IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-89, NO.

8, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970 1891

General Equations for Fault Currents in

Transmission Line Ground Wires
CONRAD F. DESIENO, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE, PETER P. MARCHENKO, MEMBER, IEEE, AND
GREGORY S. VASSELL, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-General equations are presented and derived which and presented equations for its calculation for cases where the
enable the accurate calculation of fault currents in overhead trans- fault current source is at onlv one terminal of the line [1]. These
mission line ground wires at any point along the ground wire to equations were analytically derived, assuming uniformly distrib-
either side of the point of fault, given the fault current contribution uted "leakance" or conductance from ground wire to earth.
from both terminals of the line. The equations are based on uni- In 1963, Sebo and Regeni published test results indicating the
form tower footing resistance, which is treated as uniformly distrib-
uted conductance between ground wire and ground. The results, "end-effect" current distribution in the vicinity of the fault
easily and inexpensively calculated by digital computer, are com- [2], and in 1969 Sebo published an equivalent circuit method of
pared with test measurements previously published and excellent calculating these currents [3].
agreement is indicated. At the American Electric Power Service Corporation the
importance of the accurate analysis of ground wire current
distribution has been recognized for a long time, and an analytical
INTRODUCTION method has been developed which was first outlined in an in-
THE continuous growth in the capacity and capability of ternal report dated May 1966. The method, which is similar in
power systems, including extensive interconnections and general approach. to that of [1 ] but more extensive in coverage, is
large concentrations of generation and transformer capacity, based on the treatment of finite and discrete tower footing
results in ever-increasing values of fault currents in transmission resistance as a uniformly distributed conductance between
lines of all voltage classes. This, together with increased em- ground wire and ground. This approach is the inverse of that
phasis on reliability and design economy, points up the value of used in classical transmission line analysis, where uniformly
an accurate and convenient method for determining ground wire distributed parameters are replaced by discrete parameters in a
fault currents and related voltages, particularly near the point T or II configuration. The resulting general equations are easily
of fault, as a function of significant variables. Such a method and economically solved by the use of a digital computer and
would aid the engineer in determining the optimum design of are in excellent agreement with actual measured quantities.
future lines, including the selection of ground wires to with- The paper presents and discusses these general equations and
stand anticipated fault currents, as well as in evaluating the their derivation, and compares their solution with previously
performance and reliability of existing lines. This paper presents published test results.
a set of general equations for lines with one and two ground wires Derivation and Discussion of Equations
to meet the above requirements.
It is well known that the fault current flow along a ground The appendixes outline the development of generalized
wire diminishes as the distance from the point of fault increases equations for calculating the current in the ground wire of trans-
through diminishing current flows to earth at successive ground- missioin lines at any point along its length, including the end-
ing points, until it reaches an essentially constant value several effect current distribution near the point of fault and near the
miles from the fault point. This constant value is easily calcu- line terminals. Appendix I covers transmission lines with one
lated by using the self-impedance of the ground wire and its ground wire and Appendix II covers lines with two ground wires
mutual impedance with the phase conductors; the higher values both cases with fault current sources at each terminal. The
of current close to the point of fault have been difficult to calcu- discussion is directed primarily to overhead transmission lines,
late and generally have been neglected. In 1937 the Joint Sub- but the analysis and equations are equally applicable to fault
committee on Development and Research of the Edison Electric currents in underground cable sheets with uniformly distributed
Institute and the Bell Telephone System published test results conductance to ground. Furthermore, although this paper deals
indicating the distribution of fault current along the ground wire specifically only with the equations for ground wire current, the
material presented can be used to obtain the voltages along
the ground wire.
Paper 70 TP 101-PWR, recommended and approved by the The basic approach toward the derivation of the general
Transmission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power
Group for presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New equations in both appendixes is to form differential equations
York, N.Y., January 25-30, 1970. Manuscript submitted September for the currents and voltages along the ground wire by treating
12, 1969; made available for printing December 2, 1969.
The authors are with the Americani Electric Power Service Cor- the finite resistance or conductance to earth at each tower or
poration, New York, N.Y. 10004. ground wire grounding point as a uniformly distributed conduct-
 1892 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970

ance between the ground wire and ground and by assuming that 138 KV
LINE DATA:
the distance between grounding points is small compared to the 1. GROUND WIRE- I59Ikcmii ACSR GROUND
LINE CONFIGURATION

