GRAMMAR

REFERENCE
C1
UNIT 1: TENSES.

Table of English Tenses

Signal
tense Affirmative/Negative/Question Use
Words

 action in the always,

Simple Present A: He speaks. present taking every …,
N: He does not speak. place once, never never,
Q: Does he speak? or several times normally,
often,
 facts
seldom,
 actions taking place sometimes,
one after another usually
 action set by a if sentences
timetable or type I (If I
schedule talk, …)

Present A: He is speaking.  action taking at the

Progressive N: He is not speaking. place in the moment,
Q: Is he speaking? moment of just, just
speaking now,
Listen!,
 action taking place
Look!, now,
only for a limited
right now
period of time
 action arranged for
the future
Simple Past A: He spoke.  action in the past yesterday,
N: He did not speak. taking place once, 2 minutes
Q: Did he speak? never or several ago, in
times 1990, the
other day,
 actions taking place
last Friday
one after another
if sentence
 action taking place type II (If I
in the middle of talked, …)
another action
Past Progressive A: He was speaking.  action going on at a when,
N: He was not speaking. certain time in the while, as
Q: Was he speaking? past long as
 actions taking place
at the same time
 action in the past
that isinterrupted
by another action


 

 putting emphasis
on the result
 action that is still
going on
Present Perfect  action that stopped already,
Simple recently ever, just,
A: He has spoken.  finished action that never, not
N: He has not spoken. has an influence on yet, so far,
Q: Has he spoken? the present till now, up
 action that has to now
taken place once,
never or several
times before the
moment of
speaking
Present Perfect A: He has been speaking.  putting emphasis all day, for
Progressive N: He has not been speaking. on the course or 4 years,
Q: Has he been speaking? duration (not the since 1993,
result) how long?,
the whole
 action that recently
week
stopped or is still
going on
 finished action that
influenced the
present
Past Perfect Simple A: He had spoken.  action taking place already,
N: He had not spoken. before a certain just, never,
Q: Had he spoken? time in the past not yet,
once, until
 sometimes
that day
interchangeable
if sentence
with past perfect
type III (If I
progressive
had
 putting emphasis talked, …)
only on the fact
(not the duration)





 action taking place

before a certain
time in the past
 sometimes
Past Perfect A: He had been speaking. for, since,
interchangeable
Progressive N: He had not been speaking. the whole
with past perfect
 Q: Had he been speaking? simple day, all day
 putting emphasis
on the duration or
course of an action
Future I Simple A: He will speak.  action in the future in a year,
N: He will not speak. that cannot be next …,
Q: Will he speak? influenced tomorrow
If-Satz Typ
 spontaneous
I (If you ask
decision
her, she will
 assumption with help you.)
regard to the future assumption:
I think,
probably,
perhaps

Future I Simple A: He is going to speak.  decision made for in one year,

N: He is not going to speak. the future next week,
(going to) Q: Is he going to speak? tomorrow
 conclusion with
regard to the future
Future I A: He will be speaking.  action that is going in one year,
Progressive N: He will not be speaking. on at a certain time next week,
Q: Will he be speaking? in the future tomorrow
 action that is sure
to happen in the
near future
Future II Simple A: He will have spoken.  action that will be by Monday,
N: He will not have spoken. finished at a in a week
Q: Will he have spoken? certain time in the
future
Future II A: He will have been speaking. action taking place for …, the
Progressive N: He will not have been before a certain last couple
speaking. time in the future of hours, all
Q: Will he have been speaking? day long
 putting emphasis
on the course of an
action

 if sentences
type II
Conditional I A: He would speak.  action that might
(If I were
Simple N: He would not speak. take place
you, I
Q: Would he speak? would go
home.)

Conditional I A: He would be speaking.  action that might

Progressive N: He would not be speaking. take place
Q: Would he be speaking?
 putting emphasis
on the course /
 duration of the
action
Conditional II A: He would have spoken.  action that might if sentences
Simple N: He would not have spoken. have taken place in type III
Q: Would he have spoken? the past (If I had
seen that, I
would
have
helped.)

Conditional II A: He would have been  action that might

Progressive speaking. have taken place in
N: He would not have been the past
speaking.
 puts emphasis on
Q: Would he have been
the course /
speaking?
duration of the
action

1.- Cumulative Verb Tense Review (1)

1. You look really great! _____________________(You, exercise) at the fitness center?

2. A: What _____________________(you, do) when the accident occurred?

B: I_______________________ (try) to change a light bulb that had burnt out.

3. I _______________________(have) the same car for more than ten years. I'm thinking about
buying a new one.

4. If it _______________________(snow) this weekend, we _______________(go) skiing near Lake

Tahoe.

5. A: What do you call people who work in libraries?

B: They_______________________ (call) librarians.

6. I came to England six months ago. I started my economics course three months ago.
When I return to Australia, I _____________________(study) for nine months and
I__________________ (be) in England for exactly one year.
7. Sam _________________________(arrive) in San Diego a week ago.

8. Samantha ________________(live) in Berlin for more than two years. In fact, she (live) there
when the Berlin wall came down.

9. If Vera______________________ (keep) drinking, she _____________________(lose, eventually) her

job.

