Figure 5.

2 shows the fine molten droplets of metal and molten flux coming from the tip of the coated electrode.
The flux melts along with the metallic core wire and goes to weld pool where it reacts with molten metal forming
slag which floats on the top of molten weld pool and solidifies after solidification of molten metal and can be
removed by chipping and brushing.

Welding power sources used may be transformer or rectifier for AC or DC supply. The requirement depends on
the type of electrode coating and sometimes on the material to be welded.

The constant-current or drooping type of power source is preferred for manual metal arc welding since it is
difficult to hold a constant arc length. The changing arc length causes arc voltage to increase or decrease, which
in turn produces a change in welding current. The steeper the slope of the volt-ampere curve within the welding
range, the smaller the current change for a given change in arc voltage. This results into stable arc, uniform
penetration and better weld seam inspite of fluctuations of arc length.

The welding voltages range from 20 to 30 V depending upon welding current i.e. higher the current, higher the
voltage. Welding current depends on the size of the electrode i.e. core diameter. The approximate average
welding current for structural steel electrodes is 35.d (where d is electrode diameter in mm) with some variations
with the type of coating of electrode. Table 5.1 shows influence of welding parameters on weld characteristics.

Table 5.1: Welding Variables and Their Influence

Welding Condition Main Effects

Current in excess of optimum Excess spatter. Flat wide deposit. Deep crater. Deep penetration. Electrode
overheats.
Current less than optimum Slag difficult to control. Metal piles up. Poor dead shape. Poor penetration.
Voltage in excess of optimum Deposit irregular and flat. Arc wander. Porosity. Spatter.
Voltage less than optimum Irregular piling of weld metal. Arc extinctions. Little penetration.
Travel speed in excess of Narrow thin weld bead. Undercut.
optimum
Travel speed less than Wide thick deposit. Difficulty in slag control.
optimum
Optimum Welding conditions Smooth even weld deposit. Stable arc condition. Easily controlled slag. Little
spatter produced.

The output voltage of the power source on ‘no load' or ‘open circuit' must be high enough to enable the arc to be
started. A value of 80 V is sufficient for most electrodes but certain types may require more or less than this
value.

A manual welding power source is never loaded continuously because of operations such as, electrode
changing, slag removal etc. Most MMA welding equipment has a duty cycle of around 40% at maximum welding
current.

Coated Electrodes are specified based on core wire diameter. Commonly used electrode diameters are 2, 2.5,
3.18, 4, 5 and 6 mm. Length of electrodes may depend on diameter of core wire ranging from 250 to 450 mm i.e.
larger the core diameter larger the length. However, special electrodes may be of 8-10 mm diameter. Table 5.2
gives the details of electrode sizes and currents.

Table 5.2: Size and Welding Current for Stick Mild Steel Electrodes

Diameter d 2.0 2.5 3.18(1/8") 4.0 5.0 6.0

mm
Length L 250/300 350 350/450 450 450 450
mm
Welding 50-80 70-100 90-130 120-160 160-200 190-240
ICurrent A
The electrodes are also specified based on ratio of diameter of coated portion of electrode to core wire diameter.
If this ratio is lesser than 1.2 then electrodes are thin coated, if ratio ranges between 1.2 to 1.5 then medium
coated and if ratio exceeds 1.5 then electrodes are heavy coated or thick coated. This ratio may vary slightly in
different codes.

Thin coated electrodes have very good bridgeability at the joint gap but weld bead has coarse ripples and
penetration is also poor. Medium coated electrodes lead to reasonably good bridgeability, medium ripples in weld
bead and modest penetration. Thick coated electrodes have poor bridgeability, however, bead appearance is
excellent with fine ripples and also excellent penetration.

The ingress of oxygen and nitrogen from the atmosphere to the weld pool and arc environment would cause
embrittlement and porosity in the weld metal and this must be prevented.

The Actual method of arc shielding from atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen attack varies with different type of
electrodes which are in two main categories.

1. Bulk of covering material converts to a gas by the heat of the arc, only a small amount of slag is produced.
Protection depends largely upon a gaseous shield to prevent atmospheric contamination as in case of cellulosic
electrode.

2. Bulk of covering material converts to a slag, only a small volume of shielding gas produced as in the case of
rutile and basic coated electrodes.

Electrode coating performs many functions

depending upon coating constituents, during
welding to improve weld metal properties. The
important functions are as follows:
1. Improve the electric conductivity in the arc region to improve the arc ignition and stabilization of the arc.

2. Formation of slag, which;

(a) Influences size of droplet.

(b) Protects the droplet during transfer and molten weld pool from atmospheric gases.

(c) Protects solidified hot metal from atmospheric gases.

(d) Reduces the cooling rate of weld seam.

3. Formation of shielding gas to protect molten metal.

4. Provide deoxidizers like Si and Mn in form of FeSi and FeMn.

5. Alloying with certain elements such as Cr, Ni, Mo to improve weld metal properties.

6. Improve deposition rate with addition of iron powder in coating.

Various constituents of electrode coating are cellulose, calcium fluoride, calcium carbonate, titanium dioxide,
clay, talc, iron oxide, asbestos, potassium / sodium silicate, iron powder, ferro-maganese, powdered alloys, silica
etc. Each constituent performs either one or more than one functions.

Electrode metallic core wire is the same but the coating constituents give the different characteristics to the
welds. Based on the coating constituents, structural steel electrodes can be classified in the following classes;

1. Cellulosic Electrodes

Coating consists of high cellulosic content more than 30% and TiO2 up to 20%. These are all position
electrodes and produce deep penetration because of extra heat generated during burning of cellulosic
materials. However, high spatter losses are associated with these electrodes.

2. Rutile Electrodes

Coating consists of TiO 2 up to 45% and SiO2 around 20%. These electrodes are widely used for
general work and are called general purpose electrodes.

3. Acidic Electrodes

Coating consists of iron oxide more than 20%. Sometimes it may be up to 40%, other constituents may
be TiO2 10% and CaCO3 10%. Such electrodes produce self detaching slag and smooth weld finish and
are used normally in flat position.

4. Basic Electrodes

Coating consist of CaCO3 around 40% and CaF2 15-20%. These electrodes normally require baking at
temperature of approximately 250 ° C for 1-2 hrs or as per manufacturer's instructions. Such electrodes
produce high quality weld deposits which has high resistance to cracking. This is because hydrogen is
removed from weld metal by the action of fluorine i.e. forming HF acid as CaF 2 generates fluorine on
dissociation in the heat of arc.

Table 5.3: Coating Constituents and Their Functions

Coating Constituent Functions

Main Functions Other Functions
Cellulose Gas former Coating Strength and
Reducing agent
Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) Slag basicity and metal Slag former
fluidity, H2removal
Clay (Aluminum Silicate) Slag former Coating strength
Talc (Magnesium Silicate) Slag former Arc stabilizer
Rutile (TiO2 ) Arc stabilizer, Slag former, Slag removal and bead
Fluidity appearance
Iron Oxides Fluidity, Slag former Arc Stabilizer, improved
metal transfer,
Calcium Carbonate Gas former, Arc stabilizer Slag basicity, Slag former
Asbestos Coating strength Slag former
Quartz (SiO2 ) Slag fluidity, Slag former Increase in current carrying
capacity.
Sodium Silicate / Potassium Binder, Arc stabilizer Slag former
 Silicate
FeMn / FeSi Deoxidizer -
Iron Powder Deposition Rate -
Powdered Alloys Alloying -