Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
20
Sheaf Theory
B.R.TENNISON
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521207843
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Dedicated to my family
Contents
Page
Introduction v
Conventions and notation vii
2. 2 Examples of sheaves 17
2. 3 Sheaf spaces 17
Exercises on Chapter 2 27
iii
Chapter 4: Ringed spaces
4. 1 The category of ringed spaces over a ring R 73
4. 2 The prime spectrum of a ring 81
4. 3 Geometric spaces and manifolds 87
4. 4 Modules over ringed spaces 94
4. 5 Locally free Modules 102
Exercises on Chapter 4 107
Chapter 5: Cohomology
5.1 Injective objects 115
References 156
iv
Introduction
v
cohomology group.
The essence of the usefulness of sheaves is that they express the
connexions between the local and global properties of a geometric object.
This should become clear from the results of Chapters 4 and 5.
The approach to the subject taken here is rather categorical, and
the course may be used (and indeed has been, in Part III of the Mathe-
matical Tripos at Cambridge) as an introduction to the usefulness of
categories and functors. It presupposes only a knowledge of elementary
general topology (topological spaces and open sets) and elementary algebra
(abelian groups, rings), although reference is made to other sources for
further elucidation of some points.
There are exercises scattered throughout the text and at the end
of each chapter, and they vary considerably in difficulty. There is a
section at the end of the book containing hints and solutions to some of
them.
vi
Conventions and notation
f : Z -Z :
defines f as the squaring map. = and = each denote an isomorphism.
IL denotes disjoint union of sets, definable for instance as
LL ;EAXx=UREA{x} XXX;
the important thing is that IL AEAAXA is the disjoint union of a copy of X
f or each A.
References within the book are explained by example as follows.
4. 3. 12 is the full reference to part 12 of §3 of Chapter 4; within Chapter 4
this is abbreviated to 3. 12. 4. Ex. 3 refers to Exercise 3 at the end of
Chapter 4.
References to other sources are either quoted in full or given as
[X], where X is one of a short list of acronyms detailed in the list of
references (page 156).
vii
1 Presheaves and their stalks
1. 1 Definition of presheaves
1. 1 Definition. Let X be a topological space. A presheaf F
of sets on X is given by two pieces of information:
(a) for each open set U of X, a set F(U) (called the set of
sections of F over U)
(b) for each pair of open sets V S U of X, a restriction map
pU : F(U) - F(V) such that
V
(bl) for all U p U = idU
U V U .
(b2) whenever W S V S U (all open) pW=pW 0 PV i. e.
F(U) -F(W) commutes.
F(V)
A presheaf of abelian groups over X is a presheaf F of sets such
that
(a') each F(U) has a given abelian group structure
(b') every restriction map pU is a group homomorphism with
respect to these structures.
1. 2Remark. Sets and abelian groups are the two main types of
structure with which we shall be concerned for the moment; it should be
clear how to phrase the definitions of presheaves of groups, rings, com-
mutative rings, topological spaces,... ; all the sets of sections have the
appropriate structure, and all the restriction maps are morphisms of the
1
appropriate kind (homomorphisms, continuous maps, ...).
1. 2 Examples of presheaves
Let A be any given set (or abelian group). Then
Example A.
the constant presheaf AX on X is given by
2
Example E. Two more pathological examples. Let X be any
topological space with more than one point e.g. X = {0, 1 } or
[0, 11 --R.
Define the presheaf P1 by
P1(X)=Z
P1 (U) _ {0 } (trivial group) for open U * X
all restrictions except pX being constant maps.
3
U:5 V UDV
(condition (a) holds since U n V is open if U, V are).
Given also a presheaf F on X, let pUV = pV be the restriction
map when U V. Then the (F(U))UET with the pUV form a direct
system of sets.
3. 3 Picture.
U
U6-
Va (3 Ua a commutes; that is
a va=o1 0 pad
pal V
Uis
UP
4
3. 6 Proposition. Any two direct limits for a direct system are
naturally isomorphic (that is, there is a bijection between them compat-
ible with all the Ta).
But now U is a target, and the universality of U implies that idU : U-U
T
is the unique map making all the a,, U commute. Hence
Ua J
Ta'U
g o f = idU and similarly f o g = idU,. //
5
Proof. Suppose V, (aa)aEA is another target. If f : U - V is
to satisfy the compatibility condition (*34) then it must be obtained as
follows:
for u E U, pick a E A such that u E Im(Ta), say
(*38) u = Ta(ua);
then f(u) = aq(ua).
(uU
If we choose /3 E A such that u E Im(T too, say u = T0(uh),
then by condition (ii) ay E A with pay (u a) = pay(uhhence
aq(ua) = ay(pay(ua)) U
= ay(P y(ua))
= a9 U ->V
So f is well-defined by (*38), and so U satisfies the condition (*34). //
W=
-aEAUa
be the disjoint union of all the sets Ua. On W define the relation - by
WE U--'V
Y
6
3.10 Theorem. U with the (Ta)aEA is a direct limit for the
system (U a) a EA. Hence every direct system of sets has a direct limit.
7
3. 19 Construction. Given a direct system (Ga)aEA'
(Pao) (a, (3)EA1 of abelian groups, let H = 4) aEA Ga be the direct sum
of the Ga, with is : Ga -0 H the natural injections.
[Recall: H is the subgroup of UaEAGa (with pointwise operations)
generated by the images of all the ia, where
go
(ia(ga))/3 = for ga EGa.]
0 a#a
ia(ga) - i/3(pao(ga))
1. 4 Stalks of presheaves
Let F be a presheaf (of sets or abelian groups) over a
4. 1
topological space X. Fix X E X. The F(U), as U runs through all
open sets such that U 3 x, form a direct system with maps
F(U) - Fx : s'- sx
8
whenever an open U a x. The members of Fx are sometimes called
germs (of sections of F).
Vx EX P1 x= {0)
r
1. 5 Morphisms of presheaves
5. 1 Definition. If F. G are presheaves of sets over X, a
morphism f : F - G is given by maps
9
commutes, i. e.
PT U
(U) = f (V)P v.
f
X
: Fx -Gx
10
f
in such a way that whenever F - G 9 H we have
(g°f)x=gx0fx.
Given x E X we define fx as follows: any e E Fx is of the form
e =sx for some open U 3 x and some s E F(U) (by 4. 2); set
fx(e) = (f (U) (s))x(i. e. take the germ of the image of s). If also
e = sx = tx with t E F(V), then by 4. 2 21W S U n V with x E W and
PW(s) = PW(t); so
Exercises on Chapter 1
1. Prove that the lim of the direct systems of the examples (3. 2
and 3. 12) is F(c in each case. Generalise.
2. Prove directly from the definitions (i. e. without Theorem 3. 8 or
the Construction 3. 9) that if U is a direct limit of a direct system
(Ua)aEA of sets, then
U= UaEA
Image(Ua - U).
3. (i) Interpret and prove: a set is the direct limit of its finite
subsets.
(ii) Interpret and prove: an abelian group is the direct limit of
its finitely generated subgroups.
(iii) Can you obtain Z as a direct limit of finite abelian groups?
11
5. What can you say about the direct limit of a direct system all of
whose maps are injective? Surjective?
6. For n E N*, let Cn(x) denote a cyclic group of order n with
generator x. Let P E N be a prime number. Let G be the direct
limit of the following direct system of abelian groups:
12
11. Verify that if (Ra) is a direct system of abelian groups such that
each Ra is a ring and all the are ring morphisms, then 1m Ra
paR
has a natural ring structure such that all the maps R -1m Ra are ring
morphisms.
12. What are the stalks of the presheaf P 2 of 2. E ?
13. Construct a topological space X and presheaf F of abelian groups
on X with the properties:
(a) for any open USX F(U) 101
(b) for all x e X the stalk Fx = { 0 } .
(If you cannot, prove that it is impossible.) (Compare Q4(ii). )
13
2 Sheaves and sheaf spaces
then s = s'.
1. 2 The presheaves of 1. 2. A-1. 2. D are mono-
Examples.
presheaves, but P1 of 1. 2. E is not.
VA, µ E A P U
(sA) = PU1, (sµ);
x µ µ
14
then there is s E F(U) such that
VXEA pU(s)=s
In other words, if the system (sx) is given on a covering and is con-
sistent on all the overlaps, then it comes from a section over all of U.
15
1. 8 If F is a presheaf of abelian groups, then the
Remark.
maps a, b, c are group morphisms and the equaliser condition is that
the sequence of abelian groups
a b-
-.c
0 - F(U) - UAEAF(UA) U(A, P)EAxAF(UX r Uµ)
then f = g.
Vx E U fx(sX)
= gx(sx)
that is (f(s))x = (g(s))X
PU (f (s)) = PU (g(s)).
X x
Applying the condition (M) for G to the covering (U X) XEU of U we see
that f(s) = g(s). //
16
1. 13 Definition. If F, G are sheaves (of sets or abelian groups)
and f : F - G is a presheaf morphism, we also call f a morphism of
sheaves. A moment's thought and Proposition 1. 5. 2 show that if F - G
is an isomorphism of presheaves, and G is a sheaf, then F is a sheaf.
p
F(U) continuous maps a : U - E; U X commutes, i, e.
p o a= idU}
pv:
The conditions (M) and (G) are easy to verify.
Note that the condition on a means that a gives for each x E U
a (continuous) choice of a point a(x) E p-1(x), the fibre of p over x.
S=S'<-- VX EU Sx=s' ;
17
that is, two sections of F agree iff their germs are everywhere equal.
ar-'faa
U 'X
and this gives a morphism of sheaves Ff : FE : FE'.
18
3. 5 Lemma. Let (E, p) be a sheaf space over X. Then
(a) p is an open map
(b) if U is open in X and a E I'(U, E), then a[U] is open in
(c) If Ep 0 -'
E; furthermore sets of this form give a basis for the topology of F.
3- p is a commutative diagram of maps, and
p, p, are local homeomorphisms, then
x
0 continuous 0 open 0 local homeomorphism.
pIN\ AN"
U
19
x, which has the discrete topology as a subspace of E.
(since or maps U - E); these maps are clearly compatible with re-
strictions. Thus we wish to prove that this target is a direct limit, and
we use the criterion of 1. 3. 8:
(a) each e E p-1(x) arises as an image under one of these
maps; for, since p is a local homeomorphism e has a neighbourhood
W in E such that p I W: W - U is a homeomorphism, with U open in
X. The inverse o = (p of this map has Q E r(u, E) and maps to
IW)-1
e under (*36).