10. The Maya established a very advanced civilization in the jungles of the Yucatan;
however, their culture_________________________ (disappear, virtually) by the time Europeans
first _______________________________(arrive) in the New World.

11. Shhhhh! Be quiet! John __________________________(sleep) .

12. It _____________________________(rain) all week. I hope it stops by Saturday because I want

to go to the beach.

13. Listen Donna, I don't care if you ______________________(miss) the bus this morning. You
____________________________________(be) late to work too many times. You are fired!

14. I am sick of rain and bad weather! Hopefully, when we ___________________________(wake)

up tomorrow morning, the sun (shine) .

15. I have not traveled much yet; however, I ____________________________(visit) the Grand
Canyon and San Francisco by the time I leave the United States.

16. I __________________________(see) many pictures of the pyramids before I went to Egypt.

Pictures of the monuments are very misleading. The pyramids are actually quite small.

17. In the last hundred years, traveling_________________________ (become) much easier and
very comfortable. In the 19th century, it ________________________(take) two or three months
to cross North America by covered wagon. The trip _______________________(be) very rough
and often dangerous. Things__________________________ (change) a great deal in the last
hundred and fifty years. Now you can fly from New York to Los Angeles in a matter of
hours.

18. Joseph's English _____________________________(improve, really) , isn't it?

He_______________________________ (watch) American television programs and (study) his
grammar every day since he first arrived in San Diego. Soon he will be totally fluent.

19. When I ___________________________(arrive) home last night, I discovered that Jane

_________________________(prepare) a beautiful candle- lit dinner.

20. If you _________________________(need) to contact me sometime next week, I

________________________(stay) at the Sheraton in San Francisco.

2.- Cumulative review.

1. When Carol _______________________________(call) last night, I _______________________(watch)
my favorite show on television.
2. I ____________________________(work) for this company for more than thirty years, and I
intend to stay here until I retire!
3. Sharon_________________________ (love) to travel. She ________________________(go) abroad
almost every summer. Next year, she plans to go to Peru.
4. Thomas is an author. He ___________________________(write) mystery novels and travel
memoirs. He_________________________ (write) since he was twenty-eight. Altogether, he
(write) seven novels, three collections of short stories and a book of poetry.
5. We were late because we had some car problems. By the time we
____________________________(get) to the train station, Susan ____________________________(wait) for
us for more than two hours.
6. Sam ________________________________(try) to change a light bulb when he
________________________(slip) and _________________________(fell) .
7. Everyday I _____________________________(wake) up at 6 o'clock,
____________________________(eat) breakfast at 7 o'clock and
_________________________________(leave) for work at 8 o'clock. However, this morning I
______________________(get) up at 6:30, ________________________________(skip) breakfast and
____________________________(leave) for work late because I
___________________________________(forget) to set my alarm.
8. Right now, Jim (read) the newspaper and Kathy_____________________________ (make) dinner.
Last night at this time, they ________________________(do) the same thing. She
___________________________(cook) and he _______________________(read) the newspaper.
Tomorrow at this time, they _________________________(do, also) the same thing. She
____________________________(prepare) dinner and he ____________________________(read) . They are
very predictable people!
9. By this time next summer, you__________________________________ (complete) your studies
and _____________________________________(find) a job. I, on the other hand,
______________________________________(accomplish, not) anything. I (study, still) and you (work)
in some new high paying job.
10. The students___________________________________ (be, usually) taught by Mrs. Monty.
However, this week they__________________________________ (be) taught by Mr. Tanzer.
11. A.- Jane talks on the phone.
B.-Bob has been talking on the phone for an hour.
C.-Mary is talking on the phone.
Who is not necessarily on the phone now? ___________________________
12. A.-I'm going to make dinner for Frank.
B.- I'm making dinner for Judy.
C.- I'll make dinner for Mary.
D.- I make dinner for Ted.
E.-I will be making dinner for Tony.
Who are you offering to make dinner for? _____________________________
13. A.-Jane left when Tim arrived.
B.- Bob left when Tim had arrived.
C.- Tim arrived when Mary was leaving.
D.-John had left when Tim arrived.
 E.- After Tim arrived, Frank left.
Who did not run into Tim? __________________________________
14. A.-Jane is talking in class.
B.-Bob always talks in class.
C.-Mary is always talking in class.
Whose action bothers you? _____________________________________
15. A.-Jane never left Jamestown.
B.- Bob has never left Jamestown.
Who is still alive? _________________________________

UNIT 2. CONNECTORS

CONTRAST

In spite of / Despite Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by a noun phrase

Although / (Even)
Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by a sentence.
though /Though
However
Nevertheless
Introduce a new idea which marks a contrast with previously
Still / Yet
stated ideas. Used after a strong pause and separated from the
Even so
sentence they introduce by a comma.
On the contrary
In contrast
On the one hand ... on
Links two contrasting ideas / paragraphs.
the other hand
In contrast to
Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by a noun phrase.
Contrary to
Whereas Link two contrasting ideas. Not separated by commas.

