?
3. How do you mark essay and objective questions?
8.5 EVALUATION AND TEST REPORT

We have discussed several ways learners can succeed in learning. To succeed,
learners have to pass tests and examinations like in-class test, term examinations
and end-of the year examination. As a teacher, you need to prepare a report on the
overall evaluation after each test. This is crucial in looking at learners’ achievement
and progress. Thus, we will now discuss briefly on the calculation of mean, median,
mode and range, which are important items to be included in the report.
Once a test is administered, you have to start evaluating and interpreting the results
by arranging the scores, calculate the mean, median, mode and range. Based on the
analysis, you will be able to submit a written report to the school for further actions
(please refer to Figure 8.4):
Figure 8.4: Analysing test results
8.5.1 Score Arrangement

Counting scores for learners’ marks is an important task in evaluation. In counting
scores, the marks are considered as raw data. They have not been arranged
accordingly. It cannot be used to evaluate learners’ achievement yet. Table 8.1 shows
the raw scores of ten students:
Table 8.1: Raw Scores
56 70 42 75 70
60 44 60 58 65
The raw scores can be calculated using frequency counting in order to find out
learners’ achievement. Usually, the scores are arranged under (x) score and frequency
under (f). The frequency calculation of scores is shown in Table 8.2:
Table 8.2: The Frequency Calculation of Raw Score
Score (x) Tally Frequency (f)

75 I 1
70 II 2
65 I 1
60 II 2
58 I 1
56 I 1
44 I 1
42 I 1
Total 10 10
Based on the frequency calculation, you can see clearly how many students score
the highest and lowest marks and the mark that most students gained.
8.5.2 Calculation of Mean, Median, Mode and

Range
Mean, median, mode are values in normal distribution. All three values are the basis
to compare learners’ achievement in a particular examination as they are used in
the interpretation of test scores. In measurement, the distribution of the scores for
a particular test is not always normal. A normal curve is gained when the value of
mean, median and mode is symmetrical, as presented in Figure 8.5:
Figure 8.5: Normal distribution

However, the curve can change when there is a change in learners’ achievement.
The change may be due to the questions tested being easy or difficult. Thus, the
position of mean, median and mode will move. If the value of mean is higher than
the value of median, and the value of median is higher than the value of mode,
then the spread will be a positive skew with the distribution favouring the right tail.
This means that the learners’ achievement is not good or the questions given are too
difficult. May be the learners are weak. Figure 8.6 shows the positive skew:
Figure 8.6: Positive skew
If many students score higher than the mean score, that means the questions are too
easy. Thus, you will see a negative skew with the distribution favouring the left tail.
In this case, the mode value is higher than median and the median value exceeds
mean. Figure 8.7 shows a negative skew:
Figure 8.7: Negative skew
If you get a positive skew, you should review the questions that are considered
too difficult and do not match the learners’ ability. Then, you will be able to build
learners’ success again. If you get a negative skew, you should give students more

The calculation of mean can be done in several ways. The easiest way is to add all
values and divide the total with the number of scores. For example, twenty students
sat for a Mathematics test and to get the mean, you total up all scores and divide
by twenty. Table 8.3 presents the calculation of mean:
Table 8.3: Calculation of Mean
70 80 60 60 60 82 42 80 80 50
72 82 92 72 60 52 52 75 50 45
1316
Total score = ––––––––––––––
20 candidates
= 65.8
Calculation of Median: Median is the value placed in the midpoint of a distribution
of scores. For example, let’s say the distribution is: 20, 38, 40, 70, 60, 80, 30. To get
the median, we have to arrange the scores from the smallest value to the highest
value like: 20, 30, 38, 40, 60, 70, 80. Based on the data, the score in the middle is 40.
Thus, 40 is the median.
If there are even numbers of candidates, then you take the two numbers in the
middle, add them up and divide by two, as in the following:
Score: 20, 30, 40, 45, 55, 70, 75, 80
Median = the two scores in the middle are 45 and 55
= 45 + 55
––––––––––
2
= 50
Calculation of mode: Mode is the score that is of the highest frequency. For example,
the scores are as follows:
Test score: 45, 50, 60, 65, 65, 65, 70, 73, 80
Mode = 65
In the group of scores, 65 is the most frequent score. Thus, 65 is the mode.
Sometimes, there are two most frequent scores.
Test score: 70, 75, 80, 80, 80, 82, 84, 84, 84, 90
Dualmode = 80 and 84
Hence, in the group of scores, the most frequent scores are 80 and 84.

Calculation of range: Range is the difference between the highest and lowest score.
From the result, you are able to see whether the achievement is relatively acceptable
or too diverse. For instance, two classes sat for a Science examination and the
following scores are generated. The calculation of range is shown in Table 8.4:
Table 8.4: Range Calculation
Class Score Range

Mawar 45, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 60, 60 60 – 45 = 15
Ros 60, 64, 67, 69, 71, 71, 74, 75, 75 75 – 60 = 15
Based on the results presented, the range is the same. However, the achievement
of students in both classes is dissimilar. The scores of students in Mawar class are
almost the same, except for those who get 45 and 60. In contrast, the achievement of
students in Ros class shows the difference by three digits. In this case, the calculation
of range is not really good. It can only portray learners’ overall achievement.
Calculation of percentage: Percentage scale is used to count the marks in the form of
percentage. The percentage of scores is used to decide on one’s grade. For example,
40% means D or pass.
Some schools use the grading system. For instance, the student who gets the highest
overall score in all subjects gets first grade, while the lowest overall score gets the
lowest grade.
8.5.3 Doing Analysis