(b) if s E r(u, E) and t E r(v, E) agree at x, by I emma
3. 5 W = s[U] n t[V] is open in E, and s, t agree on p[W] (which is
open by I emma 3. 5) since they are both inverses of p I W. Hence
20
3. 8 For each presheaf F on X we can con-
Construction.
struct a sheaf space LF in such a way that any morphism f : F - F'
of presheaves gives rise to a morphism Lf : LF - I F' of sheaf spaces.
Set L F = JJ-xEXFx (the disjoint union of the stalks of F) with
p : I F - X the natural projection, so that p 1(x) = F. We topologise
IF as follows: let U be open in X and s E F(U); then we can define
a map
x
EF x
We prescribe that all the sets s[U] = {sx E LF; x E U } be open sets.
Then {9[U]; s E F(U) } forms a basis for the topology it generates, for
21
0 : E - LrE of sheaf spaces with a two-sided inverse).
E e- I. rE
pi
p Y
X
$[a[Ull = a[UM.
s: x x
22
This theorem gives precise meaning to the notion that I'L F is the 'best'
sheaf that can be made out of F.
Before the proof we need two lemmas.
Proof. 'Only if' is clear, by 1. 13. For 'if' we check that each
G(U) - rl G(U) = r(U, LG) : s i- s (for U open in X) is bijective; this
is enough by Proposition 1. 5. 2.
(i) The map is injective; for by Proposition 3. 1
(ii) The map is surjective; for given t E r(U, LG), t[U] is open
in LG by Lemma 3. 5. For each x E U, t(x) E Gx has a basic neigh-
bourhood inside t[U], of the form sx[Ux] for some open Ux S U and
some sX E G(UX) (by 3. 8). This means that the sxU G(Ux) satisfy the
glueing condition (G) of 1. 3; for in V = Ux n Uy, pV (sX) and pv (sy)
have the same germ everywhere (viz. t(z) at z E V) and so are equal
by Proposition 3. 1. Hence since G is a sheaf as E G(U) such that
Vx E U sx = (X) x = t(x) i. e. s = t. //
F F -rLF
n
f Inif
F' rLF'
nF'
Fx - (rLF) x
23
Proof. Clear, since the stalk (rLF) x is naturally the fibre of
LF over x, which is Fx (by 3. 6 and 3. 8), and the map Fx - (rLF)x
is induced by the maps (*36) of Proposition 3. 6 . //
F
Proof of Theorem 4. 2.
f
nF
,
G
r
LF
If g : rLF - G exists making
commute, then its stalk maps gx for x E X are determined as the com-
posites
f
(rLF)X Fx xo Gx (nFl x exists by Lemma 4. 5);
'
n F, x
hence g is determined uniquely, by 1. 10.
f
To show that g exists, we take F - G and apply 3. 8 to get
Lf
LF - LG, and then apply 3. 4 to get
dx E. X p-1 (x) = AX =A
by 1. 4. 3A so that set-theoretically LAX = A x X and p = 7r2 (pro-
jection on second factor). By 3. 8 the topology on A X X has as basis
sets of the form la l x U for a e A and U open in X; hence it is the
product topology, with A given the discrete topology.
The sections of F = FLAX are given by
24
a AXX
F(U) = r(u, LAX) _ set of continuous functions a making 1 IT2
U X
commute
set of continuous functions s : U -A (with A
discrete)
set of locally constant functions s : U - A.
Note that for U disconnected (and A with > 1 element) this has
F(U) * A, so that A x was not a sheaf originally by 4. 3.
Proof.
E \, E m
X
/
(b') (b): We have the diagram
25
where p' : (e, e') 1- p(e) = p(e'). If f, g E r(u, E) then f-g : U '' E
can be written as the composite
U(f,-g) m
E 7iE - E
x- (f W, g(x))
But (e, e') E m-1(f[U]) for x = p(e) = p(e'), e - e' = f(x). Pick by
Proposition 3. 6 an open W in X and g, g' E r(W, E) such that
g(x) = e, g'(x) = e'. Then g - g' and f agree in germ at x and so for
some open VSWnU
26
The following results remain true in the context of sheaves, pre-
sheaves and sheaf spaces of abelian groups, and their appropriate mor-
phisms:
3. 5, 3. 6, 3. 7, 3. 9, 3. 10, 4. 2, 4. 3, 4. 4, 4. 5.
Exercises on Chapter 2
1. Let I = [0, 1]'*R. Show that there is a unique (up to isomor-
phism) sheaf F on I with stalks:
F =F =Z
0 1
Fx= {O} if xEI\{0, 1}.
27
What is r(I, F) ?
Let G be the constant sheaf Z on I (4. 6). How many morphisms
are there from F to G? From G to F?
2. Show that the following conditions are equivalent for a topological
space X:
(a) X is locally connected (that is, each point has a base of
connected neighbourhoods);
(b) for any set A, the constant sheaf Ax (4. 6) has
r(U, AX)
UteU,A
(F I V)(U) = F(U)
28
where the direct limit is taken over the set of open subsets U of X
such that U D A. (Colloquially, this says that a section of F over A
extends uniquely into a small neighbourhood of A. )
5. Let F be a sheaf on a space X and let (Mi)fEI be a locally
finite covering of X by closed sets (so that for each x E X,
{ i E I; X E Mi } is finite). In the notation of Q4, suppose we are given
a family (si)W with
Vi 1 si E r(Mi, F)
and
Vi, j E I si = sj on Mi n M
Vi E I s = s.1 on M..1
29
necessary and sufficient condition on K )
We can consider f E r(U, 0) as a function on U; namely,
express f = g/h as in (*) and define for P E U
f(P) = g(P)/h(P) e K
30
3 Morphisms of sheaves and
presheaves
31
written
(g, f) F g o f
such that
(i) for each A E ObC a an identity 1A E HomC(A, A) such that
VB E ObC Vf E Hom(A, B) f o 1A = f
and Yf E Hom(B, A) 1A o f = f
(ii) whenever A, B, D, E E ObC and f E Hom(A, B) then
g E Hom(B, D) h o (g o f)
(associativity). h E Hom(D, E) _ (h o g) o f.
ObC = A
HomC(A, µ) = j singleton X :s
0 if ;t )A
A
(composition is then uniquely determined).
32
C. For X E Ob(Top) we have defined three categories:
Presh (or Presh/X if we wish to emphasise X) has objects the pre-
sheaves of abelian groups over X, and morphisms the presheaf mor-
phisms.
Shv (or Shv/X) has objects the abelian sheaves over X.
Shfsp (or Shfsp/X) has objects the sheaf spaces of abelian groups over X.
In each case the composition of morphisms is that with which we are
familiar.
(Note: from now on we shall mainly be concerned with presheaves and
sheaves of abelian groups, so we do not reserve special names for the
categories of sheaves and presheaves of sets over X.)
1. 6 Examples.
A. There are functors Abgp - Sets, Top - Sets sending an object
to its underlying set (called forgetful functors).
B. There is an inclusion functor Shv/X - Presh/X.
C. If A is a directed set (1. 3. 1) and we consider A as a category
as in 1. 4 B, then a direct system of sets (1. 3. 1) is just a functor : A-Sets;
while a direct system of abelian groups (1. 3. 11) is a functor :
(Exercise: verify these assertions. )
33
D. All the 'constructions' we have made are in fact functors:
Fix X EX.
nA
FA GA
F(f)III jG(f)
nB
FB GB
nA
FA GA
F(f)l IG(f)
nB
FB a GB
34
if F, G are contravariant). Natural transformations can be composed
((n o m) A = nA o mA), and the functors F, G are called naturally
equivalent (or naturally isomorphic) iff there are natural transformations
n from F to G and m from G to F such that n o m = idG and
m o n = idF (where idF is the natural transformation with
(idF)A = idF(A)).
1.9 Examples.
A. If F, G are presheaves, considered as functors: `UL - Abgp as in
1. 6E then a presheaf morphism F - G is just a natural transformation
of functors (for the naturality square corresponding to U C V is
F(V) o G(V)
F(U) o G(U) ).
35
refer to [Macl] and [Mit] for the wider view.
Analogous (but different) results could be proved for the categories
of presheaves and sheaves of sets (see Exercises).
If f e HomShv(F, G), in accordance with 2. 5. 7 we use the notation
for the map induced by f on the abelian groups of sections over an open
set U. In this way
r(U, -) : Shv/X - Abgp
36
f c Hom(F, G), clearly
f = 0 f factors as F ,/ f
G
2. 4 2. 2 and 2. 3 show that both Presh and Shv are (pre-) additive
categories (cf. [Macl] 1§8, [Mit] 1§18).
Shv -,SShfsp
i \,iPresh
/L
in which r is an equivalence of categories (with inverse
L o i = L I Shv) and I'L is left adjoint to the inclusion i (so
that Shv is a reflective subcategory of Presh).
T
F(V) G(V)
so pss(s) E K(V).
Thus the K(U) with the PV
I K(U) form a presheaf over X, called
37
the kernel of f and denoted Ker(f). We have a natural presheaf mor-
phism Ker(f) -+ F and the composite Ker(f) -+ F - G is zero.
Proposition.
3. 2 If f E Hom(F, G), then Ker(f) has the uni-
versal property:
38
g
H F are such that f- g= f o h then g= h.
h
These imply the condition:
Vx E X fx is injective
(iv)
which is a further equivalent condition if F is a monopresheaf.
0 = pv(f(U)(s)) =
monomorphisms F
,
cisely represents) a subpresheaf (resp. subsheaf) of G (via f). Two
G are said to define the same sub(pre)sheaf
of G iff 21 an isomorphism F Z" F of (pre)sheaves such that the
diagram commutes. If G - H is a morphism and
G
39
F
Ker f : G represent the same subpresheaf of G in this sense, then
we see easily that F - G has the universal property of a kernel stated
in 3. 2, and we say that F - G is a kernel of G - H.
The definitions of monomorphism and of subobject given here make
sense in an arbitrary category (cf. [Macl] I §5, V §7; [Mit] I §5).
Proof.
t E (Ker f)x a open U 3 x and s E Ker(f)(U) such that t = sx
H open U 3 x and s E F(U) such that t=sx and
f(U)(s) = 0
fx(t) = 0. //
40
3. 11 Proposition. If F, F' are subsheaves of a sheaf G, then
Proof.
