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Final project
Rubric Grade
The team presented a WORKING digital recorder with all the requested features. +50
The length of the recording is indeed the maximum length the system could
+10
deliver with the available memory.
Subtotal: 100
Total:
Index
1|Research 2
Operational Amplifier 2
Active Filter 2
Butterworth Filter 2
Passband Filter 3
Signal Sampling 3
Human Voice 3
Nyquist’s Theorem 4
2|Development 6
Circuit Design 6
Data Acquisition 6
4|Conclusions 20
References 21
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1|Research
Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier is an electronic amplifier, that has been widely used in several
fields for control engineering and electronics. Its versatility stems from the multiple
configurations in which it can be connected with external components, allowing the
engineer to perform mathematical operations with different voltage levels, as well as
other applications.
Active Filter
An active filter is a filter that uses active components to function. The active components
are those that can introduce energy to a circuit, such as an operational amplifier. It has
proven to be more reliable and versatile when compared to passive filters, because
higher order filters become accessible. Two important configurations are available when
using operational amplifiers: the Sallen Key topology and the Multiple Feedback
topology.
Butterworth Filter
The Butterworth filter is one of the possible filter designs that can be used within the
Sallen Key topology. Its most important aspect is the behavior of the input and output
signals above or below the cutoff frequency. It can be seen that the signal below the
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passband does not experience any change in its magnitude (dB) as seen in the next
figure.
Passband Filter
A passband filter is a filter designed to only allow signals within a designated frequency
range to be observed at the output without affecting its magnitude. Frequencies above or
below the frequency range observe a magnitude loss of -10 dB per decade.
Signal Sampling
Human Voice
The frequency range differs between males and females. For males, the fundamental
frequency spectrum ranges from 80 Hz to 185 Hz. Females possess a greater range, going
from 165 to 255 Hz. These ranges are only for fundamental frequencies, and practical
applications use a greater range. Telephony systems use an operating range of 300 Hz to
3.4 kHz.
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Nyquist’s Theorem
The sampling theory states that for a limited bandwidth signal, the sampling frequency,
fm, must be greater than twice its bandwidth [B] measured in Hertz [Hz]. This is due to
the information that can be observed, at the same frequency as the input signal a
constant value would be observed. At higher frequencies more information from the
original signal can be obtained.
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supplies. No reference current (IREF) trimming is required for most applications since
the full scale output current is typically ±1 LSB of 255 IREF/256. Relative accuracies of
better than ±0.19% assure 8-bit monotonicity and linearity while zero level output
current of less than 4 µA provides 8-bit zero accuracy for IREF≥2 mA. The power supply
currents of the DAC0808 is independent of bit codes, and exhibits essentially constant
device characteristics over the entire supply voltage range.
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2|Development
Circuit Design
The complete circuit is divided into six stages, each detailing a different aspect of the
system. Interactions between stages are shown as inputs and outputs of each block.
Data Acquisition
Data acquisition is done through the use an electret microphone, coupled to an
amplifying circuit to enhance the amplitude of the signal. The microphone used is a
CZN-15E, which operates at 4.5 V and 1 mA. To ensure proper functionality at 9 V DC, a
series resistor was used to control the power fed into the microphone. Also, a bandpass
filter was added to remove undesired input noise.
The signal produced by the electret microphone without amplification had and
amplitude of 200 mV. As suggested by the supplier, a 0.1 uF capacitor was added before
signal measurements to remove the DC component of the signal. The amplification stage
was done by implementing an inverting amplifier with a gain of - 10, followed by unitary
gain inverting amplifier to recover the original phase of the signal.
Rf 100 k
A =− R =− 10 k =− 10
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To remove the noise captured by the microphone, the Butterworth passband filter was
designed to filter signals out of the range of 300 Hz and 3.4 kHz. This range was chosen
based on the common frequency spectrum range used in telecommunication systems. A
fourth order passband filter based on the Sallen-Key topology was used. Based on the
following formulae, the values for each stage were obtained. After testing the physical
implementation of the circuit, the cutoff frequencies shifted to 340 Hz and 3.35 kHz.
2 C 2 ≥ C 1 4b
a2
R1,2 = √
a C 2 ∓ a2 C 2 − 4bC 1 C 2
4 π f c C1 C2
a 1.8478 0.7654
b 1 1
C1 [nF] 1 1
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a 1.8478 0.7654
b 1 1
C [nF] 1 1
8
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Data Conversion
The filtered signal voltage range (-2 V to 2 V) did not match the voltage reference range
available for the ADC (0 V to 5 V), thus a level shifter was added to ensure the signal fit
the required voltage range. The clock signal fed into the ADC was 120 kHz, generated
with a 555 timer IC. With the voltage reference of 5V, the resolution of the system was
19.5 mV per bit.