Doing analysis and making conclusion is an important evaluation process. The
result of the analysis can be used to make a general conclusion and to identify
students’ weaknesses. If many students failed, you have to work harder. You may
need to change your teaching methods. You can use graphs, histograms and paste
statements on the notice board to get learners’ attention.
8.5.4 Preparation of Report

Preparation of report is the final stage in evaluation. A complete report usually
contains the title, objective, explanation, research methods, data collection, data
analysis and recommendations.
In conclusion, the evaluation and the report based on the analysis of mean, median
and mode can make students who will be taking public exams aware of their
ability. If they get poor results, we can help them achieve better results in the real

examination. In addition, we can refer to the learners’ profile to help the weak
students gain success in learning.
activity 8.4
1. State the evaluation steps to be done after an examination has been

conducted.
2. What does raw score mean?
3. How do you calculate mean?
4. What does range mean?
5. What is the reason for counting the percentage of scores?
SUMMARY
• Seeking knowledge is the learner’s responsibility.
• Learners are encouraged to adopt a proactive attitude.
• Learners who want to succeed must be good in time management.
• Testing is a method to measure learners’ achievement.
• Measurement is bigger than testing and is a process to identify learners’ ability
level.
• Evaluation refers to a systematic process to gather valuable information in
determining a particular student’s achievement. It covers a bigger scope than
testing and measurement.
• Examination is one way to measure learners’ ability using a marking system of
pass and fail.
• The criterion referenced test is suitable for formative evaluation and it is not
used to compare learners’ achievement and to determine pass and fail.
• The norm referenced test is used to compare learners’ achievement and for
summative evaluation.
• The standard test carries specific characteristics like validity, reliability and
emphasis on the contents. Among the types of tests are achievement and ability
test.
• Teacher constructed test is normally conducted in class.
• School-based evaluation is aimed at identifying learners’ progress based on the
objectives presented in KBSR and KBSM.

• A particular test should be constructed by taking into consideration its validity,

reliability and objectivity. Besides that, one needs to consider the administration
of the tests and the interpretation of the scores.
• The table of test specifications helps teachers build a systematic test.
• A good evaluation is done following several steps: arrangement of scores,
calculation of mean, median, mode and range, analysing and writing a report.
• Mean is calculated by adding all scores and dividing the total with the number
of candidates who took the test.
• Median is the midpoint of the distribution of scores.
• Mode is the value that is most frequent in the distribution of score.
• Range is the difference between the highest and the lowest score
• Analysis is the most important process in evaluation.
• Report preparation is the final stage in an evaluation.
Administrative Norm referenced test

Analysis Normal distribution
Attitude test Objectivity
Criterion referenced test Positive skew
Evaluation Raw Score
Examination Reliability
Frequency School-based evaluation
Interpretation Standard test
Marking scheme Synthesis
Mean Table of test specifications
Measurement Teacher constructed test
Median Testing
Mode range Validity
Negative skew Written test

references
Abdul Aziz Azimullah. (1998). Rahsia kejayaan dan kecemerlangan diri. Kuala Lumpur:
Entrepreneurs Development Institute.
Kamarudin Haji Husin. (1989). Pedagogi 3. Petaling Jaya: Longman Malaysia.
R. Jeyagobi & S. Subramaniam. (2007). Bestari: Pembestarian proses pengajaran dan

pembelajaran. Shah Alam: Mahir Holdings.

TOPIC 9 HIGH EXPECTATIONS AND LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES  115
Topic  High
Expectations
9 and Learning
Opportunities
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Construct a systematic trial examination that is meaningful to
learners;
2. Explain to learners the techniques in preparing an examination;
3. Identify the reasons learners fail and train them to think positive; and
4. Take positive actions so that learners are exposed to more learning
opportunities.
XX INTRODUCTION
We have discussed the techniques of constructing a systematic test and ways to
evaluate and to write reports after a test or examination in Topic 8. In this topic,
we will continue with the importance of trial examinations before learners sit for
their respective public examination like UPSR, PMR, SPM and STPM.
9.1 LEARNERS’ AND TEACHERS’ HIGH

EXPECTATION
Have you ever taught Form 3 and Form 5 classes? What are the problems and
pressures that you faced? For those who have taught examination classes, they
will face a challenge because the success and failure of the learners are in their

116  TOPIC 9 HIGH EXPECTATIONS AND LEARNING OPPORTUNITIES
hands. Therefore, you have to teach effectively as the outcome of the examination
will determine the learners’ future, whether the learners are able to further their
studies to a higher level or not. What you are required to do is not only to teach
them effectively but also teach them the correct ways to answer examination
questions.
Actually, high expectations are closely related to one’s aim and ambition. Usually,
a bright and hardworking student would aim to become a doctor, engineer or
teacher (please refer to Figure 9.1). When learners are determined to succeed they
will focus their attention on learning. In other words, learners who have high
expectation realise that the main reason for learning is to gain a certificate as well
as gathering knowledge.
Teachers and the school also have high expectation of learners’ achievement in
public examinations. Hence, the principal would design a constructive plan from
the start of the academic year to ensure the success of students who will sit for
the public examinations. The primary aim of each school is to ensure students’
success that will make the school proud.
Figure 9.1: Bright students aspire to be the best