F
G x
F'
x x
Suppose Vx E X Fx S F. Given S E I'(U, F) with U open in X,
there is a unique section of F' with germs sx at each x E U; hence
there is a morphism : F - F' such that the maps F -' F' - G and F - G
agree on all stalks. By 2. 1. 10 they are equal and so F < F'. //
41
4. 2Proposition. If f E Hom(F, G), then PCok(f) has the uni-
versal property:
(*42)
F f G+ H = 0 then g factors uniquely as H
(that is there is one and only one
morphism /making the triangle G->PCok(f)
commute).
SCok(f)
42
functor is not cokernel-preserving (cf. 4. 3 and 4. 9).
Vx E X (PCok(f))x = 0 by 2. 4. 5
4 (iii) PCok(f)X 0 V open U 3 x and s E PCok(f)(U)
H open V with U? V 3 x and pU(s)=0
V
V open U 3 x and s E G(U)
a open V with U?V 3 x and pv(s)EImf(V)
fx surjective.
Finally, clearly 4. 7(iii) 4. 8(iv) (aliter 4. 7(i) 4. 8(ii)). //
43
A. Let X = [0, 1] '-+ R and let F be the constant sheaf with stalks
Z (with sheaf space X X Z -1. X). Let G be the sheaf whose stalks
are
G = Z if x=0or1
x 0 otherwise
r(X,
44
Proof. (i) (ii) is 1. 5. 2.
(SCok f) x
45
where the vertical arrow is isomorphic by 2. 4. 5. Hence the result. //
define the same quotient object of F iff there is an isomorphism G ' G'
G
such that F( commutes. As in 3. 6 we can define the notions of a
G'
presheaf cokernel and a sheaf cokernel.
The definitions of epimorphism and quotient object given here
make sense in an arbitrary category (cf. references for 3. 6).
46
Fx = Ker(Gx -+ (SCok f)x) by 4. 11
_ (Ker(G - SCok f)) x by 3. 9
and so F = Ker(G - SCok f) by 3. 11.
epi
(iii) Given f : F -+ G in Presh, we wish to prove
G = PCok(Ker f - F), as quotient presheaves of F. By 4. 2 we get
PCok
Ker f F Iiy
f G
Ker f-'
47
and we have natural presheaf morphisms:
F®G
G' 2 2 G
FL
IL
IL
F ®G - H
F
__ /
G
Proof. Easy, using the same result for the category Abgp. //
48
0 - H(U) ~ nxEAH(Ux) ~ (x, µ)EAxAH(UA n Uµ)
11
3. 6 Exact sequences
6. 1 Definition. (i) If f : F - G is a morphism of presheaves,
we define the (presheaf) image of f to be PIm(f) = Ker(G - PCok f).
(ii) If f : F - G is a morphism of sheaves, we define the (sheaf)
image of f to be SIm(f) = Ker(G - SCok f).
49
exact at G as a sequence of presheaves iff
Proof.
(i) F - G 9 H exact 4 Ker g = PIm f
'open U Kerg(U)=Ker(G(U)-+G(U)/Imf(U))
=Im f(U)
Vopen U F(U)-G(U)-H(U) exact.
f
(ii) F -. G - H exact Vx EX (Kerg)X=(SImf)x by 3.12.
But (SIm Ox = (Ker(G - SCok(f)))x by definition
= Ker(Gx - (SCok f)X) by 3. 9
= Ker(Gx - Gx/Im fx) by 4. 11
=lmfx.
Hence the result.
50
(iii) We have Ker g = PIm f; hence Vx E X
Exercise.
6. 8 Prove that T is exact 4 T preserves all
exact sequences.
51
6. 9 Theorem. (i) The inclusion functor Shy - Presh is left
exact.
(ii) The functor 'sheafify' = rL: : Presh - Shv is exact.
(iii) For each open U in X the functor 'sections over U'
is exact.
(iv) For each open U in X the functor 'sections over U'
is left exact.
0--F - GIx
IX
H -0
IX
S
S S
52
where C denotes the constant sheaf on X. Thus for any connected open
set U in X
r(U, d)
o - c - r(U, c w ) r(u, C W )
is an exact sequence of abelian groups; but the last arrow need not be
surjective, as in 4. 9B (which shows that (*) is not an exact sequence of
presheaves). We shall see later in our study of cohomology that this
failure of right exactness can be regarded as a property of the kernel
(viz C) as a sheaf on U.
53
2. 1. 1 and 2. 1. 3 for a cover (Ui) of U c Y to the same properties for
the cover (0 1(Ui)) of 0-1(U) c X. //
Hence q*F is not a constant sheaf on Y. In fact the stalks of $*F are
easily seen to be given by
(O*F) Z if x E X
x_ f 0 otherwise
54
so that the stalks of 0,kF are
55
f(U, V)
pU1pv'
F(U) G(V)
F(U') G(V')
f(U', V')
The collection of all 0-morphisms G - F is denoted by Hom0(G, F).
56
f(0-1V, V) for V open in Y, since then the f(U, V) for U S 0-1V are
prescribed by the commutativity of the triangle
XY
Now let
p'I 1'p
57
(with p' (e, x) " x).
:
I claim that (E, p') is a sheaf space over X; that is, p' is a
local homeomorphism, for
(e, x) E E H open neighbourhood W of e and inverse homeo
W
morphisms W V with V open in Y.
v
EnWx0V p4- ¢ (V) are inverse homeo-
(qo u, id)
morphisms.
Let $*G = I'E be the corresponding sheaf (2. 3. 6); then in fact we can
interpret the sections of O*G: for U open in X,
and we see from this that ¢*G is an abelian sheaf (2. 5. 2).
(O*G) x
G$(x)
for xEX.
Proof. This is clear, since p' -1(x) = p-1(0(x)) x { x } . //
Continuing 7. 11, if f : G - G' is a morphism of Presh/Y, we get
a diagram
E' LG'
Ey I
LG
X
58
G(V) r(¢-1 V, $*G)
$-1V
($,
Hence by 7. 10 there is a natural morphism G $*O*G.
Now for the natural transformation (ii): 0*0* - idShv/X. If F is
a sheaf on X, and V is open in Y, we have maps
r($_1v,
r(V, $*F) = F) -. Fx
r(V, $*F) - Fx
for the direct system defining (O*F)O(x). Hence there is an abelian group
morphism rx : (O*F)O(x) , Fx (not in general isomorphism; cf. 7.5C).
Now apply the 0* construction to O*F:
LO*F
1p
x Y
We can map
a f+ a'
59
we now regard x E r(V, $*F) as a member of r(o-1V, F). However,
x will suffice to evaluate or' (x') for any x' E ¢-1(V), so that in $-1(V)
a' agrees with X : x''- x x and so a' is continuous at x.
It follows easily that we have defined a natural morphism
O*O*F - F. The diagram shows the sheaf spaces involved:
L* F
py
/ LF
LF
Y
p
is bijective.
Furthermore this property characterises O*G uniquely up to
isomorphism in Shv/X.
Thus we have natural isomorphisms:
60
given g : G- O*F we get VxEX:
and the dotted maps give (*G)
x C' $(x)
O*G - F (and determine it
uniquely since $*G and F t
are both sheaves).
$*O*G
n *G
O*(f) Tl O*(g)
0 - OW G
$(W )- 1$(W ) 0
with the vertical maps all isomorphisms. Since the top line is exact, so
is the bottom line, and so 0 -+ 4*F -+ O*G - O*H - 0 is an exact sequence
of sheaves by 6. 5(ii). //
61
7.17 Remark. After 7. 14, we should know from the properties
of adjoint functors that 0* is left exact and 0* is right exact. The fact
that 0* is also left exact is special to this situation.
62
8. 5 Definition. A subspace X of Y is called locally closed
iff the following equivalent conditions hold:
(a) Vx E X HU 3 x, U open in Y such that U n X is closed
in U;
(b) HU open in Y and V closed in Y such that X = U n V;
(c) X is open in its closure X.
For example, R\ {0 } c- R '- R2 is locally closed, but Q '--R is not.
If X is locally closed in Y, and Y is locally closed in Z, then X is
locally closed in Z.
G={ Z if y E X
y 0 if y c Y \X.
Given x e X we can find an open U in Y and a section s E r(U, G)
such that s(x) = 1; by shrinking U we can ensure that Vx' E U n X
s(x') = 1 (since G I X = ZX). But then U n (Y\X) = t y E U; s(y) = 0 1, and
this is open in U (for if s(y) = 0 then s(y') = 0 for y' in some neigh-
bourhood of y). Hence X is locally closed.
Now suppose that X is locally closed in Y, and that F' is an
extension of F by zero. Then for U open in Y we have an injective
map: r(U, F') - r(U n X, F) : s' '- s' I U n x and a section s E r(UnX, F)
is in the image of this map iff s remains continuous when it is extended
to U by the definition: s(y) = 0 if y E U\(U n X). But this will hold iff
{x E U n X; s(x) * 0 } is closed in U, a condition which is independent of
the particular F' chosen. Hence if FY exists, it is unique up to iso-
morphism.
63
We shall show that F can be extended to Y by first extending
F to X, and thence to Y. So assume now that X is open in Y. Let
(LF, p) be the sheaf space of F over X, and set
E=LFJJ-Y/-,
where - is the smallest equivalence relation with x - Ox for all x c X,
where 0x is the zero element of the stalk p- 1(x) at x. Give E the
quotient topology and let p' : E - Y be the natural map. Since X is open
in Y, p' is easily seen to be a local homeomorphism. Letting FY = rE
be the associated sheaf, we see that FY is an extension of F by zero.
The proof is completed by the following Lemma, which enables us
to extend FX from X to Y if X is any locally closed subspace of Y. //
64
closed in U.
(b) This follows from the topology placed on LFY = E in the
proof of 8. 6. //
Shv/X - Shv/Y : F -b FY
is exact.
0 -* FY - GY - HY - O (*)
if y EX
and
0-0-0-00 if y% X
each of which is exact, so (*) is exact in Shv/Y. //
Shv/Y - Shv/Y : G - (G I X) Y
65
Proof. That there is a morphism (F I U)X - F follows from the
fact that the inclusion L(F IU)X `- LF is open and so a morphism of
sheaf spaces (2. 3. 5(c)); for
$*F
FY IX
SIX
F l F'IX
M gIX
O.FIX
66
where n is the isomorphism of 8. 6,
m is the isomorphism of 8. 2
and 1 is the isomorphism which shows that F' I X = F.
