61. Explain how the copper loss in an alternator may be determined.

The core loss involves hysteresis and eddy currents in the magnetized iron and results
from the normal flux-density changes. It may be determined by measuring the power input to an
auxiliary motor with and without the field excited; the difference between the two power
measurements represents this loss.
62. How is the copper loss in the field winding of an alternator determined?
The field copper loss is determined by multiplying the field-winding voltage by the field
current, i. e., Ef X If, or by using the equation If^2Rf, where Rf is the field-winding resistance.
63. How is the copper loss in the armature winding of an alternator determined?
The armature-winding copper loss is calculated by the formula nIa^2Ra, where n, Ia, and Ra
represent, respectively, the number of phases, the full-load stator-winding current, and the d-c
resistance per phase at 75°C.
64. What is meant by the stray-load losses? Where do they occur? Why are they indeterminate?
The stray-load losses are generally classed as indeterminate because, with the alternator
operating under load, they result from eddy currents in the armature copper conductors and
because the distorted magnetic field increases the normal core losses as found in 1d.
65. How can stray-load losses be included in the efficiency calculation of an alternator? Why are
these losses only approximate?
They may, however, be included in the efficiency calculation by using the effective value of
the armature resistance in 2b instead of the d-c resistance.
66. What would be the advantages of using a single large alternator in a power plant rather than
several smaller units operating in parallel?
Modern power plants usually have several alternators that are operated singly or in several
parallel combinations to supply a common load. There are a number of good reasons for this
practice, even though in some instances it might be cheaper to install only one or two very large
alternators to take care of the plant load. (As a rule, large machines and their auxiliary
equipment cost less per kilowatt than small machines.)
67. What are the important advantages of using several smaller alternators operating in parallel,
rather than one large unit?
Since the power-plant load fluctuates widely during each 24-hr period, it is most economical
to use a small unit delivering approximately rated capacity when the demand is light.
Substituting larger alternators as the load increases, and employing several machines connected
in parallel when heavy or peak loads occur.
68. List the four important conditions that must be fulfilled before an alternator can be connected
in parallel with the bus already supplying a load.
 The effective voltage of the incoming machine must be approximately equal to the bus-bar
voltage.
The frequency (f=P X rpm/120) of the incoming machine must be exactly the same as that of
the bus bars.
The phase sequence of the three phases of the incoming machine must be the same as that of
the bus bars. This means that if the bus-bar voltage Vab is, 120° ahead of Vbc, and Vbc is 120°,
ahead of Vca, then the incoming machine must have its three phases connected to bus bars A, B,
and C, so that Vab is 120° ahead of Vbc and Vbc is 120° ahead of Vca.
With condition 3 fulfilled, it is necessary that at the instant when the paralleling switch is
closed, voltage Vab of the incoming machine must be in phase opposition to the bus bar voltage
Vab.
69. Explain carefully, using fig.167, how alternator 1 should be paralleled with alternator 2,
assuming that the latter is already delivering load.
It desired to synchronized unit 2 with the bus bars, to transfer the entire load of unit 1 to unit
2, and to remove unit 1 from the line. Note that the three phases A, B, and C of both alternators
may be measured; and that three synchronizing lamps are connected to the open triple-pole
switch of machine.
70. When lamps are used to synchronize one alternator with another, why do the lamps flicker in
unison?
With the voltmeter switch closed to the right, the field rheostat is adjusted until the voltmeter
registers the same voltage as when closed to the left. At his point it will be noticed that the three
synchronizing lamps will flicker in unison, the rapidity of that the flicker depending upon the
difference between the line frequency and the incoming machine frequency. Even a very slight
frequency difference will cause the lamps to flicker.
71. Under what condition will the lamps not flicker?
The operator may observe that a slight increase in speed will increase the flicker frequency,
in which case the speed should be reduced. The lamps may not flicker on unison; if this happens
condition 3 has not been fulfilled.
72. Under what condition will the flicker disappear with the lamps completely extinguished?
With the lamps burning brightly?
In order to synchronize alternator 2 with the bus, that is, fulfill condition 4, either increase or
decrease the speed of the prime mover and its driven alternator until the flickering subsides and
the lamps are completely extinguished.
73. When two alternators are synchronized with lams, what maximum voltage can exists across
the latter? When does this occur? What provision must be made to insure against burning
out the lamps?
 The maximum voltage across the individual lamps will occur when, during the
synchronizing process, alternator 2 is in phase with alternator 1; this is, or course, the worst
instant to close the synchronizing switch, since the lamp voltages are at their maximum values.
74. Why will two alternators operating in parallel be in stable equilibrium even though, the
speed of one of them tends to increase? Even though the voltage of one of them tends to
decrease?
Two alternators operating in parallel and delivering a common load are in stable equilibrium
because neither machine can pull out of synchronism. Should one machine attempt to speed up
for some reason, this tendency would immediately be accompanied by a flow of current between
the alternators that would circulate in the armature windings only. The result is that the
increased electrical load on the fast alternator causes it to slow down, while the torque gained by
second alternator increases its speed.