Source: americanbedu.com
9.2 TRIAL EXAMINATION

Due to the significance of public examination, the school will conduct trial
examinations at least a month before the actual examinations. To ensure the
quality of the trial examinations, you need to construct tests based on the
guidelines discussed in Topic 8. You have to think carefully when predicting
questions and you should refer to past years’ examination questions that are of
various difficulty and ability levels to test your learners’ ability.
After the exam papers have been marked, you will be able to make conclusions
about the learners’ reception of the paper. You should inform learners of their
mistakes and how to correct them. Show them what the questions want and
provide accurate answers. You should also identify the topics that usually cause
problems to learners. All scores should be recorded in learners’ record book and
later shown to their parents.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Why do learners need to have high expectations in a particular

examination?
2. What is a trial examination?
3. What is the significance of a trial examination to learners and
teachers?
9.3 LEARNERS’ PREPARATION FOR A PUBLIC

EXAMINATION
How many times do you sit for a public examination (please refer to Figure 9.2)?
Do you feel scared or nervous? Actually, many people dislike examinations. The
low achievers usually dislike examinations as they are worried they will get low
grades. As for the good students, they look forward to the examination dates.
As mentioned earlier, examination is one way to test learners’ ability. It is a

routine in the process of teaching and learning. Thus, no learners can avoid it.
A particular examination does not only test one or two papers but comprises
more than six papers and goes on for more than two weeks. Some learners sit for
the exam consistently but some suffer from inconsistency due to emotional and
psychological problems.

Figure 9.2: Public examination

Source: kimilicious-livinglavidaloca.blogspot.com
The following are some guidelines for learners before sitting for an examination.
As a teacher, you should inculcate positive learning behaviour among students at
the start of the academic year and not a month before the examination. They need
to start preparing as early as possible. Most students want to get good results
so that they will stand a chance to enter selective secondary schools or higher
learning institutions.
Preparations for an examination can be divided into five parts: Understand the
syllabus, one day before the exam, on the exam day, before answering the exam
questions and while answering the exam questions (please refer to Figure 9.3):
Figure 9.3: Guidelines to examination preparation
9.3.1 Understanding the Syllabus

Have you ever talked to your students about the syllabus? Do learners know
about it on their own? As a teacher, you should remind your students about the
syllabus throughout the year. If you are teaching an examination class, use the
first five minutes of your lesson to ensure students are aware of the contents of
the syllabus to be learnt. Among the preparations a student should do are as
follows:
(a) Students should learn the three-year syllabus before sitting for PMR, the
two-year syllabus before SPM, and two-year syllabus before STPM. You
should check whether the syllabus has been completed or not. If you have
not completed the syllabus and the examination is around the corner, you
should conduct extra classes. In addition, you should analyse past years’
questions and predict questions that might come out. At the same time, you
should check students’ work and answers. In short, you have to be proactive
and creative.
(b) You should also go through past years’ exam questions to enable students
to look at the technique of the questions and at the same time do revision on
their own or in groups. Take note of similar objective or essay questions and
the time allocated.

(c) You should advise students not to study only at the last minute (please refer
to Figure 9.4). Get students to adopt progressive preparation and revision
because these are more effective methods. Tell students to double their
practice and revision on difficult subjects. Ask them to write short notes
and read using effective techniques. They should also manage time well by
preparing a study time-table.
Figure 9.4: Last minute studying

Source: survivetoday.net
9.3.2 One Day Before the Examination

A day before the examination you may see some students relaxing, doing
revision, looking anxious, tired of studying and some wanting to ask you
questions. To relax their mind, you should tell them to:
(a) Be confident throughout the examination week.
(b) Have a balanced diet.
(c) Get enough sleep.
(d) Prepare enough short notes, clothes, equipment and others.
(e) Make sure there is transportation to the school or examination centre.
9.3.3 Examination Day

The first day of examination is a new situation for the students. They may not see
the teachers they recognise in the examination hall. What they see are invigilators
from other schools doing their job seriously. The first day of examination is very
important to students and they must make the necessary preparation. Among the
preparations are:

(a) Take breakfast if they have an examination in the morning.

(b) Ask students to do sufficient reading for a particular subject.
(c) Encourage students to come at least 30 minutes before the examination starts
to relax their mind.
(d) Advise students not to read anymore near the examination hall.
(e) Bring enough stationery needed.
(f) Find the assigned seating place.
9.3.4 Before Answering the Examination Questions

Remind students of the following:
(a) Fill in the necessary information in the appropriate space provided.
(b) Understand the meaning and the requirements of the questions.
(c) If it is an essay question, consider the following factors: The parts of the
question that need to be answered. Choose questions that they can answer.
Allocate time according to the number of questions. Write short notes of
facts on a blank paper. Do not spend too much time on a particular question.
Interpret accurately the meaning of the words used in the question such as
“discuss”, “compare”, “summarise” and others.
(d) If it is an objective question: Understand and interpret accurately what the
question wants and read all the options given.
9.3.5 When Answering Examination Questions

What students should remember when answering questions:
(a) Relax and have confidence in themselves.
(b) Understand the instructions given by the invigilator.
(c) Write the answers clearly.
(d) If they are unable to answer a particular question, move on to the next
question.
(e) Ask students to read and revise what they have written and make sure the
number of each question is written clearly.