FY IX and Z
FYIX
n/ \ hIX
F/* iF'IX
67
$* X : Shv/Y - Shv/X has a left ad joint Y (which is exact, by
8.9).
A if y 0 A
(O*F)y {A ®A if y = 0
1. Let P be the category of pointed sets, whose objects are the pairs
(A, a) with a e A E Ob(Sets), and whose morphisms (A, a) - (B, b) are
the maps of sets f : A - B such that f(a) = b. Show that P is a category
with a zero object, kernels and cokernels, but in which not every epi-
morphism is a cokernel.
2. For X any topological space, show that the following presheaves
of sets over X are in fact sheaves:
(a) Fixing an open V C X, let
68
hV = HomC(-, V) : U F- HomC(U, V).
69
and such that 0* preserves all finite limits (analogue of '0* is left
exact').
(f) Is there an analogue of extension by zero?
4. Let F, G be presheaves of sets on a topological space X.
Define a new presheaf Hom(F, G) with
Show that, if we want the property (*4) to hold, then the definition of Hom
is forced on us, for presheaves at least. [Hint: put H = hU and use the
Yoneda lemma (Q2). ]
Reinterpret (*4) as requiring the existence of an evaluation map
Hom(F, G) X F - G
70
for any object F;
t
(b) S2 has a special subobject 1 - f2 such that any monomor-
phism G - F is the pullback of t over a unique morphism F -+ SZ
(called the classifying map of G - F).
[Hint: for P/X, put F = hU and use the Yoneda lemma (Q2) to
discover 62; for S/X use the 62 of Q2(b). ]
Compare the situation in Sets = S/X for X a one-point space,
where 62 is a two-point set and the classifying map is the characteristic
map of a subset.
[Q3(d), Q4 and Q5 show that P/X and S/X each satisfy the axioms
of an elementary topos; see Kock and Wraith: Elementary Toposes
(Aarhus Lecture Notes No. 30, 1971); Freyd: Aspects of Topoi (Bull.
Aust. Math. Soc. , 7 (1972) 1-76). ]
6. Since any category of presheaves is a functor category, we can
define it for categories other than those of open sets of a topological space.
For C any category, let P/C be the category SetsC°p of contravariant
functors C -Sets (and natural transformations) (here Cop denotes the
dual of C, which has the same objects and morphisms, but has com-
position defined in the reverse order to that in C).
As a special case, any group G can be regarded as a category
with one object whose endomorphisms are the elements of G, with com-
position defined as in G (hence every morphism is an isomorphism).
Show that the category P/G can be regarded as the category of sets-
with-a-GOP- action, that is the category of permutation representations
of G.
7. If A and B are abelian categories, a functor F : A - B is
called half exact iff whenever 0 - P - Q - R - 0 is exact in A,
FP -+ FQ - FR is exact in B. F is called additive iff all the maps
F : HomA(P, Q) - HomB(FP, FQ) are abelian group homomorphisms.
Consider the conditions:
(a) F is half exact
(b) F preserves biproducts (that is F(P G Q) = FP G FQ)
(c) F is additive.
Show that (a) (b) <- (c).
71
8. Let K be an abelian category and X a topological space. Let
K-Presh/X denote the category of K-valued presheaves on X (1. 6E).
Show that it is an abelian category.
Show that we can define the full subcategory K-Shv/X of K-valued
sheaves on X by the following condition: a presheaf F is a sheaf iff
for each object T of K the presheaf of sets
72
4 Ringed spaces
R
`` a
at
S
la
it.. S'
73
commute. Hence we have a category R-alg of all R-algebras.
For instance, for any ring S there is a unique ring morphism
Z - S (taking n - n1S) and any ring morphism S - S' makes the
triangle
commute. Hence any ring is a Z-algebra in a unique way, and indeed the
category Z-alg is isomorphic to the category of rings. If R is a field,
such as R, C or the p-adic numbers Qp for a prime number p E N,
then an R-algebra is an R-vectorspace together with an R-linear multi-
plication.
74
continuous: E 7T E - E, and for every r e R the map E - E : e'- re
is continuous.
Proof. Similar to 2. 5. 2. //
1. 5 Examples.
A. For any topological space X, letting the structure sheaf
OX = ZX, the constant sheaf (2. 4. 6), makes X into a ringed space
over Z.
B. Let R be a topological ring, that is a ring endowed with a topology
such that the ring operations (of subtraction and multiplication) are con-
tinuous; for example R, C, the p-adic numbers Zp, or any ring with
the discrete topology. For any topological space X, let OX = CR be
the sheaf of continuous functions on X with values in R (1. 2. B and
2. 2. B).Then (X, OX) is a ringed space over R; the R-algebra struc-
tures R - r(U, OX) for U open in X are given by the constant func-
tions.
For R = Z with the discrete topology, this gives example A.
C. Let X be a banach space over R (for instance Rn for n e N)
and let OX = Cr be the sheaf of r-times continuously differentiable
R- valued functions on X (cf. 1. 2. C, 2. 2. B). Then (X, OX) is a ringed
space over R. Note that for U open in X, the sheaf Cr defined on U
as in loc. cit. is just OX I U (3. 8. 1 and 1. 4).
References for differentiability: Bourbaki, Varietes differentielles
et analytiques, §2; [L] Chapter 1.
D. Let K be a complete non-discrete valued field, such as R, C
or the p-adic numbers Q ; let X be a banach space over K. Then the
p
75
structure sheaf OX = C ' of all K-valued analytic functions on X
(cf. 1. 2. D and 2. 2. B) makes X into a ringed space over K.
References for analytic functions: Bourbaki, Varietes differen-
tielles et analytiques, §§3, 4; Serre, Lie algebras and Lie groups,
Chapter LG2.
for V open in Y.
We shall see a qualified converse to this observation in U.
76
1. 9Proposition. Any morphism '1 : (X, OX) -+ (Y, 0Y) of
ringed spaces over R can be factored uniquely as
(X, O X (X, O)
X '' (Y, O Y)
(X, OX),*OY)
commute.
In each use of 3. 7.13 we must make the easy observation that the bijection
restricts to a bijection between sets of morphisms of sheaves of R-alge-
bras. //
1. 10Proposition. Any morphism fi : (X, OX) - (Y, 0 Y) of
ringed spaces over R can be factored uniquely as
'
(X, OX (Y, O,.) (Y, OY)
77
with 0 having as underlying continuous map idY and morphism of
sheaves OY -+ id* 0Y = OY a sheaf epimorphism, while the sheaf mor-
phism 0' - $*0X associated with * is a monomorphism.
e is then characterised by the subsheaf (of abelian groups)
I = Ker(0Y - OY) of 0Y, which is a sheaf of ideals in 0 that is,
:
equivalently
V y E Y Iy is an ideal in 0 Y, y
shows that I = Ker(g) and 0Y = SCok(f) determine each other (3. 6. 6),
and the stalk sequence over y E Y shows that Iy is an ideal of 0Y,
Y
The equivalence of the second condition follows from the sheaf space
interpretation (1. 3). //
78
are equal by hypothesis. Applying 3. 7. 13 we get a diagram of sheaves
on Z
in which the composites are equal too. The stalk sequence over z E Z
is
S4
a
OY, NOW)
by 3. 7. 12, and by hypothesis a is surjective. Hence the two maps
X + OZ are equal, and by 3. 7. 13 so are the maps OX $*OZ de-
fining 4 and %F. Hence 4 = T. //
(X,
,1,
(Y OY)' .
O* O Y) --i
OX(Y, OY
(X,
79
with g monomorphic, having the property that if
f
A B
= 0X, x = R
OY, yo ~ (O*OX)y
_ R if
OY, y {
{0} if yy YO
y0
while the sheaf of ideals I of 1. 10 has stalks
Iy =0 Y, y if y#y o
and
I
yo
= {g e 0 Y, yo ; g is the germ of a function f such that f(y 0 )=0}
($*OY)x = 0Y, yo
80
1. 15 Exercise. Analyse an example like 1. 14, but where 0
is not injective.
Then the V(a), as a runs through all ideals of R, form the closed sets
of a topology: this follows from the easy observations:
Then the D(f) for f E R form a basis for the topology on X = Spec R; for
if p E X\V(a) then picking f E a \p, we have p E D(f) S X\V(a).
Also D(f) n D(g) = D(fg), so that the basis {D(f); f E R I is
closed under finite intersections.
2.4 Examples.
A. If k is any field, Spec k has just one point, 10 }.
B. Let k be an algebraically closed field (e. g. C), and let
R = k[x] be the polynomial ring in one variable. The only prime ideals
of R are {0 } and the R(x - a) for a E k. Hence Spec(k[x]) = {{0}} u M
81
bij
where M k; the topology induced on M has the finite sets as its
closed sets, and in Spec R the closure of the point {0 } is the whole
space.
C. If k is an algebraically closed field, then
D(f) I- R f
then define
Rf - r .amr
f g fm
:
gnm
82
In particular, if D(f) = D(g), then Rf 4 Rg, so that the assignment
D(f) I- Rf is 'well-defined'. (See also [EGAI] 1. 3. 1. )
Since D(f) n D(g) = D(fg), if D(f) = u AEAD(f ) is a cover of a
X
basic open set by basic open sets, the sequence of 2. 1. 6 becomes
Rf - RAEARfA
~ U(x, µ)EAxARfXfµ
VU E U r(U, G) = F(U)
G = lim F(U)
x cL13U3X
83
U e `U. and s e F(U) must form a basis for it (cf. 2. 3. 8 and 2. 3. 5).
Hence the sheaf G is unique if it exists.
Step 3: Construct G by forming the stalks Gx = lim F(U) and thus
`113U3x
a sheaf space E _ xEXGx, and check as in 2. 4. 3 that F(U) -' r(U, E)
for U E `U;, //
r(D(f), 0) = Rf.
r(X, 0) = R
so that we can recover the ring R from the ringed space (Spec R, (D)
(at least up to isomorphism).
At the point p c Spec R, 0 has stalk
0P =D(f)3p
li R =1W
f
Rf
UP
=Rp (by commutative algebra),
84
ringed space over R; indeed for any S such that R is an S-algebra
(that is, we are given a ring morphism S - R), Spec R is a ringed space
over S.