REASON AND CAUSE

Because
As Introduce a sentence. Subordinate sentences introduced by
Since BECAUSE always appear in final position.
Seeing that
Because of Introduce a noun phrase.
 On account of
Owing to
Due to
In order to (to)
Introduce an infinitive of purpose.
So as to
In order that
Introduce a sentence usually with COULD.
So that
CONSEQUENCE

Consequently
As a consequence Used after a strong pause and separated from the sentences
As a result they introduce by a comma.
Therefore
As a consequence of
Followed by a noun phrase.
As a result of
So Introduces a sentence. No commas.
ADDITION

Moreover
Furthermore
Used after a strong pause and separated from the sentences
In addition
they introduce by a comma.
Besides
What's more

As well as
Used to add one more piece of information. Followed by a noun
In addition to
phrase.
Besides
EXEMPLIFICATION

For example
Introduces an example referring to previously stated ideas.
For instante
Such as Introduces an example referring to the last idea/word

CONNECTORS. REWRITING. ACTIVITY 1

1 Although she was an expert swimmer, she drowned. (OF)

_________________________________________________________________________

2 The school was closed down due to low inscription. (OF)

_________________________________________________________________________

3 Helen went to the market so that she could buy some vegetables. (ORDER)

_________________________________________________________________________

4 The match was cancelled because it was raining. (TO)

_________________________________________________________________________

5 Despite having a terrible headache, he went to the office. (HAD)

_________________________________________________________________________

6 He loves going to the theatre while his wife prefers to stay at home.

_________________________________________________________________________

7 I sat by the window in order to see the landscape. (THAT)

_________________________________________________________________________

8 As well as being en excellent painter, she writes poems and plays the piano.
(MOREOVER)

_________________________________________________________________________

9 Although Ann isn't very attractive, she is very popular. (HOWEVER)

_________________________________________________________________________

10 Seeing that we'd run out of milk, we went to the supermarket. (BECAUSE)

_________________________________________________________________________

11 Contrary to my neighbours, I don't like using the lift. (TO)

________________________________________________________________________

12 As well as renewing the kitchen, she redecorated her bedroom. (TO)

________________________________________________________________________

13 Although the city has a 50 kph limit, people are often fined for exceeding the speed
limit. (SO)

________________________________________________________________________

14 Many sportsmen are disqualified as a consequence of their illegal use of drugs.

(CONSEQUENTLY)

________________________________________________________________________

15 John won the race. Nevertheless, he didn't feel happy. (DESPITE)

________________________________________________________________________

16 We need to increase sales. Therefore, we'll start a new advertising campaign. (SO)

________________________________________________________________________

17 Although he was a millionaire, he behaved as an ordinary man. (YET)

________________________________________________________________________

18 Since you are her elder brother, you must take care of her. (BECAUSE)
________________________________________________________________________

19 She's an excellent secretary. However, she has never been promoted. (SPITE)

________________________________________________________________________

20 She opened the car window so that she could get some fresh air. (IN ORDER TO)

________________________________________________________________________

21 I opened the window due to the heat. (BECAUSE)

________________________________________________________________________

22 We didn't go swimming because the water wasn't very clean. (SO)

________________________________________________________________________

23 The government passed a new law in order to control terrorism.

________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 3: Mixed Conditionals

Use:
Mixed conditional sentences combine two different conditional patterns.
Several patterns can be used:
 mixed first conditional sentences
First conditional sentences can use a variety of modal verbs.
If + present simple, can / may / might / will / should + verb (infinitive)
If you give me some money, I can buy some milk.
If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?
If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.
First conditional sentences can also use going to, as well as will.
If + present simple, going to + verb (infinitive)
If you don’t get ready soon, we’re going to be late!
The present continuous and Going to can also appear in the If clause
If you’re going to the shop, can you buy me some cola?
If you’re going to pay him, make sure you get a receipt.
The present perfect may also appear in the If clause.
If you’ve finished your work, you can go home.
 mixed third / second conditional
This combination describes an imagined event in the past and the present result.
If + past perfect, would + verb (infinitive)
If he'd taken the medicine, he wouldn't still be sick.
He wouldn’t still be sick if he’d taken the medicine.
 mixed second / third conditional
This combination describes a situation which is never true, and the past consequence of
this situation.
If + past simple, would have + verb (infinitive)
If you were better at speaking in public, the presentation would have been more successful.
The presentation would have been more successful if you were better at speaking in public.

Wish / If only
Use:
Wish and If only can be used:
a) To wish for an ability now or in the future: I wish (that) / If only + subject + could
+ infinitive verb
I wish I could play the guitar!
If only I could dance like that!
I wish I could go to your wedding next week, but I can’t.
If only I could see my grandmother more often, but I can’t.
b) To wish that something could be true at the moment. I wish (that) / If only + subject +
past simple
I wish I had long hair! If only I were taller!
c) To wish that something was happening at the moment.
I wish (that) / If only + subject + past continuous
I wish I was lying on the beach right now! If only I was lying on the beach right
now!
d) To wish that something kept happening again and again, or to wish it could stop
happening. I wish (that) / If only + subject + would + infinitive
I wish you would tidy up more often.
Often: I wish (that) / If only + subject + would stop + verb-ing
I wish he would stop shouting.
I wish (that) / If only + subject + wouldn’t keep + verb-ing
I wish you wouldn’t keep hitting me.
e) To wish that something in the past had happened in a different way.
I wish (that) / If only + past perfect
I wish I had studied for my exam!
If only I hadn’t argued with him!