ACTIVITY 9.2
1. What are the preparations a student must make before sitting for a
public examination?
2. What do you need to remind students of when they answer objective
questions?
9.4 LEARNERS’ FAILURE

Usually, the result of public examination is either pass or fail. But since 2000, the
Ministry of Education abolished the usage of grades for SPM. In teaching and
learning, the word “fail” can understandably demotivate learners. Thus, the
Ministry of Education introduced the Open Certificate whereby every candidate
will get a certificate except for those who fail the Bahasa Malaysia paper. In the
SPM examinations, the grading system is practised for each subject to indicate
pass or fail like the highest is 1A and the lowest is 8E. If a student fails the subject,
the grade will not be recorded in the SPM certificate.
For students to further his or her study at the post-secondary level, they must get
a distinction and above such as 6C. However, students can also follow courses
at the certificate level that requires only a pass in certain subjects. This is to give
opportunity to students who did not get excellent results.
The following discusses the factors that lead to learners’ failure in a particular
subject or weak performance in the overall result.
9.4.1 Know the Cycle of Failure

(a) Learners did not study hard enough.
(b) They lacked motivation to learn and were uninterested in their studies.
(c) They failed to give due attention to the contents of the curriculum.
9.4.2 Teach Learners to Think Positive

If students fail in their public examinations, you as the teacher should encourage
them not to lose hope. Encourage them to resit the examinations and remind
them that it is not impossible to do well. Encourage them also to adopt positive
thinking.

9.5 FACTORS THAT HAMPER EDUCATIONAL

OPPORTUNITIES: WHAT NEEDS TO BE
CHANGED?
Not all learners succeed in their studies. Some obtain moderate results. Others
fail certain subjects. Sometimes their failure is due to external factors over which
they have little control.
9.5.1 Classification and Streaming in a Classroom

Some schools place students in particular classes according to their abilities.
Many students are actually aware of the situation and those who are placed in the
weak classes are prone to develop low self-confidence to compete with the good
students. To avoid this, you can advise the principal to place students in classes
without using their individual abilities as the measuring tool. The classes should
consist of mixed-ability students. The classification of students according to
achievement is not an order from the Ministry of Education but it is the school’s
decision and the decision is made to make it easier to teach a particular class.
9.5.2 Insufficient Number of Teachers in Remote

Areas
The insufficient number of teachers in certain remote areas is common every
year. Among the subjects that suffer from this problem are English Language,
Mathematics and Additional Mathematics.
9.5.3 Teacher Prejudice

Some teachers may harbour prejudices towards students of different
backgrounds, be they ethnic, religious, gender or class. Their prejudices may
influence the way they teach and relate to their students, causing them to pay less
attention to the prejudiced groups.
9.5.4 Low Achievers are Ignored

If you teach without taking into consideration of the weak learners, their
performance would become worst. Thus, the best method is not to discriminate
the weak students but to give them individual attention to enhance their ability
and performance.

9.5.5 Teachers Lacking Inspiration

Teachers lacking inspiration is one of the reasons why many students are unable
to get involved in various academic and co-curricular activities.
9.5.6 Lack of Career and Counselling Guidance

Under-resourced schools are most likely unable to provide students with career
guidance and counselling, leaving students disadvantaged and without direction
and assistance to succeed academically.
9.5.7 Lack of Reading Materials in the School Library

Again, under-resourced school may not be able to provide a well-stocked
library to students, depriving them of extra opportunities to learn and improve
themselves academically.
ACTIVITY 9.3
1. What are the factors that impede learners’ opportunities to study?

2. What are the changes that are required to ensure that all learners get
equal opportunities in learning at primary and secondary level?
• High expectations are related to learners’ goals.

• A trial examination is as important as the actual examination. Therefore, it has
to be conducted properly and according to rules and regulations.
• After the result of the trial examination is released, you have to identify
students’ problems with any particular topic that may hinder learners from
getting good grades.
• In preparing for the actual examination, students need to understand the
syllabus, make thorough preparation a day before the examination, and
answer all questions well.
• To ensure each question is answered in full, learners must relax their mind,
understand what the questions require, make a short note of important
information for an essay question, answer the easy questions first and answer
quickly.
• Learners’ failure could be due to the unsuitability of classroom arrangement,

ineffective teaching methods and inexperienced teachers. Learners also fail
because they are not given the opportunity to gain knowledge and teachers
lack inspiration to teach.
• You should identify the problems that hinder learners from following their
interest in learning and try to resolve the problems.
Cluster school Marking scheme

Counsellor Open certificate
Examination format Prejudice
Heterogeneous Public examination
High expectation Self-esteem
Higher learning institutions Smart school
Homogeneous Streaming of classes
Letter of commitment pledge Trial examination
MARA junior college
Amir Hasan Dawi. (1999). Penteorian sosiologi dan pendidikan. Tanjung Malim:
Quantum.
Mohd Yahya Mohamad Ariffin dan Muhammmed Haizuan Rozali. (2006).

Akademik, kerjaya dan anda. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications and
Distributors.
Robiah Sidin. (1998). Pemikiran dalam pendidikan. Shah Alam: Fajar Bakti.