2.9 Examples.
A. Although for all fields k the topological spaces Spec k are
homeomorphic, they are distinguished by their structure sheaves, since
k = r(Spec k, 0) = OP where P is the point of Spec k.
B. For any ring R, the affine scheme Spec R[xi, x2, ... , xn ] of
the polynomial ring in n variables is called affine n-space over R, and
is denoted by AR.
For R = k, an algebraically closed field, as in 2. 4B and C, and
S = k[x1, ... , xn], all the Sf (for f E S) can be considered as subrings
of
0 : Spec S - Spec R
85
for each x E Spec S the stalk morphism
-.
0 Spec R, O(x) 0Spec S, x
is a local morphism of local rings; that is, it takes the maximal ideal
into the maximal ideal.
R/r-1[p] - S/p
is injective, O(p) is a prime ideal of R. Since for f E R
-1[D(f)]
p e Spec S; 4(p) e D(f) }
p E Spec S; r-1[p] I f I = D(rf)
R-r S -Sp
sends every f ¢(p) into a unit, the induced map
Sp
RO(p)
of stalks sends each member of the maximal ideal O(p). into the
RO(p)
maximal ideal pSp. //
86
4. 3 Geometric spaces and manifolds
3. 1 Definition. Let R be a ring. A ringed space (X, OX)
over R is called a geometric space (over R) iff all the stalks 0X x
,
(for x E X) are local rings (that is, each has a unique maximal ideal,
called mx).
A morphism of geometric spaces over R (X, OX) - (Y, OY)
(or R-morphism) is a morphism of ringed spaces, with underlying con-
tinuous map 0 : X - Y and 0-morphism of sheaves of R-algebras
Ji : OZ, - OX, with the additional property that for each x E X the stalk
map
3. 2 Examples.
A. By 2. 7 and 2. 8 any affine scheme Spec R is a geometric space
(over R or Z), and any ring morphism R - S gives rise by 2. 10 to a
morphism of geometric spaces Spec S - Spec R (again over R or Z).
B. Let R be any ring, and F an R-algebra which is also a topo-
logical field (so that the operations of subtraction and division are con-
tinuous); for instance R = F = R, or R = Z, F = C. For any topological
space X, let CF be the sheaf of continuous F-valued functions on X
(cf. 1. 5B). Then (X, CF) is a geometric space over R (see 3. 3).
C. The example (X, Cr) of 1. 5C (with X a banach space over R)
is a geometric space over R (see 3. 3).
D. The example (X, C('O) of 1. 5D is a geometric space over K
(see 3. 3).
87
For this is clearly an ideal, and OX x/mx = F or R or K (according
to the case) by g r- value of g at x, so that mx is maximal (since
F, R, K are each fields). Also g nix implies that g is the germ of
a function f such that f(x) * 0, and so in a small enough neighbourhood
of x, exists; hence g is a unit in OX x, so that m x is the unique
maximal ideal of 0X X,
Note that in each case the R-algebra structure on 0X is given by
the maps R - r(u, OX) (for U open in X) which send r E R to the
constant function with value r.
Pi-7T i0 0.
88
Vx E $-1(V) f(0(x)) = c ip(f)(x) = c (*34);
41(f) = f O q.
X U
$ $IU (f)
Y-i -'V R
f
as in 1. 8. In particular, ip(77i) = 'ff i o ¢ = pi; but each Hi is differen-
tiable and so each ip(w) = pi is differentiable, so that 0 is actually
an (r times continuously) differentiable map: Rn -+ Rm.
Thus the effect of insisting that the a priori merely continuous
has an associated 0-morphism CY -,. CX is to ensure that 0 is
actually differentiable. Conversely, a differentiable map 0 : X - Y
clearly defines a ¢-morphism CZ, - CX by the above procedure of com-
posing with 0, and hence a geometric space morphism: X - Y.
A similar argument shows that any K-morphism of geometric
spaces (X, C (0) - (Y, C W) (spaces as in 3. 2D) has an underlying map
which is analytic.
In each case the step (*34) is valid, since the morphism is over
R = R or K and so takes the constant function with value r E R to the
constant function with value r.
89
set V in M such that there is an isomorphism
3. 7 Examples.
A. Let R = R.
Putting `.)7C = { (Rn, CR) } we obtain topological manifolds of
dimension n.
Putting On = { (Rn, Cr) } we obtain differentiable manifolds of
class r and dimension n.
Putting M= J (Ft , C ); n e N) we obtain real analytic manifolds.
B. Let R = C.
Putting ` t = 3 (C, CW) } we obtain Riemann surfaces.
Putting `_11t = { (Cn, Ca'); n E N I we obtain complex analytic mani-
folds.
C. Let R = Q .
Putting Mt = {(Qp, CW); n E N } we obtain p-adic analytic manifolds.
Putting ¶ _ {(E, C°'); E is a hilbert space over Qp } we obtain
p-adic analytic manifolds of hilbert type.
D. Let R = Z.
Putting i = class of all affine schemes, we obtain schemes.
90
examples like
91
Then if ip : R -+ S is any ring morphism, we have
Vc c R 4'(c) = c.
n*(n) = Cm) = m
so Vq E Q 4,(q) = q.
We have for f E R
92
complex conjugation), then for an analytic f : C - C, v o f o Cr- 1 is
again analytic, and f - or o f o 0 1 is an automorphism of the ring of
analytic C-valued functions on C which does not preserve the constant
functions.
3. 11 The Spec construction has a universal property among
all geometric spaces.
Theorem. Let (X, OX) be a geometric space over Z, and let
R be a ring. For each ring morphism t : R - r(X, OX) there is a
unique morphism of geometric spaces
G : (X, OX) - (Spec R, 0)
such that the induced map
R =' r (Spec R, 0) - r(X, OX)
is t. In other words the map
HomGsp((X, 0X), (Spec R, 0)) - HomRing(R, r(X, 4 )'
-r(x,
t
ox
commute. Let g(x) = t-1(m x) where m x is the maximal ideal of 0 X x'
then g(x) a Spec(R). For f E R we have
g-1(D(f)) = { x E X; g(x) f}
= {x E X; tx(f) it mx }
and this is open in X, for f' = tx(f) m x holds iff f' is a unit in 0X x'
,
so Hg' E 0x x such that f'. g' = 1, and this equality still holds in some
,
neighbourhood of x.
This calculation also shows that the map
93
inverts f, so it factorises as
and this defines the morphism G, which clearly has t as its associated
global section map.
The uniqueness follows from the easily verified fact that this
construction is inverse to the process of taking global sections (so that
the map given in the Theorem is bijective). //
RXM-M:(r,
(that is, an operation of R on M) satisfying the conditions:
(i) yr E R ym, n c M r(m + n) = rm + rn
(ii) yr, s E R ym E M (r + s)m = rm + sm
(rs)m = r(sm)
and
(iii) ym E M lm = m.
A morphism f : M - N of R-modules is an abelian group morphism which
satisfies the additional condition:
94
For example, for R a field we get the category of all R-vector
spaces; while for R = Z we get the category of all abelian groups (for
to prescribe a - b is to prescribe na for all n E Z).
Vr ER Vm EM f(rm) = p(r)f(m).
R' S'
P'
at
P
?a
R S
r(u, m) -+ r(v, m)
95
r(u, f) : r(u, m) - r(u, N)
must be a r(U, 0)-module morphism.
Hence we have defined a category O-Mod of all 0-Modules on X.
4. 5 Examples.
A. For any topological space X, let 0 be the constant sheaf Z on
X (as in 1. 5A). Then any abelian sheaf on X is an 0-Module, and the
category '9-Mod is just the category Shv/X we dealt with in Chapter 3.
B. Let R be a ring, X = Spec R and 0 be the structure sheaf on
X as in 2. 7. Starting with an R-module M, we can construct an 0-
Module M on Spec R as follows.
To each basic open set D(f) of Spec R we associate the Rf-
module Mf = S 1M where S = {fn; n E N }. The restriction maps
follow from Commutative Algebra, and the sequence
Mf HAEAMfX H(X,N)EAXAMfXf
defines an OX-Module.
Similarly the sheaves of sections (cf. 2. 2. C) of vector bundles
over a topological, differentiable or analytic manifold (X, 0X) can be
regarded as 0X Modules.
(References: [H] Ch. I, §§3. 2, 3. 6; [L] Ch. III, V; Atiyah, K-Theory,
Ch. I.)
96
4. 6It is easy to see from the construction of direct limits that
if M is an 0-Module on X and x E X, then the stalk Mx has a natural
0x-module structure.
Applying the definitions of kernel (3. 3. 1), cokernel (3. 4. 4) and
biproduct (3. 5. 1) to 0-Modules and 0-Module morphisms, we get
Modules and morphisms again. All the results of § §3. 2-3. 6 hold for the
category 0-Mod in place of Shv/X. In particular, 0-Mod is an abelian
category, and a sequence K -+ L - M in 0-Mod is exact iff it is exact
as a sequence of sheaves of abelian groups (which holds iff each stalk
sequence is exact, by 3. 6. 5).
iµ : Mµ y IIXEAMX . m N (mX)XEA
where ma = { m0 if '=µ
if X* P
(cf. 1. 3. 19) (so that (m)
X X EA
EHM is
X EA X
an element of the direct sum iff for all but finitely many of the A E A,
mA = 0). Each of these constructions enjoys a universal property. For
any R-module N there are bijections:
97
MA)
U open in X
and so define 0-Modules called the direct product BAEAMA and the
direct sum ®XEAMX of the family. There are natural projection mor-
phisms pµ : HAEAMA -0. Mµ and injection morphisms iµ :
and the universal properties (*48) hold as stated, in the category 0-Mod.
Hence the abelian category 0-Mod satisfies Grothendieck's axioms
AB3 and AB3* (existence of infinite sums and products) ([T] R. 5).
Of course, the case 0 = ZX, A having two elements was dealt with in
U. 5.
Since direct sums and stalks are both defined as colimits, we
have for x E X the stalk:
®AEA(MX)x
1. U3x r(u,
M)=Lx
(L ®0M)x -rn L) ®r(U' 0)r(u, ®0xMx
98
at x e X; also if s, t are sections of L, M respectively over an open
set U then the map
M ®0 - : 0-Mod - 0-Mod.