Level shifter
R2 −
V out = R1 (V − V +) -
V+=-2V
V =Input Signal
V out = 1.25 V − + 2.5 R1=10k
V out ∈ [0, 5] R2=12.5k
555 timer
ADC Resolution
5V mV
Resolution = 256 bits ≈ 19.5 bit
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To change addresses on the RAM IC, three 74LS193 IC were used in a cascade
configuration to obtain a 12 bit binary counter. Only 11 bits were used by the RAM,
leaving the last output pin free. A reset instruction was sent to all three IC when the last
counter exceeded the last available address of the RAM with the use of logic gates.
To determine the frequencies required to properly read and write data to the RAM, the
minimum Read Cycle Time (RCT = 120 ns) and Write Cycle Time (WCT = 120 ns) were
obtained from the manufacturer’s datasheet.1 This time determine the maximum
1
http://ee-classes.usc.edu/ee459/library/datasheets/6116SA.pdf
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Given the maximum read and write frequency exceeded the maximum frequency at
which the ADC could convert data, the frequency of the binary counters was arbitrarily
set to 900 Hz. This allowed for a total WCT and RCT of 1ms per address, a total of 2.048
seconds to fill all 2048 available addresses with data. This meant that a maximum of two
seconds of sound could be recorded. The monostable 555 timers were then adjusted to
this time.
t ≈ 1.1R C R~1.818M
2 s ≈ 1.1 R * 1uF C = 1uF
R ≈ 2 −6 ≈ 1.818 M
1.1*10
900 = 1.44
C=0.1 uF
3 R *0.1*10−6
R = 5333.33
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Data Output
Conversion of the bits provided by the RAM IC is done by the DAC0808. The reference
voltages were adjusted for a 5 V output, and the signal amplitude was then adjusted to a
maximum of 0.4 V peak with the help of a level shifter. This was required to avoid
damaging audio amplifier (LM386) used to control the speaker output, which has a
maximum input signal voltage rating of 0.4 V. The audio amplifier was implemented
with a gain of 20, thus resulting in a maximum output voltage 8 of V, which is then fed
into the speaker.
ADC08808
n=8 Vref = 5V
1*biti
V out = V ref * ∑
i=1 2
i
bit=0 if LOW input, 1 if HIGH input
V ref 5V Vref=5V
I max = R = 4700Ω = 1mA R=4700
Level shifter
R
V out = R2 (V − − V + ) V+=2.5V
1 V-=Input Signal
V out = 0.16 V − − 0.4 R1=100k
V out ∈ [− 0.4, 0.4] R2=16k
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3|Physical Implementation
Each stage of the circuit was built on a different breadboard to accelerate testing and
improve design modularity in case any stage failed. Testing circuits were also built to
verify the behavior of the following IC: ADC0808, DAC0808 and RAM 6116. Videos of the
functional circuit are provided here:
● https://youtu.be/38xV_cNXm3Q
● https://youtu.be/AYXRqO30XWU
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18
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4|Conclusions
Several problems were encountered in the making of this circuit. These problems all can
be grouped into a single category: faulty components. The usage of this technology did
not facilitate the implementation of the circuit, because of the high sensitivity to static
that the ICs possessed. A better implementation could be done with other components
such as a PIC and dedicated ICs that are currently produced by different suppliers.
In general, too many things could have gone wrong because of the sheer amount of
components used. The filter stage needed special attention, because high deviations from
the specified values caused the TL084 to go into saturation. Faulty ADCs prevented
proper testing of the complete circuit, because its output could not be trusted.
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References
Kugelstadt, Thomas. (2008). Digital to Analog Converter (DAC). Abril 3, 2017, de Texas
instruments Sitio web: https://focus.ti.com/lit/ml/sloa088/sloa088.pdf
Kugelstadt, Thomas. (2013). Analog to Digital Converter (ADC). Abril 3, 2017, de Texas
Instruments Sitio web: http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/adc0808-n.pdf
Anonymous. (1999). Digital to Analog Converter (DAC). Abril 3, 2017, de Texas
Instruments Sitio web: http://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/dac0808.pdf
Anonymous. (2017). Operational Amplifier Basics. abril 3, 2017, de Electronics Tutorials
Sitio web: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/opamp/opamp_1.html
Anonymous. (2017). Active Low Pass Filter. Abril 3, 2017, de Electronics Tutorials Sitio
web: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_5.html
Burr Brown. (1991). Application Bulletin. Abril 3, 2017, de Burr Brown Sitio web:
http://electro.uv.es/asignaturas/ea2/sintesis/sallen-key.pdf
Anonymous. (2017). Passive Band Pass Filter. Abril 3, 2017, de Electronics Tutorials Sitio
web: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_4.html
Anonymous. (2017). Band Stop Filter. Abril 3, 2017, de Electronics Tutorials Sitio web:
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/band-stop-filter.html
Anonymous. (2017). Human Speech Spectrum, Frequency Range, Formants . Abril 3,
2017, de AV Info Sitio web:
http://www.bnoack.com/index.html?http&&&www.bnoack.com/audio/speech-level.html
Wescott, Tim. (2016). Sampling: What Nyquist Didn’t Say, and What to Do About It. Abril
3, 2017, de Wescott Design Services Sitio web:
http://www.wescottdesign.com/articles/Sampling/sampling.pdf
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