TOPIC 10 EXPECTATION OF TODAY’S TEACHERS:  125
ARE TEACHERS UNDER PRESSURE?
Topic  Expectations
of Today’s
10 Teachers: Are
Teachers Under
Pressure?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the intentions and hopes of learners and society towards
today’s teacher;
2. Describe the sources of pressure among teachers; and
3. Apply ways to reduce or manage pressure.
XX INTRODUCTION
In the past, parents and the socievty were arguably more relaxed about education.
Today, education is prioritised as an agent of social and economic transformation.
This, to put it simply, adds to the pressures faced by teachers.
10.1 WHAT ARE LEARNERS’ AND SOCIETY’S

EXPECTATIONS OF TEACHERS?
Parents and society have high hopes that you, as a teacher, will do your best
in educating your students (please refer to Figure 10.1). If you do not teach
effectively, your learners may not be able to succeed in public examinations.
Finally, you will not gain the learners’ and the society’s trust. Will you be able
126  TOPIC 10 EXPECTATION OF TODAY’S TEACHERS:
to face the scenario? As a teacher, you not only need to handle problems related
to learners’ achievement, you also need to face issues related to upgrading your
knowledge, involvement in co-curricular activities and social work, administering
the school, solving students’ discipline problems and others.
Figure 10.1: Teacher

Source: departments.bloomu.edu
10.1.1 Ensure Excellent Performance Among Learners

Additional tuition classes have become the norm for most students. Due to the
demand, a number of tuition centres have been established in towns and villages
to support learners’ educational needs. For example, RISDA opened 60 tuition
centres in 2007 to help farmers’ children in PMR and SPM.
Psychologically, some learners are envious when they see their peers attending
tuition classes. That is why some of them attend tuition classes as well.
Nonetheless, most students are aware of the importance of education. And they
feel that attending tuition classes can help them in comprehending a particular
topic as the number of students is smaller thus teachers are able to give more
attention to them. Furthermore, many feel closer to their tuition teacher and they
are not shy to ask the teachers whatever they do not understand.
In terms of teaching, learners’ practice of going to tuition classes makes teachers’

job easier. However, another implication is that learners are burdened with more
work at the tuition class so they have less time to do the work you give whereas
the work you give functions as an evaluation tool to check the effectiveness of
your teaching.

10.1.2 Teachers are Knowledgeable

More teachers nowadays are diploma and degree holders. Society hopes that the
Ministry of Education will provide more graduate teachers to teach in primary
schools. Hence, teachers who possess certificate and diploma in teaching feel
challenged. They have no choice but to upgrade their qualification to a degree in
Education by pursuing further education at higher learning institutions and long-
distance learning institutions.
Those who enrolled in the long-distance learning institutions are fortunate to

be able to enhance their knowledge and adopt the reading and critical thinking
culture. It is a fact that the education system evolves fast thus requiring teachers
to continuously update themselves with current knowledge. For example, if you
used to teach Mathematics and Science in Bahasa Melayu, now you have to use
the English Language as the medium of instruction and employ the appropriate
methods. You must also be able to integrate the usage of computer in teaching as
well as other stimulating teaching aids.
Besides that, you must seize the opportunity to attend courses offered by the
Ministry of Education to promote the image of the teaching profession. Among
the courses are in-service courses, seminars and others. By attending the courses,
you would be able to realise the students’ and parents’ expectation of a matured
and knowledgeable teacher.
10.1.3 Involvement in Co-curricular Activities and

Social Work
Even though you are occupied with teaching, you need to be aware of the co-
curricular activities in school and social work in the local community. These
activities are normally conducted in the afternoon and you should be involved in
order to disseminate your knowledge to the students and local community.
As a role model to learners and the community, you must show leadership
qualities. Learners expect you to guide them in a particular co-curricular activity
while the local community expects you to participate in certain social work. In
short, you have to be active, skilful and knowledgeable.
10.1.4 Competent Management

Learners and the local community hope that the school management is able
to administer the school competently. The administration of a school not only
depends on the principal but also on the teachers. The number of students keeps
increasing whereas the physical facilities like the classroom and the number

of teachers remain the same. Hence, this poses as a problem in terms of class
control. Besides that, teachers need to address other administrative issues like
the management of learners’ safety during co-curricular activities, management
related to the distribution of textbooks, administration of term examinations and
others.
10.1.5 Solving Disciplinary Problems

We always hear about disciplinary problems among secondary school students
like bullying among students, fighting with students from other schools, truancy,
weak classroom management, smoking in school compound and others. Even
though the disciplinary problems involve a small number of students, they cause
anxiety among other students and the local community. Parents hope that the
school and the teachers can resolve the problems fast so that they will not affect
the students’ academic achievement and the school image.
Those are learners’ and the society’s expectations of the present teachers. They
also hope teachers can become successful facilitators, experts of the subjects they
teach and accountable towards the school development.
ACTIVITY 10.1
1. List learners’ and community’s expectations towards today’s

teachers.
2. Why do you think students like to attend tuition classes?
3. Even though the number of disciplinary problems is small,
involving only a handful of students, it is still a worrying issue to
school administrators. If you become the discipline teacher, how
would you resolve the problem?
10.2 PRESSURE AMONG TEACHERS

Can the above expectation be met? If you are a patient, firm and accountable
teacher with a vision and strong mental tolerance, you would be able to meet the
expectations. Before we discuss further on pressure, the reasons and the early
signs of it, let us look at the definitions of pressure.