length of the line. These differential equations are similar to 60 2. EARTH RESISTIVITY-
100 OHM-METERS
--WIRE
FAULTED,, 14.4
those used in the analysis of voltages and currents in transmis- ZZ 3. NUMBER OF TOWERS PER PHASE ~'Fr I
sion line phase conductors where the resistance, inductance, and
WLU
t x 50 MILE-5 A! I_ ~ 224
-
-- 14'
4. AVERAGE TOWER FOOTING
capacitance parameters actually are uniformly distributed. 40
RESISTANCE -20 OHMS
5. FAULT CURRENT CONTR I BUTION- \ 1
,,
The differential equations then are solved by standard methods, cUr 71% FROM LEFT TERMINAL
29% FROM RIGHT TERMINAL /
/ +
and known terminal voltage-current relations are used to evalu- _,
ate the associated constants.
The specific assumptions made in the solutions of these
equations, in addition to that of uniformly distributed con-
ductance to ground, are 1) that the station grounding grids to
which the ground wires are connected solidly at the line terminals
have negligible resistance to earth, and 2) that there is negligible 2 4 6 8 10 11 12 14 16 56
resistance between the two ground wires at each tower or ground- DISTANCE ALONG THE LINE IN MILES
ing point. Fig. 1. Example of calculated ground wire fault current profile
The general equations derived by the above analytical method for 138-kV double-circuit transmission line with one ground wire;
fault current contributions from both terminals.
are indicated as (26) and (27) in Appendix I for one ground wire,
and (72)-(75) in Appendix II for two identical ground wires. 701
Current and voltage equations for nonidentical ground wires 138 KV
Zar l-t e

LINE DATA:
LINE CONFIGURATION
are also available in Appendix II. 1. GROUND WIRES -2 X 159 kcmfl ACSR
60 - 2. EARTH RESISTIVITY- 100 OHM- METERS O.W. V WG
4G.W.
The above equations can be easily programmed for solution z
3. NUMBER OF TOWERS PER MILE- 5
4. AVERAGE TOWER FOOTING FFAULTED-a.+
14.4'
by digital computers. At the American Electric Power Service w as 50 - RESISTANCE- 20 OHMS FPHASE --24
-
14'
5. FAULT CURRENT CONTRIBUTION
Corporation, the General Electric time-share computer service a
o D 71% FROM LEFT TERMINAL + + I,
is used for this purpose, with the equations programmed in U4 29% FROM RIGHT TERMINAL -37'- 4 i.
13'
+ 4 t -
FORTRAN II on the G.E. Mark I System. The total on-line
1
computer time for a typical single-ground-wire case, including a W 30