INVERSION IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

In literary style, we can sometimes omit if changing the word order subject / auxiliary.
This has nothing to do, of course, with an interrogative sentence.
TYPE 0/TYPE 1. (SHOULD)
If you should run into Peter Bellamy, tell him he owes me a letter. =
Should you run into Peter Bellamy.
TYPE 2. (WERE)
If she were my daughter, I would send her to a boarding school. =
Were she my daughter...
If war were to break out, I would emigrate to Mars. =
Were war to break out.
TYPE 3. (HAD)
If he had studied, he would have passed. =
Had he studied. He would have passed.

Other words with conditional meaning

Many words and expressions can be used with a meaning similar to if, (and with similar
verb forms). Some of the commonest are provided,, providing, supposing, as long as,
on condition that, unless, in case…
e.g. Supposing you fell in love with your boss, what would you do?
You can borrow my bike provided/providing you bring it back.
I'll give you the day off on condition that you work on Saturday morning.
You are welcome to stay with us, as long as you share the rent.
1.- Rewrite the sentences given.
1- Take these pills three times a day and you’ll soon feel better.

If you

2- I couldn’t meet him because he had moved.

If he

3- I can’t live in the country because I can’t find a job there.

If I

4- Tell me your address. I might need it.

Tell me your address in case

5- Unless you study hard you won’t pass your exams.

If you

6- Visiting Israel won’t be possible without a visa.

Unless

7- I didn’t pass because I didn’t study.

If I

8- Sally won’t go to Nebraska because she doesn’t have enough money.

If Sally

9- Buy some aspirins. You might need them during your journey.

Buy some aspirins in case

10- They didn’t go to England because they didn’t book a room on time.
Had

11- Philip won’t go to Ireland with his friends because he doesn’t like flying.

If

2.- Rewrite the sentences.

1.Those of you who haven´t given in their names must do so today.-

Unless you________________________________________________________________

2.Those of you who haven’t got cars will have to take the bus.-

Unless you_________________________________________________________________

3.I didn’t know anything about it. Otherwise, I’d told you.-

Had_______________________________________________________________________

I4.It may not fit you. In that case, you can return it to the shop.-

Were _____________________________________________________________________
5.You didn’t tell me in time. Otherwise, I might have been able to help.-

If _________________________________________________________________________

6.You could have had an accident and your family would have blamed me.-

Had _______________________________________________________________________

7.If you aren’t on a diet, try the cheesecake.-

Unless______________________________________________________________________

8.Danny wants to lose weight, but he doesn’t have any will power.-

If __________________________________________________________________________

9.Sue didn’t mention the tennis game so I didn’t turn up to watch.-

Had________________________________________________________________________

10.If you require further information, you can visit our website.

Should _____________________________________________________________________

11.You should have a medical check-up when starting a diet.-

Were ______________________________________________________________________

12.I didn’t buy any vegetables so I can’t make a salad.-

If __________________________________________________________________________

13.Paul won’t swim in the pool because there is no lifeguard.

Providing that_________________________________________________________________

14.Peter gets angry with people who don’t take him seriously.-

Unless_____________________________________________________________________

15.It was a mistake to go to England in winter.-

I wish_______________________________________________________________________

UNIT4: PASSIVE VOICE.

Basic passive

Active: I write emails every day

Passive: Emails are written every day

Double complement passive

Active: I sent them a letter.

Passive: A letter was sent to them

Passive: They were sent a letter.

Impersonal passive voice

Ative: People believe they are getting married soon.

Passive 1: It is believed that they are getting married soon.

Passive 2: They are believed to be getting married soon.

Have something done/ Get somebody to do/ Have somebody do

“To have something done” means that somebody does something for you.

Active: Someone is repairing my roof.

Passive: I am having my roof repaired.

"To get someone to do something" suggests that you talked to the person and
convinced him to do something.

Active: My brother repaired the roof.

Passive: I got my brother to repair the roof.

"To have someone do something" simply states that you arranged for someone to do
something, whether or not that person did it voluntarily.

Active: My brother repaired my roof.

Passive: I had my brother repair the roof.

REWRITING ACTIVITY.

1. The dentist took out all my wisdom teeth.

I ______________________________________].

2. They made him write the report again.

He_________________________ the report again.

3. People say that he was in prison last year.

He ________________________ in prison last year.

4. Everyone thought he had sold secrets to a foreign country.

He __________________________ secrets to a foreign country.

5. You can't make kids do things they don't like.

Kids can't _______________________things they don't like.

6. It is well-known that she betrayed him.

She is well-known _____________________ him.

7. We are looking into this allegation.

This allegation __________________________________________.

8. I haven't been to the car-wash for ages.

I ______________________________________ for ages.

9 Nobody must open this door.

________________________________________________________

10 People expect the new government will reduce taxes.

__________________________________________________________

11 They gave John another opportunity.

____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

12 Mary will send all the letters, as scheduled.

_____________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________

13 Your car needs servicing.

____________________________________________________________

14 It's said that the new Harry Potter film will be released in June.

____________________________________________________________

15 They told John to stop messing around.

______________________________________________________________

16 Somebody should bring cold drinks to the party.

_______________________________________________________________

17 They speak English in most hotels.

________________________________________________________________

18 People believe that the Forum will be a success.

_________________________________________________________________

19 They asked John to resign.

__________________________________________________________________

20 In the Middle Ages people believed that the Earth was flat.

___________________________________________________________________

21 Nobody understood his talk.

____________________________________________________________________

UNIT 5: MODAL VERBS.