10.2.1 Definition of Pressure

Pressure or stress is a phenomenon that occurs in everyday life. According to
Hans Selye (1974), stress is our body’s reaction to a stimulus or request. Lazarus
(1966) added that pressure is the effect of the relationship between humans and
their surroundings. He also mentioned that stress occurs when an individual is
unable to fulfil the expectations put on him.
Based on these definitions, it can be concluded that pressure is caused by several

factors that can weaken an individual’s spirit and make them feel under pressure.
When a person is under pressure, he or she cannot live comfortably and is
emotionally and physically disturbed. Research has shown that each person’s
tolerance to stress is different as it depends on the situation and circumstances.
Thus, some are able to endure it and some cannot.
10.2.2 The Causes of Pressure

Teacher’s pressure is due to internal and external factors. The external factors are:
(a) Learners, school, parents and society’s high expectations towards learners’
achievement in the public examination. You will feel stressed when only a
few of your students manage to get good results in the subject you taught. If
learners only get the passing marks, you will not feel satisfied.
(b) Too much work and responsibilities make you have less time to rest. If you
are an English Language teacher, you teach in the morning and conduct co-
curricular activities in the afternoon. This would make you feel tired. You
may not even have time to check students’ work.
(c) Impatience with learners’ disciplinary problems may cause you to scold or
hit the particular students. It was reported in the newspapers in 2007 that
a female teacher hit her student on the head with her high heels, raising
questions about her professionalism.
(d) Unable to adapt to the surroundings of remote area schools and the local
community.
(e) Unable to control and administer a class effectively.
(f) Always warned by your superior when you make mistakes.
(g) You are teaching a subject that is not your major.
(h) Lack of teaching facilities thus making you unable to teach effectively.
Internal factors are related to cognitive and psychological aspects:

(a) Lack of sleep and working extra long hours.
(b) Marriage crisis that affect work.
(c) Expenditure exceeds monthly income.

(d) Negative perceptions towards people for no particular reason.
(e) Not promoted.
(f) Low self-confidence and unable to get along with colleagues.
(g) Do not know how to manage time.
(h) Cannot think professionally due to stress.
(i) Not confident of one’s ability.
10.2.3 Signs of Pressure

How many times do you feel under pressure in a day (please refer to
Figure 10.2)? What is your reaction if you cannot fight stress? Han Selye (1976)
who has conducted extensive research on stress introduced a theory called
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). According to his theory, each individual
reacts differently to stimulation. The syndrome can be divided into three levels:
alarm reaction, resistance stage and exhaustion stage.
During the first level, human body will react to a particular stimulus. At the
second level, the organism in human body tries to adapt to the pressure or fight
it. The third level shows the extent an organism can take the pressure. If the
pressure continues, one will become weak. Based on the theory, humans’ reaction
when under pressure is the same whereby the biological mechanism will react
to pressure. Pressure will affect one’s behaviour and psychological being like he
or she becomes less confident, aggressive, moody, cannot except criticism, looks
pale, avoid uncomfortable situation and others. The changes will not happen
quickly. Sometimes changes take some time to occur.
Figure 10.2: Under pressure

Source: stresseaterdiet.com
Signs of stress related to behaviour include:

(a) Having no appetite.
(b) Being easily aggravated
(c) Anxiety.
(d) Absenteeism.
Physiological signs:
(a) High blood pressure.
(b) Unstable body temperature.
(c) Difficulty in breathing.
(d) Dry mouth.
(e) Increased heart beat.
There could be other signs like heart problem, neurosis, chest problem, stomach
ache, headache, insomnia and others.
In short, the early signs of pressure reflect changes in a person in terms of

physiology, behaviour, psychology and emotion (please refer to Figure 10.3):
Figure 10.3: Early signs of pressure
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. What could be the reasons for pressure among the present teachers?
2. What are the visible early signs when a teacher is under pressure?

10.3 WAYS TO OVERCOME OR REDUCE

PRESSURE
Pressure can be reduced if you are patient and try to overcome it. Hasty reaction
to overcome it is not a wise decision. You need to look at the source of the problem
and take some time to solve it. It is wiser to talk it over with friends whom you
can trust and solve it together. The following are some ways to overcome pressure:
10.3.1 Be Positive
Stress at work is a challenge to make you work diligently, pleasantly and
patiently. Hence, you have to view stress as a positive element at work.
10.3.2 Reflection
If you have experienced stress, you need to reflect on yourself. You have to
analyse your weaknesses in all aspects including teaching and social activities.
Reflect on your students’ concentration when you teach, the duration of time
taken to finish your daily teaching plan and the amount of time for you to relax
your mind after school. You must also identify the problems you faced in school
and how you overcome them. Reflection helps you improve your method of
teaching.
10.3.3 Carry Responsibilities as Entrusted Upon You

Discuss with the principal before embarking on the responsibilities entrusted
upon you. If you are unwilling to do them, be honest about it. Choose tasks that
bring less pressure and challenge to you and then finish the easy tasks first to
reduce your stress level. You should always be thankful that you possess the
knowledge and skill to become a teacher.
10.3.4 Good Time Management

You have to manage your time wisely. Divide your time according to the tasks
you need to complete. Avoid trying to finish a lot of work within limited time
frame. You must balance up the time you have with the work you have to finish.
Spend your afternoon or weekend with your family and do activities together
like visit recreational places, jog, go to town and others (please refer to Figure
10.4). Do not mix house chores and school work. If you have free time, think
about your success and plan your goals in life.