complete profile of ground wire current distribution, is approx- C 20

imately 10 minutes, including data entry, for a total computer
cost of approximately $2. For two ground wires, a complete set
of current distribution values costs less than $3.
Fig. 1 illustrates the typical distribution of fault current
along the single ground wire of a 138-kV double-circuit tower
line with a single-phase fault at a tower 11 miles from the left
terminal and with both terminals contributing current to the
fault. At the faulted tower, approximately 55 percent of the total
fault current flows in the ground wire toward the left terminal,
41 percent flows in the ground wire toward the right terminal
and the remaining 4 percent enters the earth directly through
the tower footing. The ground wire currents diminish rapidly
toward both terminals as additional but diminishing amounts of
current enter the earth through successive tower grounding
points. The current reaches a fairly constant value starting
approximately three miles away from the fault point, with a
very slight increase in ground wire current as each terminal is
approached.
Fig. 2 illustrates a similar current profile for each of the two
ground wires of a double-circuit 138-kV line, with a single-
phase fault 11 miles from the left terminal. The phase conductor
closest to ground wire v is faulted, and the higher mutual imped-
ance between this ground wire and the faulted phase conductor
accounts for its higher current.
To aid the engineer in the selection of ground wires when
designing new lines, many current profiles similar to Figs. 1 and 2
can be calculated to evaluate the effects of variables such as
ground wire characteristics, tower footing resistance, number of
towers per mile, soil resistivity, point of fault along the line,
ratio of fault current contribution from left and right terminals,
location of ground wire with respect to phase conductors, etc.
Depending on the application, it may be necessary only to
determine the current profiles in the immediate vicinity of the
fault and of the line terminals, thus decreasing the already
nominal computer time and cost.
0
½
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
DISTANCE ALONG THE LINE IN MILES
Fig. 2. Example of calculated ground wire fault current profile
for 138-kV double-circuit transmission line with two ground wires;
fault current contributions from both terminals.
COMPARISON OF CALCULATED AND TEST RESULTS
The ground wire fault profiles resulting from the generalized
equations of the appendixes compare very favorably with test
measurements published in [1] and [2]. Although a precise and
rigorous comparison is not possible because of the lack of com-
plete data in these references, sufficient data are available to
assure that the analytical method and equations presented here
are valid and produce practical and meaningful results.
Fig. 3 compares the current profiles for a single ground wire
with the fault current source at the left terminal only, as calcu-
lated by the equations of Appendix I with the test results in-
dicated in [1, fig. 3]. Since the tower footing resistance was not
provided in [1], it was assumed to be 5 ohms; the ground wire
was deduced to be 133 000 cmil copper. The calculated and test
results are in precise agreement for currents to the right of the fault
point and in excellent agreement to the left of the fault point,
particularly at the important fault and terminal points. It was
found, furthermore, that even a substantial variation in the
assumed tower footing resistance did not significantly affect this
comparison.
Fig. 4 provides a comparison between calculated and test
results for a two-ground-wire single-phase line. The measure-
ments are reproduced from [2, fig. 12]. The faulted conductor of
the tested line was symmetrically located below the two ground
wires, so that theoretically the fault current distribution is the
same in each ground wire. The difference between left and right
DESIENO et al.: FAULT CURRENTS IN TRANSMISSION LINE GROUND WIRES
81 120 KV
LINE CONFIGURATION
70 _ _ _I---O.S T -
O I___
_
oz
w L) 50AERG SANBEWENTOER 706T
C - - ..
880 870 860 850 840
830 820
TOWER NUMBER
Fig. 3. Comparison of calculated and measured ground wire fault
current distribution for 120-kV double-circuit line with one
ground wire; fault on all three phases of one circuit, supplied
by single-phase source from left terminal only.
I Iw(x+Ax) -Iw(x)I = Ie
8)
Fig. 4. Comparison of calculated and measured ground wire
fault current distribution for 120-kV single-circuit line with
two ground wires; fault current source at left terminal only.
ground wire measured currents was very small in most spans,
the maximum being 20 percent of the average in a span approx-
imately 1 mile to the left of the fault point. Presumably this was
due to differences in ground wire contact resistance and metering
accuracy.
The differences between measured and calculated values in-
dicated in Fig. 4 are caused mostly by a large difference from
average in measured tower footing resistance at two important
towers. The resistance to ground of the tower immediately to the
left of the fault point was 30 percent of the average, whereas
that of the tower immediately to the right was 280 percent of
the average; the remaining towers were much closer to the average.
This caused the current to the right of the fault point to be less
than the calculated value, which was based on the average
tower footing resistance, uniformly distributed along the line.
Nevertheless, there is meaningful agreement between tested
and calculated values, particularly for the important current
profile to the left of the fault point, further attesting to the
validity of the equations.
CONCLUSIONS
This paper has presented and derived a set of equations for
accurately calculating the fault current distribution and related
voltages in overhead transmission line ground wires. These ana-
lytically derived equations are based on the assumption of uni-
formly distributed conductance between ground wires and earth.
1893
The validity of the method, which is closely related to classical
transmission line theory, is proven by excellent agreement be-
tween calculated and measured results.
The method of analysis and the resulting equations, which
are easily programmed for digital computer solution, present a
powerful tool to aid the engineer in designing future transmission
lines and analyzing the capability of existing lines to with-
stand the ever-increasing fault current magnitudes. Although the
paper is directed primarily to overhead transmission lines, the
method and equations are equally applicable to underground
cables with uniformly distributed conductance to ground.
APPENDIX I
DEVELOPMENT OF GENERALIZED EQUATIONS FOR CURRENT
IN GROUND WIRE AT ANY DISTANCE FROM POINT OF FAULT
ON TRANSMISSION LINE WITH ONE GROUND WIRE
Fig. 5(a) is a schematic diagram showing a three-phase single-
ground-wire transmission line of length I on which a single-phase-
to-ground fault has been imposed at a distance d from the
left terminal to cause the indicated current flow in the faulted
phase conductor, ground wire, and earth return. Fig. 5(b)
shows a segment of the ground wire to the left of the point of
fault. Towers are assumed to be spaced at intervals of Ax with
tower footing resistance of Rt.
In Fig. 5(b) the difference between the ground wire fault
current Iw(x+Ax) at the span midpoint x + Ax and the ground
wire fault current 1W(x)' at the previous span midpoint x is the
current Ie,' which flows through the tower footing resistance
Rt, that is
(1)
Also, the current into earth Ie, can be expressed as the voltage
of the ground wire multiplied by the tower footing conductance
G6% 1=Rt:
1
le/ =
RI VW.
G,VW0 =- (2)
Combining (1) and (2) and dividing both sides by Ax yields
'w(x+Ax) - Iw(z) = G
Ax Ax
Vw.
(3)
If x is in miles, the coefficient of Vw' on the right-hand side of
(3) is in units of conductance per mile. If there are K towers per
mile and Ax is the distance between towers, then Ax = 1/K or
K = 1/Ax.
Let G equal tower footing conductance per mile; then
G = GtK =
Ax (4)
Replacing the coefficient of V,' in (3) with the new coefficient
G, conductance per mile, yields
'w(x+ax) - 'w(x) = GVw'. (5)
Ax x
To obtain a differential equation from (5), the normal and
rigorous procedure is to take the limit of the left-hand side as
Ax approaches zero. In this case Ax cannot actually approach
zero because it is the distance between towers. However, a
physically plausible argument can be presented namely, that
for long lines Ax is negligibly small compared to the line length
and effectively approaches zero.
1894 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970