TIME REFERENCE
MEANING
PRESENT / FUTURE PAST
could
Ability can was / were able to
managed to
would/might/could + have +
pp (didn't actually happen)
Possibility may, might, could may/might/could + have + pp
(don't know whether it
happened or not)
Probability will ---
Certainty must, can't must / can't + have + pp
Obligation must, have to had to
had to / didn't have to
Necessity have to, need to, need didn't need to
needn't have + pp
should /ought to + have + pp
Advice should, ought to, had better
(regret)
can, could
Requests ---
Would you mind + -ing ...?
can, could, may
Permission ---
Do you mind if I ...?
Offers Shall I ...? ---
Shall we ...?
Let's + V
Suggestions ---
How about + -ing ...?
Why don't we ...?

MODAL VERBS. REWRITING ACTIVITY.

1 Let's go to Diagonal Mar!
_________________________________________________________________
2 Perhaps they told John about the party, but I'm not sure.
_________________________________________________________________

3 It isn't necessary for us to book a table; I know one of the waiters.

_________________________________________________________________

4 It's forbbiden to drive without fastening your seatbelt.

_________________________________________________________________

5 It's impossible that they knew about the trip; nobody told them.
_________________________________________________________________

6 If I were you I'd do some more exercises.

_________________________________________________________________

7 Perhaps I go on holiday to Menorca.

_________________________________________________________________

8 It was a mistake to take the car. If only I hadn't!

_________________________________________________________________

9 I'm sure something is happening tonight. Look at those preparations!

_________________________________________________________________

10 It's compulsory for all students to attend lessons.

_________________________________________________________________

11 It's possible that they move to Australia.

_________________________________________________________________

12 I'm sure Helen knows about the accident. She looks very unhappy.
_________________________________________________________________
13 Perhaps he hired a vannette.
_________________________________________________________________

14 You are not allowed to use the phone without permission.

_________________________________________________________________

15 If I were you I wouldn't trust John.

_________________________________________________________________

16 I'm sure she didn't take the key.

_________________________________________________________________

17 Perhaps I start a new career.

_________________________________________________________________

18 It was not necessary for you to tell Jan what really happened.
_________________________________________________________________

19 I regret selling the house.

_________________________________________________________________

20 It's compulsory for all visitors to show their ID card.

_________________________________________________________________

Past Modals for Deduction

Use and Form:
The following modals can be used to guess what happened in the past.
must have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about the past, and you are almost certain that your guess
is correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They must have got out under the gate. There is no other way out.’
may have + past participle verb
might have + past participle verb
could have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about the past, but you are only suggesting one
possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They may have got out under the gate, or they might have escaped through this hole in the
fence.’
may not have + past participle verb
might not have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, but you are only
suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.
‘Where’s John? Why isn’t he at the meeting?’
‘He may not have got the message.’ / ‘He might not have received the message.’
NOTE: may not is not contracted to mayn’t, and might not is rarely contracted to mightn’t.
can’t have + past participle verb
couldn’t have + past participle verb
Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, and you are almost
certain that your guess is correct.
‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’
‘They can’t have got out under the gate. I fixed that yesterday.’
NOTE: you cannot use: mustn’t have + past participle verb to make deductions about
the past.
Common Mistakes:
1. Many students do not take the opportunity to use these structures when they can.
Maybe I left my book at home. → I may have left my book at home.
I think Robin went to the restaurant without us. → Robin must have gone to the
restaurant without us.
2. Note that could have has the same meaning as might have and may have.
Why is Tom late?
He may / might / could have got stuck in traffic.
However, in the negative form the meaning is not the same.
Why is Tom late?
He may / might not have got your message. (NOT could not)
= Maybe he didn’t get your message.
Couldn’t have has the same meaning as can’t have.
Why is Tom late?
I’m not sure! He can’t / couldn’t have forgotten about the party!
= I’m sure he didn’t forget.
UNIT 6: INVERSION

The inversion of the subject may occur in different situations and it may require the
use

of the auxiliary do as in the interrogative form.

It may occur:

1 – In a conditional sentence when the omission of if takes place.

Ex.: If I had known he needed me, I wouldn’t have failed to go.

Had I known he needed me, I wouldn’t have failed to go.

If I were in his place, I wouldn’t do that.

Were I in his place, I wouldn’t do that.

2 – When some adverbs, adverbial phrases or clauses expressing degree, negation or

simple restriction are placed at the beginning of a sentence for reasons of emphasis.

Hardly Seldom Rarely

Never Not only ... but also Only today

Only yesterday Only by chance Only with difficulty Only by

luck Only on rare occasions No sooner ... than

Nowhere On no account Neither

Nor In vain Little

1) USING INVERSION, REWRITE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES BEGINNING WITH THE

WORDS GIVEN. THERE IS AN EXAMPLE.

1. We seldom have goods returned to us because they are faulty.

Seldom ______________________________________________because they are faulty.

2. Her business was so successful that she was able to retire at the age of 50.

So______________________________________________ to retire at the age of 50.