99
Proposition. If L, M are 0-Modules and U is open in X, then
there is a natural isomorphism of (0 I U)-Modules
(L I U) ®0 U(M I U) - (L ®0M) I U.
(L I U) ® (M I U) '' (L ®e.M) I U
100
4.13 Suppose that 4i : (X, OX) - (Y, 0Y ) is a morphism of
ringed spaces over a ring R, with underlying continuous map 0 : X - Y
and morphism of sheaves of R-algebras iy : OY - 0*0X.
If M is an OX Module, the definition
4i : OX Mod - OY Mod.
to get a functor
101
HomZ (O*N, M) - HomZ (N, $*M)
XI f Y
Hom'.*0 (O*N, M) Home (N, 4i*M)
Y4 g Y
h
Hom0X(O*N®O*0YOX, M)
where the bijection f is given by 3. 7.13, and is easily seen to induce the
bijection g, while the map h is given by composition with the morphism
$*N"$*N®0*0 OX
Y
(given on sections by s I- s ® 1) and has inverse sending a morphism
u : O*N - M to the composite
u®id v
$*N ®0*0 OX --im- - M ®0*O OX -+ M,
Y Y
102
M I U= (0 I U)n as (0 I U)-Modules
End(O) = HomO(O, 0)
r(X, 0) - End(O)
r(X, 0) 4 End(O)
can be identified with the ring of n x n matrices over r(x, 0), while
s = pX(s). 1 = 0.
103
Given f E End(O), each r(U, f) : r(U, 0) - r(U, 0) is a
r(U, 0)-module morphism, and so is multiplication by some tUEr(U, 0)
(namely tU= r(u, f)(1)); then the commutativity of the square
r(u,
I
0)0) 1
shows that tU= pU(tX). Hence f i-+ tX = r(u, f)(1) gives an inverse to the
morphism of 5. 2.
If multiplication by s E r(x, 0) is an automorphism of 0, then
t H s. t is surjective on r(X, 0), so s is a unit; the converse is clear.
The last result follows from the usual procedure of considering
the various composites
0-0
to obtain the matrix components. //
5.4 Examples
A. If X is a manifold of the kind described in 3. 7A, B, C with
structure sheaf 0, then the locally free 0-Modules of rank n are just
the sheaves of sections of rank n vector bundles. For it is easy to see
that such a sheaf is locally free, by considering its restriction to the open
sets of a trivialisation. Conversely, given a locally free Module M, we
can patch together copies of Rn over the intersection U A V of two open
sets over which M is free by means of the isomorphism
104
5. 5 Definition. The locally free Modules of rank 1 over a
ringed space (X, 0) are called the invertible 0-Modules. We shall see
later (5. 4. 16) (or we could check directly) that there is only a set of
isomorphism classes of invertible 0-Modules; taking this on trust, this
set is called the picard group Pie X of the ringed space (X, 0). The
justification for these terms is given by the following result.
(M(& 0N)IU=MIU®OIUNIU=OIU®OIU0IU=0IU
f : Hom M, 0) 0 0 M - 0.
105
group of classes of fractional ideals of A; in particular, if A is the
ring of integers of a number field,
and so is finite.
106
functions.
For n c Z we can define an invertible OX-Module 0X(n) on
X as follows. For W open in X, let
0XIUnV 0XIVnU
IIS IIS
multiply 0
0 IC* IC
C by zn C
10 for n< 0
r(X, OX(n)) = (abelian group of homogeneous poly- for n>0
nomials of degree n in x, y)
Exercises on Chapter 4
1. Let X be a topological space and R be a ring. The category of
sheaves of R-modules (compare 3. Ex. 8) on X is (isomorphic to) the
107
category of 0-Modules, where 0 is the constant sheaf R.
(a) If L, M are two sheaves of R-modules on X, then L ®R M
denotes the sheafification of the presheaf u )- r(U, L) ®RI'(U, m)
(U open in X), in conformity with 4. 9.
(b) If Y is another topological space, and N a sheaf of R-modules
on Y, show that there is a unique sheaf L ®R N (called the total tensor
product) on the product space X X Y with the properties
(i) V (x, Y) E X X Y (L ®R N)
(X, y) - LX ®R NY
(ii) if U is open in X and V is open in Y, and S E r(u, L)
and t E I'(V, N), then
(x, y) I- sX ® ty E LX ®R NY
=- (L ®R N) (X, Y)
is a section of L ®R N over the open set U X V.
(c) Show that L ®R N = (7i*L) ®R (ii N), where v1 : X X Y - X and
IZ : X X Y - Y are the projections.
(d) Show that L ®R M = d*(L ®R M) where d : X - X X X is the
diagonal map.
(e) Discover the universal property satisfied by the total tensor prod-
uct construction. (Compare [G] 2. 10.)
2. Show that we can remove the condition in 2. 6 that the basis `a be
closed under finite intersections, provided we replace the condition on
the 'presheaf F defined only on the basis I1' by the following condition:
for any set (or abelian group or ring as appropriate) T, the map
108
Show that, even in this more general setting, the alternative
construction indicated in 2. 6 (setting r(V, G) = lim F(U, G)) works.
(Compare [EGAI] 0, 3. 2 and 3. Ex. 8. )
3. Draw a picture of Spec Z[t]. (Compare Mumford, Introduction to
Algebraic Geometry, p. 141.)
4. Show that for any ring R, Spec R is compact.
5. Let R be a ring and f E R. Show that the natural ring morphism
R +Rf = R[f ] = S 1R with S = {fn n E N } induces an isomorphism of
ringed spaces between
where 0 : D(f) '- Spec R is the inclusion of the open subspace D(f).
6. Let R be a ring and a an ideal of R. Show that the natural
ring morphism R - R/ a induces a morphism of ringed spaces
Spec(R/a) -+ Spec R which is a homeomorphism of Spec(R/a) with the
closed subspace V(a) of Spec R; but show by example that it need not
induce an isomorphism of ringed spaces between Spec(R/a) and
with stalks
109
planes (= n-dimensional subspaces) in V. Show that P is a quotient
of a sphere Sk of dimension k = n (if K = R) or 2n + 1 (if K = C)
by an equivalence relation whose equivalence classes have two elements
if K = R, or biject with S1 if X = C. Giving P the quotient topology
show that P has a natural structure of analytic (or differentiable, or
topological) manifold.
[Hint: the map Sk - P is a covering map; cover Sk by hemispheres
and use these to give P a structure sheaf. ]
(b) (Algebraic version) Let K be any field. Use the ring isomor-
phisms
x x x K[Xx x x
K[x.' X.' nX a, Xl, ... , n][% ] for Osi, jSn
1 1 1 J J J J 1
r(PnK, 0(1)) = the set of homogeneous linear forms in X0, ... , Xri
110
9. (Algebraic curves)
y2 = x2(x - 1)
y=x.
2 3
10. Show that the construction of the prime spectrum of a ring can be
generalised as follows. Let X be a scheme, with structure sheaf 0.
Let A be a sheaf of 0-algebras (an 0-Algebra), that is an 0-Module
such that for each U open in X, the r(U, 0)-module T(U, A) has a
structure of r(U, 0)-algebra, in a way compatible with restriction maps
(aliter, there is a given multiplication A 00 A - A and a section
1 E I'(X, A) satisfying the usual laws for an algebra). Suppose that A is
quasi-coherent as an 0-Module.
For each open affine U = Spec R of X, A I U ib an 0 1 U- Algebra
and so we get a scheme morphism
111
for different U, these fit together into a scheme morphism
(*) Spec A -X
(the polynomial ring). Then Sec A = Spec 0[t] is called the affine line
AX over X. For X = Spec R, AX = Spec R[t]. Show that for any scheme
X, AX is the pullback in the category of schemes of the diagram
Al = Spec Z[t]
Z
XSpec Z
(that is, the product X X AZ1 , since Spec Z is final in the category of
schemes).
(d) Generalising (c), show that any 0-Module E gives rise to an
0-Algebra SE constructed locally out of symmetric algebras, and hence
to a scheme morphism
V(E) = Spec SE - X.
112
11. Let (X, 0) be a ringed space and M an 0-Module. M is said to
be of finite type iff each x E X has an open neighbourhood U such that
for some n E N
there is an exact sequence of (0 I U)-Modules
(*)
f
(0IU)n''(MIU)''0
(where (0 I U)n =
)i
1 (0 I U)).
Show that (*) is equivalent to
there are sections s1, s2, ..., sn E I'(U, M) such that for
each Y E U the Oy-module My is generated by the germs
(s1)y, ..., (sn)y.
Suppose that M is of finite type, that U is open in X with
x E U, and that t1, t2, .... tm E r(U, M) are such that the germs
(t1)x' ... , (tm)x generate the 0X module MX Prove that there is an
open set V with x E V S U and such that for all y c V, the germs
(t1)y, ..., (tm)y generate the Oy-module My. [Hint: Express the
(si)x of (**) as an 0X linear combination of the (t.)X ]
Now suppose that k is a field and that (X, 0) is in fact a ringed
space over k with the property that for all x E X
0x= k.
Let M be an 0-Module of finite type. Deduce that for each x E X, Mx
is a k-vectorspace of finite dimension. Deduce also that the function
e:X-N:
113
12. Let (X, 0) be a ringed space and M an 0-Module. M is said
to be of finite presentation iff each x E X has an open neighbourhood U
such that for some m, n E N there is an exact sequence of (0 I U)-
Modules
0 - EndR(N)
115
Proposition.The functor Hom(-, E) is always right exact;
that is, if 0 - A - B - C - 0 is exact in K, then the derived sequence
B--C-+0
splits iff ah : B - A such that h o g = idA (see [Mit] I. 19, or Freyd,
Abelian Categories 2. 68). //
116
An abelian group G is injective (in Abgp)
(ii) G is
divisible (that is Vg E G `o'n E Z* 21h E G nh = g).
117
Suppose E is an injective R-module, such that for any
(iii)
R-module F we have:
Yf E F f * 0 = ao E HomR(F, G) such that 4>(f) * 0. (*15)
Then any R-module can be embedded in an injective (namely a product of
copies of E).
Proof. It is 0'- (f - 4>(f)(1)) for f e E, with inverse
(i)
* - (V- (r - zp(rf))) for f E F, r ER.
(ii) By (i), for E = HomZ(R, G), the functor HomR(-, E) is
naturally isomorphic to the functor HomZ(-, G), which is exact since G
is injective in Abgp.