Dividing both sides of (7) by Ax yields

x o
M~~~~~=I
I=-i3I'
d
y-l-d
-
y-o
C; I o
SYSTEM (INCREASING x-P)
x-d SYSTE
(-INCREASING Y) YS V2(X+AX)'AX-V = Iiw'Zww -If'Z (8)
EQUIV. f EQUIV.
W W
GROUND
RT W
RT RT WR Taking the limit of (8) as Ax approaches zero in relation to the
EARTH length of the line, yields a second current-voltage relation:
(a)
x
(INCREASING x--)
x+Ax
dV lw Zww -
IfZaw. (9)
I I1E I'VLI'
RT
I w(x) V t RRT
IRTR
w (x+ ) WIRE W
Using (6) and (9) and referring to Fig. 5(a) the following set of
EARTH
differential equations applies. For 0 < x < d, to left of fault:
-

If -,IWX) If -I w(x +A, x)

(b) =
dx GVW ' (6)
-
PHASE
(INCREASING x-eI CONDUCTOR
x
a
IW x+x
rpntiNn dI'
dx
I
= '
-_'Zww I'
- IfZaw (9)
V'w(K)t RT Vw(x+Ax) RT WIREW"
EARTH and for (I - d) > y > 0, to right of fault:
(c)
dy = GVW/' (10)
Fig. 5. (a) Schematic diagram of three-phase single-ground-wire dy
transmission line of length 1 and average tower footing resistance
Rt, with single phase-to-ground fault at distance d from left -dVw'' ,..
terminal. (b) Segment of ground wire to left of point of fault.
dy
= "Zww Zaw. (11)
(c) Segment of ground wire between two towers to left of fault.
By differentiating (6) with respect to x and (10) with respect
Thus the following differential equation can be written: to y, we obtain
dIw' - Iv_'
(6)
dx dx2
= G-
dx
(12)
Clearly (6) involves an approximation, since a finite discrete d'Iwff G dVw
ft

parameter G-1 is being replaced by a distributed parameter G. = (13)

However, for lines of practical length this approximation yields
dy2 dy
practical and completely acceptable results. Combining (9) with (12) and (11) with (13), respectively:
Further argument toward the practical acceptability of
the above approximation can be presented by pointing to d2Iw
the long-established practice of representing the distributed dx2 -_GZwwIw' -If'GZaw =
(14)
resistance, inductance, and capacitance parameters of a trans-
mission line by "lumped" parameters in a T or II configuration. d___f_GZ-wwI' = -IfcGZaw (15)
The concept proposed here is to represent, for the purpose of dy2
mathematical analysis, the lumped tower footing conductance Equations (14) and (15) may be solved by standard methods
Gt by the distributed tower footing conductance per mile G. to obtain the general solution
Thus the argument here is the inverse of that used in classical
transmisssion line theory.
For a segment of ground wire between two towers, to the left Iw' = Al'1e + A2'-Yx + Zaw I ' (16)
of the fault, as shown in Fig. 5(c) the drop in voltage along the
ZWw
ground wire between x and x + Ax can be expressed as I,,' = Ai"t'e + A2%E-7Y + Zaw
zw I f1f (17)
Vw(x+Ax)' Vw(x)' Iw'ZwwAx If Zaw,&X
- = (7) -

where Vw(x+Ax)', V,(x)', Iw' Ax are all defined in Fig. 5(c) and where 7y2 = GZ,w.
Substituting I,,' and I,," into (6) and (10) yields
If line-to-ground fault zero-sequence current contribution
= 31o 1 1
Z,,O, self-impedance of ground wire w with earth return VW' = - All'yeyx- A21 ye (18)
=Ra + 3e +j Xa + ie, Q/mi [4]
3/ ff
VW = GAlyJ7'
- -Af
Alffye - yc
A2 C fy (19)
A atw mutual impedance between faulted phase conductor
a and ground wire w with earth return Assuming that at x = 0 and y = 0 there are good station
Re + j grounds with negligible impedance between ground wire and
-
_ , U/mi [4]. earth, the voltage between the ground wire and earth is essen-
DESIENO et at.: FAULT CURRENTS IN TRANSMISSION LINE GROUND WIRES 1895

tially zero, so that at x = 0 At x = d the total line-to-ground fault current If (point of

fault) can be determined from (23)-(25) as
Vw' 0 = - Aly--
G G
A217
If = 1,0 + Il" + Ie
A1' = A2' = A' = 2A' cosh yd + 2A" cosh y(t - d)
and at y = 0
+ Zaw q1 ± If) + G' sinh yd.
VW," = 0 = -A11'y
G G
A2"
Using the relation between A' and A" from (22):
A1' = A21' = A".
Substituting A' and A" in (16) and (17) and using If= 2A' [cosh 'yd± ~ sinh yd ± ih7 1 Zafw
[ GRt tanh ay(I - d)] +zw
Ex + E-'
cosh yx =- 2 From this equation and (22)
yields
if 1 _Zaw
Zwto
Iw' = 2A' cosh yx + Zaw If (20) A' =
Zww 2(cosh yd) [1 + (tanh -yd) (C?+ tanh y(l-d))]

I1,"
2A" cosh yy + zaw
= (21)
zww A" =
at x = d, y = 1 - d, Vw = Vw' = V,,'. Then from (18) and (19)
If 1 _Zzww,
aw tanh yd
Vw = G y [Eyd _ E-,yd] = -A [Cy1>(I-d) _ -,y(-d) .