3. Passengers are not permitted to open the doors themselves under any circumstances.
Under__________________________________________ to open the doors themselves.

4. The door could not be opened without using force.

Only ___________________________________________opened.

5. They don’t know how lucky they are to live in such a beautiful house.

Little ______________________________________________to live in such a beautiful house.

6. The play is so popular that the theatre is likely to be full every night.

Such ____________________________________________to be full every night.

7. She started asking me questions as soon as I had stepped through the door.

No sooner _____________________________________she started asking me questions.

8. If you happen to see him, tell him to try harder.

__________________________________________see him, tell him to try harder.

9. If by any chance you feel you are in trouble, please, call me.

__________________________________________you are in trouble, please, call me.

10. As soon as his mother left, he started playing computer games.

No sooner _____________________________________________________________

11. Samantha neither joined the dance club nor went to the gym.

Samantha didn’t join the dance club, nor _____________________________________

12. The supermarket was so busy that we postponed doing the shopping.

So ____________________________________________________________________

13.- Once Phillip had agreed to help them, they went ahead with the plan.

Only __________________________________________________________________

14.- My brother plays football and tennis at the leisure centre.

Not only _______________________________________________________________

15. She began to show her gift as a pianist only after the age of five.

Only after ______________________________________________________________

16. I haven’t enjoyed myself so much since I was a child.

Not since ______________________________________________________________

17. It was such a beautiful day that I decided to go sunbathing on the beach.

Such __________________________________________________________________
18. Melinda had no idea that we were planning a surprise party for her.

Little __________________________________________________________________

UNIT 7 : REPORTED SPEECH.

1.- Rewrite the sentences.

1 "I can't believe what you're saying," Paul told me.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

2 "Would you like a piece of cake? she said to the girls.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

3 "What time did you get here?" he asked.

____________________________________________________________________________________________

4 "I'm sorry to be late, but I missed the bus" she said.

______________________________________________________________________________________________

5 "Thank you for the letter you sent me," she said to Jane.

_______________________________________________________________________________________________

6 "What were you doing yesterday at 5?" he asked.

________________________________________________________________________________________________

7 "I'll call you when I finish," he said.

________________________________________________________________________________________________

8 "The lesson had already started when James arrived," she said.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

9 "I was eating a sandwich when the phone rang," she said.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________

10 "You must finish the homework today," my boss told me.

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
UNIT 8: RELATIVE CLAUSES AND CLEFT SENTENCES.

1.- Link the sentences.

1. My school is very big. It is in Madrid.

___________________________________________________________

2. I bought this cake yesterday. It tastes delicious.

___________________________________________________________

3. Michael is a policeman. His father is a judge.

___________________________________________________________

4. I bought a computer last month. It doesn't work properly.

___________________________________________________________

5. Prince Charles will be the king of England one day. His mother is Queen Elizabeth.

___________________________________________________________

6. I was given a dog. It is very friendly.

___________________________________________________________

7. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn was written by Mark Twain. I enjoyed it a lot.

___________________________________________________________

8. Mrs Kelly is the woman. She took me to hospital when I fainted at school.

__________________________________________________________

9. I played football in this school. Its team was the best in town.

___________________________________________________________

10. They don´t know me. They didn´t come to the previous party.

___________________________________________________________

11. I like that shop. I always buy clothes there.

___________________________________________________________

12. Shakespeare worte Hamlet. He died in 1616.

___________________________________________________________

13. My niece and nephew are very intelligent. They are called Demelza and Adrian.

___________________________________________________________

REDUCED RELATIVE SENTENCES.

1.- Reduce the relatives sentences .

1. The woman who is talking to your mother is my aunt.

________________________________________________________________

2. The man who is standing by the window is my uncle.

________________________________________________________________

3. All those who do not need to buy tickets please go straight in.

________________________________________________________________

4. The first vineyard which was grown artificially was in Germany.

________________________________________________________________

5. Wikipedia, which was launched in 2001, is one of the great internet successes.

________________________________________________________________

6. Animals which share the savannah include wildebeest and gazelles.

________________________________________________________________

7. All the candidates who were selected were given a second interview.

________________________________________________________________

8. All those who passed the test were given a second interview.

________________________________________________________________

9. LOL, which stands for Laughing Out Loud, is now in the OED.

________________________________________________________________

10. The bouquet was made from flowers which were grown locally.

________________________________________________________________

11. The man who was chosen for the film is my friend´s cousin.

_____________________________________________________________

12. The man who won yesterday's lottery lives next door.

_______________________________________________________________

13.The people who are crossing the street are trying to get a better view.

________________________________________________________________
CLEFT SENTENCES..
Emphasis in cleft sentences with it.

By using a cleft sentence with preparatory it, we can emphasise a noun, often in contrast with what has
just been said:

 I like Paris a lot, but it's Marseilles that I like the best.
The basic structure is:

It is / was + emphasised noun phrase + who / that + rest of the sentence

We often use an it-cleft to correct wrong information. When speaking, we stress the emphasised noun
phrase. Note that we can stress different parts of the sentence: the subject, the object, a prepositional
phrase for example.