(iii) The embedding we wish to use is
118
5. 2 Derived functors
The advantage of abelian categories with enough injectives is that
we can deal well with left exact functors between them.
We shall now consider some results which belong to a course on
Homological Algebra. The results are obtained in an abelian category,
since we wish to apply them to the category of sheaves and the section
functor, but they may be easier to prove in a category like R-mod,
where objects have elements; in general such a proof will suggest the
proof appropriate to a more general abelian category.
gn I I gn+1
Mn 0 Mn+1
d'n
commutes (that is, d'g = gd). Two morphisms g, h : L' - M' are
(chain) homotopic, written g h, iff there are K-morphisms
119
kn :L n+1 -, Mn for n e N such that do e N d' kn-l+kndn gn hn
(mnemonic:
Mn-1Mn
Proposition. A morphism of complexes g : L' - M' in-
2. 2
duces morphisms of cohomology H(g) = g* : H*(L') - H*(M') in a
functorial way. Homotopic maps induce the same cohomology morphism.
Im do-1 - Ker do Ln
h' h
gn
Mn-1- Im d' io Ker do
I
Mn
Ker d n
1 a
n - Ln+l
Ln
Mn-1
- Mn
Mn/Im do-1
we have j(g' -g)i = j(kd + dk)i = jkdi + jdki = 0 (omitting subscripts for
ease of writing), whence the result. //
120
and any two such liftings are homotopic.
Mn-1
in which i and j are injective by the exactness of L' and M' and g'
exists since dn-lgn-ldn-2 do-ld' 2gn-2 = 0. Hence since Mn is an
injective object, jg' can be extended to a morphism gn : Ln - Mn by
1. 1. The outside square commutes, so g is a morphism of complexes.
To start the induction we use the same argument on the diagram
0H°(L') La
A
fI
0 H°(M' ) 0 MO
Ln/Im do-i
Ln-1 Ln Ln+1
kn- 2
k
n- gn'i hn
i,_
_
ti
_ k
Mn- 2 _ Mn-1 _ Mn -A' _ Mn+1
121
t' extends to kn such that
k d = gn - hn - dkn-1
n
as required. //
0- A-'L0
\A o
say, to get a
diagram
122
(RnF)(A) = Hn(FK' )
by 2. 2.
H°(FL-)=Ker(FL°-.FL 1)=FA.
L° L1 L2
123
On applying F to L' we get the complex FA - 0 - 0 -... which has
RnFA = Hn(FL') FA n= 0
n > 0. //
(*S)
(for n < a)
124
a sequence of natural transformations { Sn - Tn; 0 s n < a I such that
for any short exact sequence (*S) the diagrams
a
Sn-C S SnA
T
n-1 C air-T A
In
'FA-'... -'Rn- I
125
Then 0 -+ FA -' FB - FC - 0 also has these properties, and so is split
exact too. //
is exact (we call this a short exact sequence of complexes). Then there
is a collection of morphisms a : Hn(N') - Hn+1(L') (n E N) such that
the sequence
0(L' a a
(*LH) 0-4H )-'H0(N' )-'Hl(L' )-+...-+Hn(N' (L')-. ..
is exact. Moreover a is natural in the sense that if 0 - L' - M' -'N' -'0
0 - L'1 - M' 1-+N'1 -0
is a commutative diagram of morphisms of complexes, with exact rows,
then the induced morphism between the long exact sequences (*LH) is
a morphism of complexes; that is Vn E N
126
0 - L' - M' - N' -+ 0. If this has been done up to the situation in the
diagram
0 Ln-1 Mn-1 - Nn-1 0
0 - Ln - Mn - Nn - 0
for n e N (where we make the convention L-1 = A, M-1 = B, N 1 =C)
then we can construct
Mn m Nn 0
I
cok f
a 1
o. cok g - aio cokh
1
cok g
gi
L n+I
,n+l \ h'o/
L
n+1 1 `
N
n+l
127
0 - Hn(M') - 0 for n E N*
4n_0 (n EN)
R ° F -- D G 0
\I- /I,
F
128
2.13; Remark. Hence the derived functor R' F is characterised
up to natural isomorphism as the exact effaceable a-functor over F.
Conversely any exact effaceable 2-functor T' (sometimes called a
cohomological a-functor) is (up to natural isomorphism) the derived
functor of its T0, and is the universal 2-functor over T 0 (in the sense
of the theorem).
say. 2. 7(c), the induction hypothesis and the long sequences of this exact
sequence give us a diagram
0 -Rn- FB
f
. RnFA -- - 0
1 h g
- GnA
129
Then there is a natural isomorphism of 2-functors
R' (G o F) = (R' G) o F.
1:r°(G o F) = G o R' F.
130
kG-mod S' k-mod
IF
S
Z- mod
R'S=FoR'S'.
Furthermore, for A E Ob(kG-mod) we can recover the k-module struc-
ture on RnS(A) by considering the endomorphisms induced by the
A - A : a'- Xa for A E k. Hence we may compute the cohomology of G
with coefficients in k:
Hn(G, A) = RnS'(A)
5. 3 Sheaf cohomology
3. 1 We have now constructed a general method of measuring
the lack of exactness of a left exact functor; in order to apply this to
the functor
for a ringed space (X, 0) over a ring R, we must check that 0-Mod
has enough injectives.
131
Proof. We can define M by its sections:
(Mx) = { 0 y#x
y Mx y=x.
Then M = Hx-XMx is the product in 0-Mod of the Mx (4.4.8). //
132
Proof. Set Hn(X, -) = Rn(r(X, -)) and apply 2. 10 and 2. 13. //
0-A-B-C-0
0-4i*A-+4i*B-+(D*C- Rl4)
OP-Mod y R-mod
133
commutes. Thus the functors Rnqt * and Hn(X, -) are the derived
functors of essentially the same functor, and by the uniqueness (2.13
and 2. 14) we have a natural isomorphism for A e 0-Mod
...
Note that we are abusing language by writing Hn(0- 1(V), A) instead of
Hn( 1(V), p*A) (where : 1(V) '- X); since p* is an exact functor
(3. 7. 16) the application of 3. 5 is valid.
Hence { Fn; n e N } forms an exact a-functor over +*; also by
Lemma 3. 10 below, if E is injective in OX Mod and U is open in X,
then E I U is injective in (OX I U)-Mod, so for n E N* Hn(U, E I U) = 0,
so that FnE is the zero sheaf. Hence F' is also effaceable, and 2. 13
134
shows that it is isomorphic to the derived functor R' 4,* of 4,k. //
(E' I U) = (E I U) a (E" I U)
135
where r = r(x, -) and G is the change-of-structure functor associated
with 6. Then there is a natural isomorphism of a-functors:
136
Proof. We wish to apply 2.14; since F is exact we have the
required result provided that F transforms injectives in 0-Mod into
r-acyclic objects. We shall show that under the hypothesis (FL), F
transforms injectives into injectives.
In fact, F is the 'direct image part' of a morphism of ringed
spaces (over Z):
4 : (X, 0) - (X, Z X)
with underlying continuous map idX and the unique possible morphism
ZX - (idX)*0. This induces an adjoint pair (4. 13 and 4. 14):
4*=F
0-Mod . - ZX Mod.
4; *
*A=A®Z 0.
X
Under the assumption (FL), each r(U, 0) is a flat Z-module (see for
example [K], 2. 2. 3. 1), and so (using 3. 6. 9(ii)) '* is an exact functor.
Hence Hom(A, FE) is exact in A and so FE is injective by 1. 2. //
137
is surjective (and hence so is every restriction map of F). Then:
(a) If 0 - F - G - H - 0 is an exact sequence of sheaves and
F, G are flasque, then so is H, and the sequence
O-'r(X, H)- 0
is exact. (Proof by direct manipulation. )
(b) A direct summand of a flasque sheaf is flasque. (Direct
proof. )
(c)Every sheaf F can be embedded in a flasque sheaf F°;
indeed F can be made a functor of F as follows. Let E P X be the
0
sheaf space of F, and let E ° be the set E with the coarsest topology
such that p remains continuous (that is, with open sets all the p 1(U)
for U open in X). Let F 0 be the sheaf of sections of E ° p X (2. 2. C);
thus for U open in X, r(U, F°) is the set IIxEUFx of not-necessarily
continuous sections of p : E - X. (Compare 3. 2.) The natural map
F - F 0 is the required embedding.
(d) Every injective sheaf is flasque. (First proof: embed E
in a flasque E ° by (c); then E is a direct factor of E ° by 1. 1(ii) and
so is flasque by (b). Second proof: for U open in X apply the exact
functor Homo(-, E) to the exact sequence
0 - (0IU)X-0
of 4. 8. 11. )
(e)After (c), by the technique of 2. 5 every sheaf F has a
flasque resolution
-4,
n
Hn(X, F) r(X,0 F) n = 0;
that is, F is acyclic. In fact this follows directly from (a), (b) and (c);
see [T] 3. 3. 1.
But now, in the situation of 3. 13 (without (FL)), if M is an in-
jective 0-Module, then it is flasque by (d), and hence F(M) is a flasque
ZX Module, and so acyclic by (f). But this is enough to prove 3. 13 by
applying 2. 14.
139
r11) (F) = is E r(X, F); Is I E }
Hn (X, F) = Rnr4)(F).
5. 4 Cech cohomology
The functor 'r'
: Presh/X - Abgp : F - F(X) is exact (3. 6. 9(iii))
and so has zero right derived functor. However there is a a-functor
Presh/X - Abgp which is of interest as it may sometimes aid in the
computation of sheaf cohomology, whose existence is guaranteed by 3. 5,
but in a way that makes evaluation difficult.
:I n+1 In
o(k)
: v - (v : k - { a(k+1) if k < m
am if k ? m
4. 2 Let X be a topological space and let F be a presheaf of
abelian groups on X (that is an object of the category Presh/X). Let
91- (U.)iEI be an open cover of X. For an n-simplex a E In let
Uo = n { Uo(m); M E [0, n] } ,
140
The maps am of 4. 1 induce
am : Cn(U., F) -. Cn+l(`U, F)
(so) ' (tat) where tat = sa or,
m
and we set for each n
is the Cech cohomology of F with respect to the covering `U. The con-
structions of C' (`U., F) and H*('U, F) are functorial in the presheaf F.