2[sinh 'y(l - d)] Ir

± (tanh yd) LR + d)/
But
sinh x _ 2 x Substituting these values of A' and A" in (20) and (21), the
sinh -yx = 2 final equations for current in the ground wire at any point along
the line are
and
ye( I d) _ Y( I _d) If 1 aw) cosh 'x
sinh 7(I-d)= 2 (ww
2,0
Therefore,
(cosh -yd) [1 + (tanh yd) (Gy + Iahald)
2A' sinh yd = 2A" sinh y(l - d) Zaw (26)
+-I
and
I _ -
wo
A" = A' sinh yd
(22) iwff=~~~~~~~~~~~wf
Zaw) (tanh Gd) cosh (yy
sinh y(l - d) If(1 -

At the faulted tower, the current into earth is

Vw
[sinh y (I - d)] [I + (tanh yd) t+ tanh -y (l d))
-

Ie
R= ++zZawI.f (27)
From (18) for x = d
2 These equations can be applied to a radial line with fault
Vw = Vw' = GAly(e2fd
G
- yd)
C-yA' sinh -yd. contribution from one side only by letting If' = If and If' = 0.
Therefore
APPENDIX II
Ie = 2yA' sinh yd. (23) DEVELOPMENT OF GENERALIZED EQUATIONS FOR CURRENT IN
GRI GROUND WIRES AT ANY DISTANCE FROM POINT OF FAULT
ON TRANSMISSION LINE WITH Two GROUND WIRES
From (20) and (21), letting x = d and y = 1 - d
Fig. 6 is a schematic diagram showing a three-phase double
Iw' = 2A' cosh yd + aw If' (24) ground-wire transmission line of length 1 with a single phase-to-
Zaw ground fault at a distance d from the left, along with the fault
Iw' = 2A" cosh y(l - d) + Z I". (25) current flow in the faulted phase conductor, ground wires, and
ZwW earth return.
1896 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970
From (36) we get
< d
x= ° If=3I'a y-lI-d
x-d
Iil=3111
f Y=O
_ I 111=
' -1 d2Iw' - ZwI ,I,
+
Zaw
f- (38)
SYSTEM L NCRENG ) ( INCREASING y) SYSTEM
GZ,,,
GVd Vdx2 ZVW0
v ZvwI
w
EQUI V. I EQUIV.
I* IIt Differentiating (38) twice with respect to IL, yields
? ? ? Ili, -1 GRD.-WIRE'EuW"
d2IN' 1 d41' ZwwG d21,
I,

V< V T- GRO-WIRE "V'

dx2 GZ, dx4 GZ-,w dx2 (39)
RTEI RrT RT
Replacing d2I'//dx2 and Iv' in (37) by their new expressions
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of three-phase double-ground-wire (38) and (39) we get
transmission line of length 1 and average tower footing resistance 1 d4Iw' Zww, d2lw' GZV , d2IwI
Rt; single phase-to-ground fault at a distance d from left terminal.
GZVW dx4 ZW dX2 GZww dx2 GZwwIw, + GZawfJ
Applying (6) independently for each ground wire to the left of - G(ZvzIw -Zavl fJ)).
the point of fault (0 < x < d)
Rearranging the terms gives
dlw, ' (28)
dx GVWI
dx4° -G(Z,,,4 + ZVV) dx2 + G2(ZVVZWW - Z2 W)I
- = GVD,. (29) - G2(ZvvZa0 - ZwZaWZ)lf'. (40)
dx
Applying (9) independently for each ground wire adding the Equation (40) may be solved by standard methods for linear,
effect of mutual impedance between ground wires w and v, we get constant coefficient differential equations to yield

dV,' = Iw'Zww + Iv'Zvw -If aw (30) I,, = AlE17 + A2CT1X + A36'y2x

dx
+ A4C -2Z + ZvvZaw - Zv Z I II (41)
Z vZWW -Zs2
dVv=
dx
Iv-Zvv + Iw'Zvw - I'Zav. (31)
where
Similar equations are developed for point to the right of the
point of fault (0 < y < 1 - d), as follows:
7,
(G[Zww + ZV, +
V-
V(Zw - Zvv)2 + 4Zv)]t1/2 (42)
2
dl," = CV,," (32)
dy
72 =
xG[Zw + ZV,2,- /(Zw ,- zv,,)2 + 4ZV
2
2)]t1/2 (43)
d-,,"
dy
=
IGV (33)
From (28)
- I "Zw + iv"Zvw -IfZato (34) I
dIY
dy VW, =

dyV" = IV"IZvv + iw"Zvw - If Zav (35) By substituting in this equation the derivative of (41) we get
dy

Differentiating (28), (29), (32), and (33) and substituting the VW= (y,AElZ - ylA2&TlX + Y2A3JE2 - Y2A4c-YI). (44)
derivatives of the voltages from (30), (31), (34), and (35) we
get:
Using the boundary conditions x = 0 and VW,' = 0 we get
d21,' dVw,'
=G--
dx2 G [y,(Al - A2) + 72(A3 -A)] = 0
= GZwwIw' + GZvowl' - GZawIf'
from which
d21= dVv'
dx2 dx A, = A2defined as A,'
GZ vvl v' + GZvwIw'
= - GZa vI/f A3 = A4 defined as A2'.