 Jenny has bought a house in London

o No, it's Sally who/that has bought a house in London.
(

Emphasis in cleft sentences with What:

A what-cleft creates a kind of relative clause "package" which isolates content so that emphasis can be
placed elsewhere in the clause. The emphasized content is joined to the de-emphasized content with be.

DE-EMPHASIZED BE EMPHASIZED

What he wanted was success.

(clause package) (former subject)

EMPHASIS DE-EMPHASIZED

Success was what he wanted.

(clause package)

1.-Rewritethe sentencesto make them emphatic.

1. HIS UNHEALTHY DIET really upsets me.

What ___________________________________________________

2. My daughter is crazy about SKATING.

What ___________________________________________________

3. They just want TO STAY IN AND WATCH TV.

All ____________________________________________________

4. The landscape was made special by THE SNOW.

It _____________________________________________________

5. She only asked for A GLASS OF WATER.

All ____________________________________________________

6. I saw my parents for the last time IN MARCH.

The last time _____________________________________________

7. We left early TO ARRIVE ON TIME.

The reason why ___________________________________________

8. I have always wanted to visit NEW YORK.

The place ________________________________________________

UNIT 9: SO / SUCH

In constructions with so + adjective / adverb + that clause, and noun + linking verb + such
+ that clause, we can front the so or such expression:

 She was so exhausted that she went straight to bed.

So exhausted was she that she went straight to bed.

 He played the tune so badly that nobody recognised it.

So badly did he play the tune that nobody recognised it.

 The extent of the damage was such that the car was a total write-off.

Such was the extent of the dammage that the car was a total write-off.

1.- Rewrite the sentences following the model above.

1. He was so excited that he could hardly sleep.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2. His experience was such that he knew what to do immediately.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. She performed it so well that many said that it was perfect.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

4. He became so angry that he stormed out of the room.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. The situation was such that the smallest incident could have started a riot.

_______________________________________________________________________________________
6. He had been working so hard that he had hardly seen his family.

________________________________________________________________________________________

7.-My sister is very intelligent. I want to be like her.

__________________________________________________________________________________________
8.-Her dog is very noisy. All of us get stressed.
_________________________________________________________________________________________
9.- Skiing was a good experience. I decided to do it again.

_________________________________________________________________________________________

2.- Rewrite the setneces. Use inversion when possible.

1. .- She's got an excellent English accent. Everybody thinks she is British.

__________________________________________________________
1. Thailand has got beautiful temples. Millions of tourists go there every year.
__________________________________________________________
2. Her daughter wears beautiful clothes. We all love her style.
__________________________________________________________
3. My friends are too friendly to say no.
___________________________________________________________
4. My report was very interesting. My teachers congratulated me.
___________________________________________________________
5. This book is so good that I can't put it down.
____________________________________________________________
6. He eats such a lot of food that he is getting really fat.
____________________________________________________________
7. She buys such a large amount of magazines that she cannot read them all.
_______ _____________________________________________________
8. Their house is too big to clean.
_____________________________________________________________
9. This book isn´t interesting enough to read.

___________________________________________

10. Their shelf is too small for all your books.

____________________________________________
UNIT 10: COMPARISON.
-As + auxiliary / subject inversion

We can begin a second clause or sentence with as + auxiliary (or be) to say that somebody does the same thing
as somebody already mentioned, in which case inversion occurs:

 Italy produces many excellent wines, and Spain does too.

Italy produces many excellent wines, as does Spain.

 France is a founder member of the EU. Belgium is a founder member too.

France is is a founder member of the EU, as is Belgium.

Note - there is no inversion when the subjects of the two clauses are the same:

 Denmark has won this year's 'happiest country' award. It wins it every year.
Denmark has won this year's 'happiest country' award, as it does every year.

1.- Complete the sentences, starting with as. There is one sentence where you
don't invert.

1. They launched a new model last week. Their main competitor launched one too.

They launched a new model last week, _______________________________________________.

2. We have complained to the council about it. Our neighbours have also complained.

We have complained to the council about it, ___________________________________________.

3. She went on holiday to the Bahamas. She goes there every year.

She went on holiday to the Bahamas, ____________________________________________________.

4. The Czech Republic is famous for its beer, and so is Belgium.

The Czech Republic is famous for its beer, _______________________________________________.

5. They might be a bit late due to the traffic. Some of the other guests might be late
too.

They might be a bit late due to the traffic,________________________________________________.

-Than. Inversion. Inversion is optional.

Used with all verbs.

-We normally only have inversion here if we are comparing subjects of the verb, not objects. For example, in the
following two sentences, we are comparing objects, carrots and potatoes, not the subject I.

I like carrots more than I do potatoes. / I like carrots more than I like potatoes.

Now, in this sentence, we are comparing subjects, I and my friend Carl:

I like carrots more than does my friend Carl.

-More examples:

Cheetahs run faster than do antelopes. / You speak Chinese better than do I. /Jessica is more interested in
Computer Science than is Benjamin.

1.- Rewrite the sentences: Use inversion when possible.

1.She is very happy now. Yesterday she wasn't so happy.

She...

2.I want a box whose length has to be twice this one.

I want…

3.He is working very hard. He has never worked like this.

He…

4.-This thing is great. I've never seen anything like it.

This...

5.He speaks fluently. Last year he didn't.

He...

6.This sweater is size 32. Haven't you got a size 34?

Haven't you got...