H°(`U, F) = F(X)
Vi e j Vi C_
Ur(j)'
Such a refinement map r induces a morphism of complexes
141
r' : C' (91, F) - C. (`U, F)
(tT)
n n
where tT _ ur(T) (sr(T)), and where r also denotes the map induced by
T
composition from Jn to In
Hence a refinement map induces (2. 2) a morphism of Cech co-
homology
142
the class of open covers of X is not a set, but we may avoid this either
by allowing only covers indexed by subsets of a suitably large set such
as the power set of X, or by proceeding as in 4. 7 below.
VX E X XE U
X
143
Proof. An exact sequence 0 - P - Q -+ R - 0 in Presh/X
gives for each `U. E 63(X) an exact sequence
P)-C'(`u, Q)''C'(`U,
as is easily checked. Applying the exact functor lim we get an exact
0.
sequence of complexes
F+(U) = H°(U, F I U)
An exact sequence
f
144
in Shv/X has R = SCok(f) and so gives a diagram
R
f
where the horizontal line is exact in Presh/X and the vertical map is
the natural map of sheafification. Thus by 4. 8 we obtain diagrams
Hn(X, E) = 0
(this follows easily from the exact cohomology sequence of the split exact
sequence 0 - E' - E - E" - 0) and the result follows.
Given E of the type described in 3. 2 and an open covering
U= of X, pick j E I. A suitable homotopy is then given by the
morphisms
145
kn : E) '' Cn(u, E) : (so)
Cn+1(U,
(s,r')TEI
n
XEUT,Ex
- XEU
ex if xEU
(e x ~ ( { 0 if X ¢ , })
(we have UT, S UT, and we may have to enlarge the 'domain' of the
section sT,).
... - Hn-1(X,
S) _ Hn(X, R') _ Hn(X, R) - H°(X, S) - .. .
146
(i) for any X for a = 2 (see 4. 14 below);
(ii) for a = providing X is paracompact (see [G], 5. 10. 1);
[or more generally, for a = and any X providing we replace Hn,
fin by their versions 'with supports in a paracompactifying family'
(cf. 3.16; see also Swan, Theory of Sheaves, VIII)];
(iii) for a = - if X is a scheme and provided we restrict our
attention to quasi-coherent 0X Modules (see [EGA III] 1. 4. 1).
More generally, we have in any case a spectral sequence
Hp(`U, _Cq(F)) = Hp+q(X, F)
U '- Hq(U, F); and (i)-(iii) above can be regarded as cases where it
degenerates. See [T], 3. 8. 1; [G] 5. 9. 1; Artin, Grothendieck Topologies,
II §3.
For the connections between singular cohomology, Alexander-
Spanier cohomology and sheaf cohomology (Cech or Grothendieck (derived
functor) version), the reader is referred to Spanier, Algebraic Topology;
particularly 6. 8. 8, 6. 9. 1, 6. 9. 5, 6. 9. 7. In general terms these results
state that for suitably nice topological spaces X (such as topological
manifolds), the cohomology of a constant sheaf G on X is isomorphic
to the singular cohomology of X with coefficients in G.
More generally, if G now denotes a locally constant sheaf, then
the sheaf cohomology of G gives the cohomology of X with the local
system of coefficients G (see Spanier, Chapter 6, Exercise F and
Chapter 5, Exercise J).
9°(X, S) = 0.
147
Proof. Any f1 E H°(X, S) is represented by some
U V Vk
PVrj'rk s(rj, rk) = pV (f (j)) - (f(k))
jk jk jk
148
0I- j, and similarly for 0-simplices.
Suppose we are given i E I: to construct f (i) E r(Ui, F) we
consider for each x E Ui, and for each j e J such that x e Vi, the
element
_ V. U .
f = PUiAV,(1(j)) - PUlnVJ (s(rj, i))
j
(For the rest of the proof we omit the restriction maps and instead name
the domain on which equations hold.)
If k E J is also such that x c Vk, then
fj - f k = f(j) - f(k) + s(rk, i) - s(rj, i) V.
= s(rj, rk) + s(rk, i) - s(rj, i)
=0 on UinVjnVk
since s E ker d1. Thus the f (j E J) glue
j
to give an element f(i) E I'(U., F).
Furthermore, on U. n U1 (i, 1 E I) we have
_ -s(rk, i) + s(rk, 1)
The result follows, and the last part follows from the construction of the
direct limit (cf. 1. Ex. 5). //
149
(b) for each i, j E I an isomorphism of 0 I (UinU1)-Modules
M = 0.
150
Now we have a global section 1 E r(X, 0*); let
gi E I'(U., M)
so f is a coboundary, that is
f E Im(d0 : C°(`ll, 0*) -'' Cl(`U, 0*)).
2: Pic X=HI(X, Z)
151
Exercises on Chapter 5
1. Use 4. 15 to show that HI(C*, C) * {0 }, where C* = C\ {0 },
and C denotes the constant sheaf; this 'explains' 3. 6. 10.
2. Let G : K - K' be a functor between abelian categories; we
say that G is effaceable iff for each object A of K we can find a mono-
morphism u : A - E in K such that G(u) = 0. A a-functor
{ Gn : 0 < n < a) is called effaceable iff Gn is for 0 < n < a.
Show that if K has enough injectives, this is equivalent to the
definition given in 2. 13.
Show that, for any abelian category K, an exact, effaceable (in
this new sense) o-functor F* over a left exact functor F : K - K' has
the universal property of 2.13 (for R' F).
3. Let X be a topological space, considered with the structure sheaf
0 = ZX, the constant sheaf Z, so that 0-Mod = Shv/X is the category
of sheaves of abelian groups on X. Let A be a closed subspace of X,
with inclusion map j : A '- X.
(a) Let G be a sheaf of abelian groups on A and GX = j*G
its extension by zero to X. Show that there is a natural isomorphism
H2(X, F) - H2(X, F)
152
JCq(F))
Hp(X, Hp+q(X, F)
m > n = Hm(X, F) = 0.
Show that
[This is hard; see [G] Cor du Th. 5. 4.1, or Serre, FAC (see Q5) I. 29. ]
153
The way ahead: further reading
154
(d) In working out the abstract machinery necessary to attack
the Weil conjectures, Grothendieck and his school were led to a general-
isation of topological spaces, over which one can still do sheaf theory:
these are the Grothendieck topologies. A good introduction, showing
how neat and ultimately categorical sheaf theory can be made is in
M. Artin, Grothendieck Topologies (Harvard Lecture Notes, 1962); see
also Mumford's chapter in Arithmetical Algebraic Geometry (edited by
Schilling; Harper and Row, 1965). The bible (or elbib?) of this sect is
SGA4 (Springer Lecture Notes 269, 270 and 305); it is by no means easy
reading. See also H. Schubert, Categories, Chapter 20 (Springer, 1972);
M. Hakim, Topos anneles et schemas relatifs (Springer, 1972).
(e) The latest abstraction from (d) is the theory of elementary
topoi; it is an ambitious attempt to unite geometry and set theory, and
is at an early stage of development. See A. Kock and G. C. Wraith,
Elementary Toposes (Aarhus Lecture Notes No. 30, 1971); P. Freyd,
Aspects of Topoi (Bull. Aust. Math. Soc. , 7 (1972) 1-76); F. W.
Lawvere, Quantifiers and Sheaves (Proceedings of the International
Congress of Mathematicians, Nice 1970; Vol. I, pp. 329-34).
155
References
156
Hints and answers to some
exercises
0 - L -H
are exact. This condition is preserved under an exact T.
s
3. Ex. 7 First show that a short exact sequence 0 -. P -+ Q - R - 0
is split (that is Ht : R - Q such that s o t = idR) iff
Q = P e R with s corresponding to the natural projection.
Hence (a) (b). Now for s, t : P - P, factorise (s - t) as
(s, t)
P - P e P - PeP - P.
Hence (b) - (c). For (c) (b) show that X = P e Q iff
there are morphisms
P` P
X
Q
157
such that ca = idp, db = idQ da = 0, cb = 0 and
ac + bd = idX.
4. 3. 5 Spec S - Spec R induces a morphism of global sections
Compare 4. 3. 11.
5. Ex. 3 (a) Use 3. 8. 8(a) to see that H*(X, -X) is an exact
c-functor over r(A, -), and 3. 7. 13 to show that it is
effaceable; apply 2. 13.
(b) Use 3. 8. 11.
158
Index of terminology
159
dual category 37, 69, 71 identity 32, 35
dual sheaf 105 image 49, 79
injective object 116, 118, 119, 123,
effaceable 128, 145, 152 132, 135, 138, 144, 145
endomorphisms 103, 114, 131, 136 inverse image 57, 60-1, 68, 69,
epimorphism 10, 43, 46, 69, 78 75, 80, 101
equaliser 15, 69 inverse limit 12
equivalence relation 69 invertible 105, 149
evaluation map 70, 105 isomorphism 10, 44, 76
exact complex 119
kernel 38, 40
exact a-functor 124, 128, 143,
146, 147, 152, 158
left exact 35, 51, 55, 62, 122, 125
exact functor 51, 61, 62, 65,
116, 129-30, 143 limit 12, 69
exact sequence 12, 16, 50, 53 local homeomorphism 18
160
morphism of sheaf spaces 18, riemann surface 90, 106
26 , 33
right exact 51, 62, 116
morphism of sheaves 17, 33 ring 73
morphism over a continuous map ringed space 4
55
subobject 40
quasi-coherent 96, 111, 147
subobject classifier 70
quotient 46, 69
subpresheaf 39
161
topos 71
torsion 12
variety 90
vector bundle 96, 104, 112
Z ariski topology 82
zero morphism 36
zero sheaf 36
162
Index of notation
N; Z; Q; R; C vii lim 5
F+; = vii 7T 25, 48, 74
3, 32, 40, 143 11. vii, 48
pV 1 F I U 28, 62, 99
p«a 3 0* 53, 69
Fx 8, 34 0* 57, 69
s 8 4) *; 4i* 101
x
fx 10 FY; j, F 63
s 21 GI, 65, 152
nF 22, 34
AX 2, 25 0 29, 74, 84
c ; Cr; CW 2 0* 150
P1 3, 9, 14, 18 0X(n) 107, 110
P2 3, 13, 17 M 96
163
Ker(f) 38 G 47, 97
PCok(f) 41 H 97
SCok(f) 42 ® 98
PIm(f) 49 ® 108
SIm(f) 49 Bilin(-, -; -) 99
164