Rearranging the terms gives Using these new notations in (41) and (44), we get
w
GZwolw' = GZvwlv' - GZawIf' (36) I.'= A,' cosh y,x + A2' cosh 72 + Zvvaw Z
oaj
2 (45)
dx2 ZVVeZWW2 -
ZVW2
d7 ' =GGZvwlw' GZ,,,avlJ/. (37) V I, =
1
Q,y,,Al' sinh -y,x + 7Y2A2' sinh 'y2x). (46),
dx2
DESIENO et al.: FAULT CURRENTS IN TRANSMISSION LINE GROUND WIRES 1897

Similarly, we can obtain the equations for v ground wire as Solving the set of equations resulting from (60) we get the
follows: following expression for the constants:
I,' = A1'Bi cosh y1x + A2'B2 cosh 7Y2X Al' = (1 - A - B) [sinh id {(1 + B1) [coth yld
ZwwZ a v- Z vwZ aw
+ l(7
zvvzww-zVW + coth y1(I - d)] + K1(B2 -_ 131) + 71(1 -
B0(1 + 12)
K(2- 1) 7Y2(B32-1
v'=
I
C
(7yA1'B1 sinh y1x + Y2A2'B2 sinh y2x) (48)
* [coth 72d + coth 72 (1 - d)]} (61)
where
B, 12/V-W (49) A2' = 71(-B')Il-A-1) [72(B2 - 1) sinh 72d
2
* {(1 + B1) [coth 71d + coth y1( - d)]
11 722/-
(50)
71(Bi2 -Bj) ± 71(1- B1) (1 + B2) [cothy1d
212-1
+
For simplification, we make the following additional notations: K(B2 - 1) 9(B2-)
A = ZvzZaw
ZVVZWW
ZvwZav
-Z VW2
(51) + coth 72(1- d)]} (62)

ZwwZav - ZvwZaw Al" I(l- A - B)

B = - (52)
* [sinh y7(l d) {(1- + B1) [coth yid
Using these notations in (45)-(48) we get the final form of the
expressions for currents and voltages in ground wires w and v
as follows: + coth 71(l d)]- 71(B2 -B)
1,'= A1' cosh yix + A2' cosh 72x + AI/' (53)
+ 'Y1(-7(B12 - 1) [coth 72d + coth Y2(1-d)]
VW = - (Al'y7 sinh ylx + A2'2 sinh Y2x) (46)
G (63)
lv' = A/B1 cosh y1x + A2'B2 cosh 72x + B1f' (54) A2" 71(1 - BI)If(l- A - B)
* [72(B2 - 1) sinh 72(1- d) {(1 + B1) [coth -yd
v,' = C- (A1'B13y sinh yix + A21B2Y2 sinh Y2x). (55)

In order to obtain the equations of Iw', Iv", Vw', and VvU, we

start from (32)-(35) and follow step by step exactly the same
+ coth
71(1 -
712(B-2 B)
d)] + 7Y2(132 1

procedure as used for Iw', IV', VU.,' and VU'. Now the currents 712(-Bj) (I + B2) [coth 72d + coth 72(1-d)]j]-
and voltages are functions of y with different coefficients:
Iw" = A1" cosh 7Wy + A2" cosh 72Y + AIf' (56) (64)
If ground wires are identical, Z ,,,,; then
VW' = G
C
(A1'71i sinh 72Y + A2'72 sinh 72y) (57) 71 = [G(ZWW + ZV,) ]112 (65)
IV," = A11'B1 cosh yiy + A2"B2 cosh 72Y + BIf " (58) 72 = [C(ZWW - ZW)]1112 (66)

Uv" = - (Al"Bg17 sinh yly + A2'B272 sinh 721). (59) G_ 'Y12 ZWw
-

B1 zz,,w
At the point of fault where x = d and y = - d, the four
boundary conditions necessary to evaluate the constants A1' [G(Z2w + Z,,w)I/G Zww Z,,w -
(67)
zv,w
= _ = 1

zvw
_____________ _

A21, A1", and A2" are

1
Vwtt VU,'
=
22 -ZWW
VWf= VIt(0 B2=
= Uw,(60)
=[(Zww Zv-)]/C -

ZV,,W
- Zww _ z
z,VW
--1.
if=Izwl + IV, + Ia" + IV"f+ R . (68)
1898 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970