Figure 10.4: Recreational activities

Source: edupics.com
10.3.5 Calming Techniques

Techniques to calm yourself can reduce muscle strain and restore mental and
emotional stability. You can do on your own at home or with your students. You
can do movements of certain parts of the body like head, neck, arms, stomach,
foot, hands, fingers and others with your eyes closed. Inhale deeply and then
exhale. The techniques are almost similar to yoga and meditation. You can do this
every day as it is not tiring and it relaxes your mind.
10.3.6 Communicate
If you are under pressure, do not keep it to yourself. Try to communicate
with others like your colleagues at the teachers’ room or canteen. Through
communication, you are able to share your problems and you will feel better
afterwards.
10.3.7 Practice B Personality

There are two types of personality, A and B. People with A personality are usually
ambitious, not scared to face problems, work hard, smoke, always busy, moody,
loud, aggressive and impatient. People of type B personality are more relaxed,
open minded and friendly. Many psychologists agree that type A people easily
feel under pressure. Based on the research by Myer Friedman and Ray Roseman
(1974), fewer type B people suffer from heart problem as compared to type A
people.

10.4 CHALLENGES FACED BY TODAY’S

TEACHER
We have reached the end of this topic. We have discussed learners’ needs and
your needs as well. Both are equally important. As our education system
progresses fast, you have to be equipped with the development in the education
realm to disseminate new knowledge to learners. This is because global education
requires changes and modifications at primary and secondary education level.
An example of progress in our education system is the introduction of smart

schools and cluster schools. Due to this new development, teachers are required
to continuously update their knowledge and be prepared in case one day they are
assigned to teach in one of the exceptional schools. Besides, the teaching methods
and implementation of technology in education is different between cluster
schools and day school. If teachers do not have a proactive nature, they would be
left behind. Hence, global education standard requires one to be knowledgeable,
sensitive to current transformation, skilful in ICT, creative, innovative, proactive,
smart in teaching planning that would benefit learners, society and nation. The
followings are modifications that have been introduced and posed as challenges
to teachers:
10.4.1 Smart School

It was started in 1999 and at present there are 88 schools that are classified as the
pioneer project that marks the process of upgrading the quality of all schools.
The schools are introduced in line with the development of Multimedia Super
Corridor. The main aim of the schools is to enable learners to experience using
the ICT facilities. The curriculum is more holistic. The teaching methods are
more interesting, evaluation is criterion-referenced based and flexible, teachers
are IT savvy and skilful in educational technology as well as in implementing
contemporary teaching methods far advanced than used in daily schools. The
government’s intention is to increase the number of smart schools to 10000 in
2010.
10.4.2 Cluster School or Group of Excellent Schools

(KSC)
Cluster schools were established in 2007. They carry certain characteristics such
as focusing on learners’ development in terms of academic, co-curricular and
behaviour. The development fund is managed and used up to optimal level with
a particular vision to achieve. The management team take careful consideration of
effective leadership, effective administration and teaching and conducive school

climate. They also stress on the implementation of programs recommended by

local ministers and the portrayal of a role-modal school with niche areas. The
groups of cluster schools are primary schools like Chinese primary school, Tamil
Primary School, Aborigines’ Primary School. As for secondary schools; Boarding
School, Technical School, Religious School, Daily school, Premier school, 100
years school, schools around Cyberjaya and Putrajaya, Model school and
Special Education school. At higher level, the Cluster group are represented by
matriculation college, teacher training college, international school and private
school.
10.4.3 Head Count Method

Every time public examination result is announced, you will feel nervous
because you want all your students to get good results. Head count is one
way to emphasise love, friendliness with students, two-way communication,
motivation and memorising learners’ names and their social background.
This method has just been introduced in schools within the Federal Territory
Education Department area and it has proven successful when Federal Territory
was announced as the state with the best result for PMR and SPM in 2006. The
method has long been utilised in Mara Junior College where many outstanding
learners were produced. The method used is to firstly identify the low, moderate
and high achievers and separate them according to overall class ability as well as
their abilities according to subjects. This is followed by determining the learning
objectives, teaching strategies and evaluating students’ achievement in particular
examinations.
10.4.4 Role of ICT

The implementation of ICT is significant in many schools. Most schools are
equipped with computer lab and Education TV programs. The latest development
is the government will build a TV web to replace Education TV in order to reduce
the gap between urban and sub-urban area in 2007. Hence, you have to equip
yourself with the skills in educational technology. You need to be creative, flexible
and manipulative in teaching, preparing teaching aids and contributing new
ideas to learners. If you have the ability in ICT, the school will rely on you for
reference and you will be able to plan new strategies in teaching and learning.
10.4.5 Action Plan for the Development of Education

2006-2010
The plan was launched on 16 January, 2007 at the Putrajaya International
Convention Centre by the Prime Minister of Malaysia. The aim is to produce
quality education for all. The main agenda are: The development of the country
and nation and an individual model. Besides that, to strengthen primary schools
education, reduce the gap in education, upgrade the image of the teaching
profession and enhance the excellence of learning institution.
10.4.6 Other Challenges