7.I'm popular with girls but you are more popular.

I'm not...

8.Simulation exercises are interesting for the teacher, not for the pupils.

Simulation exercises...

UNIT 11: IT / THERE

1.-

2.-Rewrite the sentences with one of the expressions with It/There...

1.- It is a waste of time washing the dog before going to walk.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

2.- Everybody knows that they are going out together.

______________________________________________________________________________________

3.- Everybody agrees that they are good at English.

______________________________________________________________________________________

4.- Nobody is surprised to know that my friend has got the grant.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

5.- It is so easy that I don´t need to explain the exercise.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

6.- They didn´t leave toghether by chance.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

7.- It is not possible for the country to get over ths crisis easily.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

8.- You have to study. There is no coice.

________________________________________________________________________________________

9.- There isn´t a possibility for them to keep in touch.

________________________________________________________________________________________

10.- It is not worth speaking to him about it. He won´t listen.

________________________________________________________________________________________

11.- The tickets for the concert are not available any more.

________________________________________________________________________________________

12.- Everybody knows that they are planning to launch a new product.

________________________________________________________________________________________

UNIT 12: PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

-Participle clauses are shortened dependent clauses that use a present participle (-ING) or a past participle (-
ED/3rd column)
-We mostly use participle clauses in written language.

Participle clauses can be constructed using the present participle (ING . for active sentences), the past participle
(-ED / 3rd column for passive sentences), and the perfect participle (having + p.p. for sentences about past
situations).

Holding the hair-dryer in her left hand, Susan cut her hair with the scissors in her right hand.

Long form: Susan was holding the hair-dryer in her left hand and cutting her hair with the scissors in her right
hand.

Blown to the right by the hair-dryer, her hair could easily be cut.

Long form: Her hair was blown to the right by the hair-dryer and could easily be cut.

Construction

 There is no subject in a participle clause. The subject of the main clause is also the subject of the
participle clause.

participle form example

present participle
active Holding the hair-dryer in her left hand, she cut her hair.
(ing-form)
simultaneous
action
past participle
passive Blown by the hair-dryer, her hair could easily be cut.
(3rd verb form)

perfect participle
active (having + 3rd verb Having washed her hair, she cut it.
form)
sequential
action
perfect participle
passive (having been + 3rd Having been cut, her hair looked strange.
verb form)

 The conjunctions as, because, and since, as well as the relative pronouns who and which, are not used
in the participle clause.

Example:

As the hair was blown to the right by the hair-dryer, it could easily be cut. /→ Blown to the right by the hair-
dryer, the hair could easily be cut.

Her hair, which has been cut, looks strange now. /→ Her hair, having been cut, looks strange now.

 The conjunctions before and when are also used in the participle clause.

Before she cut her hair, she washed it./ → Before cutting her hair, she washed it.

 The conjunctions after and while can either be used or not.

After she had washed her hair, she cut it. /→ (After) having washed her hair, she cut it.

1.- Rewrite the senteces:

1. The boy who was waiting in the hall expected a phone call.

The boy_____________________________________________________________________
 2. Passengers who wanted to go to Liverpool had to change in Manchester.

Passengers__________________________________________________________________

3. The girl who was picked up by her brother was very nice.

The girl______________________________________________________________________

4. The house that stands at the end of the road will soon be sold.

The house_____________________________________________________________________

5. He picked up his briefcase and coat and left the room.

__________________________________________________________________________________

6. I didn't want a row so I apologized immediately.

__________________________________________________________________________________

7. I've never met her so I can't tell you what she's like.

___________________________________________________________________________________

8. They were walking down the street while they were singing loudly.

____________________________________________________________________________________

9. I've cooked some chicken because I know you don't like seafood.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

10. She was sitting on a stool while she was smoking a cigarette.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

11. -I looked straight at her and said, 'Frankly my dear, I don't give a damn.'

_____________________________________________________________________________________

12. I didn't want a row so I apologized immediately.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

13. I've never met her so I can't tell you what she's like.

_____________________________________________________________________________________

14. I've worked here for ten years, so I can tell you it's a terrible place to work.

______________________________________________________________________________________

1.- Rewrite the sentences:

1. They were standing by the side of the swimming pool and they were throwing
water at each other.

________________________________________________________________________
 2. I'm not the sort of person who enjoys large gatherings so I declined the invitation
to the party.

_________________________________________________________________________

3. I meet all nationalities in my daily work so I know quite a few words of other
languages.

__________________________________________________________________________

4. I've seen his report so I can give you an idea of the situation there.

__________________________________________________________________________

5. I've never been to Sydney so I can hardly recommend a hotel there.

____________________________________________________________________________

6. The conference which was planned by non-governmental organisations was about

globalisation.

____________________________________________________________

7. Irish people who live in Great Britain have the right to vote in British elections.

_____________________________________________________________

8. A friend who helps you in need is a good friend indeed.

_____________________________________________________________

9. A picture that shows the image of a person is a portrait.

_____________________________________________________________

10. The problems that were discussed will be essential for your exam.

_____________________________________________________________

11. Animals that eat plants are called herbivores.

____________________________________________________________

12. I meet all nationalities in my daily work so I know quite a few words of other
languages.

UNIT 13: VERBS OF THE SENSES.