Using (51)and (52) for ZM02C = Z,e, we get paper, improvements could be made by treating the tower footing
resistance as a probability function. Undoubtedly the footing resis-
tance distribution in the limited region of interest for a particular
1 - A - B = 1 Zaw + Zav (69) fault would have a narrower dispersion than the distribution rep-
Zww + ZAVW resenting the line as a whole. If sufficient footing resistance on a
Also tower-by-tower basis were available for typical lines in a geographic
area of interest, it would be possible to construct frequency distri-
butions from these that would be appropriate for a fault picked at
ij I _ Zaw + Zav) random for any point on the line. Such an approach would inherently
I _Ztvff + ZVW (70) include the probability that the footing resistance on one side of the
fault were different from that on the other side, resulting in a change
sinh yid {2 [coth -y1d + coth -yi(l- d) ] + in the maximum current level obtained.
If it is further assumed that a uniform ground wire is to be used
over the entire length of the line and that short circuits are equally
Zaw + Zav likely at any point, the probability approach could be extended
Al" 1-Zww±+Zvw) to select a shield wire characteristic that would yield an acceptably
low probability of cumulative annealing over the anticipated life of
=

sinh Ty(l- d) {2[coth y1d + coth 1y(l - d)] + Ki the conductors.

K,
A2' = 0 and A2" = 0. (71)
The equations of the currents in case of identical ground
wires are
Itot-A1' cosh yix + AIfl (72)
I' A1' cosh yix + BI/f (73)
I,'= A1" cosh yly + Alf' (74)
I'= A1' cosh yly + BIf'. (75)
These equations can be applied to a radial line with fault
contribution from one side only by letting If' equals If and If"
equals 0.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank R. A. McLeod for his contributions
during the initial stages of the study, D. Goldstein for his as-
sistance in solution of the final differential equations, and M. D.
Adams for his development of the computer program.
REFERENCES
[1] Joint Subcommittee Report, "Computation of zero-sequence
impedances of power lines and cables," Edison Electric In-
stitute and Bell Telephone System, vol. 4, Rep. 37, pp. 303-
331, January 1937.
[2] I. Sebo and L. Regeni, "Measurement of the zero-sequence
current distribution on a transmission line," Per. Potytec.
Elec. Eng., vol. 7, pp. 295-317, 1963.
[3] S. A. Sebo, "Zero-sequence current distribution along trans-
mission lines," IEEE Trans. Power App. Syst., vol. PAS-88,
pp. 910-919, June 1969.
[4] W. A. Lewis, The Transmission of Electric Power, vol. 2,
lithoprinted ed. Chicago: Illinois Institute of Technology,
1948, pp. 3.15-3.19.
Discussion
L. 0. Barthold (Power Technologies, Inc., Schenectady, N.Y. 12301):
The paper serves a double purpose in calling attention to a problem
area not studied in sufficient detail heretofore and at the same
time providing a solution tool superior to others available.
As is usually the case, the completion of any improvement in
solution methods tends to expose even further possibilities for
refinements. It would seem that in the calculation contained in the
J. A. Pinnello (Commonwealth Edison Company, Chicago, Ill. 60690):
The authors are to be congratulated on developing useful equations
to calculate ground wire currents for phase-to-ground transmission
line faults and for subsequently verifying the assumptions with
measured values. The accurate determination of ground wire
currents under fault conditions is important to insure proper trans-
missfon line design.
At Commonwealth Edison Company we have also been involved
in determining ground wire currents. Our approach was to set up an
equivalent circuit incorporating the faulted phase conductor, the
system equivalent sources, and the ground wire and earth return
circuits. This representation was used in a conventional fault study
computer program to calculate the currents. The authors' approach
of directly calculating the currents and voltages required consider-
ably less computer data preparation.
In the course of our studies we found currents in excess of ground
wire capacity. We then conisidered opening the transmission line
ground wire to station ground connection at one or both sources.
This resulted in substantially reducing ground wire currents. The
equations developed in the paper were based on a zero-impedance
connection between the line ground conductors and the station
ground and therefore are not valid if the ground wires are not
connected as such. A useful extension of these results would be to
include the appropriate boundary conditions for this case.
Manuscript received February 5, 1970.
Stephen A. Sebo (Ohio StateUniversity, Columbus, Ohio 43210):I wish
to congratulate the authors on the analysis described in their paper.
They have presented a valuable contribution of the complex problem
of zero-sequence current distribution along transmission lines.
Since the late 1920's, when Carson published his classic papers on
conductors with ground return, numerous attempts to solve this
problem have been described. Measurements have been carried on,
and different computation methods have been developed. The most
extensive list of references can be found in [5].
The number of published test results is rather limited. There
were only five or six experiments where the actual current distri-
bution between ground wire and ground was studied along a trans-
mission line. Such experiments were published, e.g., in 1931 [6],
1934 [7], 1959 [8], and 1963 [2]. Even in some of these cases, es-
sential data have not been provided.
As for the computational methods, some publications took only
the resistive components into consideration and obviously this
assumption is incorrect. Different methods were published as-