Other challenges are the process of adapting to the requirements of a particular
school, parents and society. The school administrative problems are not only
managed by the principal. You have to take note of issues related to students’
discipline. Your job is not only to teach but also to become their mentor, manager,
facilitator, evaluator, innovator, thinker and others. The principal would like to
see you make changes or introduced something new in the school like changes in
class management, teaching and problem solving.
In conclusion, you have to become a teacher with a vision because the education
system has entered the ICT and globalisation era. You have gained various
knowledge fast and easy. So, you must be determined to use the knowledge to
enhance the development of education and to upgrade the image of teaching
profession. Hopefully, you will not get under pressure with the evolving
education system. Take it as a challenge that will benefit you forever.
• Learners and the society expect teachers to be able to ensure learners get
excellent results. Teachers also should upgrade their knowledge, get involved
in co-curricular activities, manage school accordingly and try to resolve all
disciplinary problems.
• The highest expectation is related to learners’ achievement in examinations.
• Teachers can upgrade the image of teaching profession by pursuing higher
education and attending various courses.
• Every teacher generally faces pressure.
• Stress is one’s unspecific reaction towards a stimulus. It also happens when
an individual is unable to fulfil whatever is required of him or her.
• Stress is caused by external factors like surroundings and internal factors.
Both can give negative impacts if not managed well.
• Signs of stress can be seen through psychological, emotional, behaviour and
physiological reaction.
• Every one reacts the same way through three levels: immediate reaction,
retention and burnt out.

• Those under pressure can overcome the pressure by being patient. They
should also carry responsibilities being entrusted upon them, manage time
well, employ relaxing techniques, and increase communication.
• Teachers’ today’s challenges are in ensuring excellent academic achievement
among students in examinations, upgrading the ability in the usage of ICT
and educational technology and giving strong commitment towards the
Education Development Action Plan 2006–2010.
A type personality Meditation

B type personality Ministry of education malaysia
Burnt out Multimedia super corridor
Cluster school Organism
Diploma in Education Physiology
Discipline Pressure and stress
Education Development Action Plan Psychology
2006 – 2010 Psychology
General adaptation syndrome Retention
Globalisation Smart school
Head count Teaching certificate
Immediate reaction Tuition centre
In-service courses Yoga
Berbara Krahe. (1992). Personality and social psychology. London: SAGA

Publications Ltd.
Mohd Ismail Othman. (2004). Undang-undang untuk pengetua dan guru besar.
Bentong: PTS Publications & Distributors Sdn. Bhd.
Mohd Salleh Lebar. (1999). Asas psikologi perkembangan. Kuala Lumpur.
Mohamed Hatta Shahrom, Mohd. Amin Mohd. Sharif dan Abdul Hamid Abdul
Rahman. (1996). Psikologi perubatan. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan
Pustaka.
Matthews, K. A. (1988). Coronary heart disease and Type a behaviour: Update

and alternative to the Booth-Kewlwy and Friedman (1987) quantitative
review. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 373-380.
Selye, H. (1976). The stress of life. New York: Knopf.
Selye, H. (1974). Stress without distress. Philadephia: Lippincott.

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Faculty of Education and Languages

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writer: Mohd Salleh Lebar

Moderator: Dr Nor Aziah Mohd Salleh

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, December 2009

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), October 2011, HBEM1403

Topic 1 Learning Concepts and Methods 1

Topic 2 Learners’ Learning Styles 15

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

2.4.3 Effective Reading Technique 25

Topic 3 Teaching Methods 29

Topic 4 Teaching Preparations 46

Topic 5 Classroom Management in Solving Learners’ Conflict 60

Topic 7 Self-Concept and Self-Value 85

7.5.1 Do Not Exert Undue Pressure 92

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 9 High Expectations and Learning Opportunities 115

Topic 10 Expectation of Today’s Teachers: Are Teachers Under Pressure? 125

10.3.7 Practice B Personality 133

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulatrion of Study Hours

Study Activities Hours Study

1. Discuss concepts and theories pertaining to teaching and learning;

Topic 1 introduces the concept of learning and various learning theories.

Topic 2 describes learners’ learning styles and learning strategies.

Topic 3 discusses the concept of teaching and various teaching theories.

Topic 4 describes the preparation required to teach a class.

Topic 5 explains classroom management and how to resolve learners’ conflict.

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 6 discusses short term and long term memory.

Topic 7 discusses self-concept and self-value.

Topic 8 describes evaluation and how it may foster learners’ success.

Topic 9 is about high expectations and learning opportunities.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

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References: References is where a lost of relevant and usually useful textbooks,

Selye, H. (1976). The stress of life. New York: Knopf.

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1.1 DEFINITIONS OF LEARNING

An individual’s process of learning is generally obtained from various channels

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Do you know what learning means? Do you think learners can

1.2 LEARNING THEORIES

1.2.1 Classical Conditioning Theory

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Figure 1.1: Illustration of Pavlov’s experiment with the dog

1.2.2 Operant Conditioning Learning Theory

In short, Skinner’s theory demonstrates that children should be encouraged to try

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Figure 1.2: B. F. Skinner Figure 1.3: Skinner’s box

1.2.3 Cognitive Theory and Gestalt

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Figure 1.4: Jean Piaget

Figure 1.5: Shape and ground

1.2.4 Humanistic Learning Theory

Figure 1.7: Carl Rogers Figure 1.6: Abraham Maslow