Manuscript received February 13, 1970. Manuscript received February 16, 1970.
DESIENO et al.: FAULT CURRENTS IN TRANSMISSION LINE GROUND WIRES 1899

suming distributed conductance between ground wire and ground
and introducing hyperbolic functions, e.g., in 1937 [1], 1958 [9],
1959 [8], and 1959 [10]. Another group of publications describes
methods where the ground wire-tower-ground loops are examined
and the currents in the ith loop can be computed, e.g., [11], [12].
The authors are to be commended for their study, which is an
important step in the series of methods using hyperbolic functions.
The agreement between the computed and measured values in-
dicates the value of this method of computation.
It would be interesting to have some additional information about
the following:
1) Can the method be applied for short lines, i.e., lengths of
five to ten spans between the point of fault and feeding point?
2) Is it possible to compute the end effect at the feeding point?
3) Can an attempt be made to use the method if the soil resistivity
is not homogeneous along the line?
4) How small is the percentage deviation between the computed
results and the test measurements previously published in [2], with
reference to Fig. 4?
tower footing resistance and fault location. We wonder, however,
whether such refinements are justified in light of basic design as-
sumptions and uncertainties, such as future fault current mag-
nitudes and often unpredictable future station locations, which
would change the line lengths as well as the fault current con-
tributions.
The equations presented can contribute materially to the engineer's
judgment by allowing him to test the sensitivity of the results to
meaningful variations in the parameters. If this judgment can be
aided further by probabilistic treatment, so much the better. On
the other hand, the engineer's judgment must not be clouded by
too much attention to minute detail. Thus, any increase, in complexity
of treatment must be justified on its overall merits.
Mr. Pinnello suggests the extension of our approach to cover the
case of open ground wire connections at the source stations. We have
followed this suggestion and have derived the following equations
for one ground wire, starting with (16)-(19) and applying the
boundary conditions I,' and I.' = 0 at x and y = 0 to determine
the A constants:

I, =
QI - )+z {ZwIe-'d
ch
1- tanh
d
y(l - d) - GRJ] + 1/Y(ld) [1 + tanh (l - d) 4
sinh yx +
Zaw I,- E) (77)

cosh -yd Ltanh Td + tanh T(l -d) + G e

I
1 _f + If,E-d(1 + tanh -ed) + IfeC-Y(-d) (1- tanh d - ' )]
I
xZti
~ L0
Z= ¾
coshy(l - d) Ftanh yd + tanh y(l - d) + GR 1
GRt?~j sinh yy + iate I/'(l
ZWW
- -
(76)
L J~~~~~R

REFERENCES Applying these equations to a typical 138-kV line yields the

[5] H. R. J. Klewe, Interference Between Power Systems and Tele-
communication Lines. London: E. Arnold, 1958.
[6] J. E. Clem, "Reactance of transmission lines with ground
return," AIEE Trans., vol. 50, pp. 901-918, September 1931.
[7] W. G. Radley and S. Whitehead, "Recent investigations on
telephone interference," J. Inst. Elec. Eng. (London), vol. 74,
pp. 201-239, March 1934.
[8] K. Sailer, "Die Schutzwirkung des Erdseiles im Fehlerfall,"
Elektrotech. Maschinenbau, vol. 76, pp. 25-31, February 1959.
[9] K. H. Feist, "Die Erderspannung geerdeter Stromdurch-
flossener Leiter bei Wechselstrom niedriger Frequenz und ihr
elektrisches Strdmungfeld im Erdreich," doctoral dissertation,
Technische Hochschule, Hanover, Germany, 1958.
[10] P. Denzel and B. Gersdorff, Untersuchungen fiber die M6glich-
keit der Selektiven Erdschlusserfassung durch Messung des im
Erdseil von Freileitungen fliessenden Nulistroms. Cologne,
Germany: Westdeutscher Verlag, 1959.
[11] S. Butterworth, Electrical Characteristics of Overhead Lines.
following results.
1) For a fault 11 miles from the station, as in Fig. I., disconnlecting
the ground wire at both stations reduces the maximum ground wire
current I,,' from 55.3 to 54.7 percent of the total fault current.
2) For a fault 2 miles from the station, disconnecting the ground
wire reduces I,,' from 58.3 to 50.6 percent.
3) As the distance from the fault point to the left terminal de-
creases further, the portion of fault current flowing in the ground
wire immediately to the left of the fault point decreases rapidly,
whereas the ground wire current to the right of the fault point
increases rapidly. Also, the total fault current increases rapidly.
The ground wire current profile for a fault 1 mile from the left
terminal is shown in Fig. 7, for both the solidly grounded and
70

Leatherhead, England: Engineering Research Associates, 1954. LINE DATA SAME AS FIG.
[12] "Currents in earth wires at the top of pylons and their effect 60 FAULT CURRENT CONTRIBUTION: 82% FROM LEFT
on the potentials of the pylons and stations in the neighbor- z2:
I TERMINAL
hood of a point of short circuit to earth," contrib. 78, Int.
Tel. Tel., Consultive Group Rep., November 1963. D
50 I_ I '
_ TERMINAL

0 a:u
40 GROUND WIRE DISCONNECTED
> AT BOTH TERMINALS
30 1
: 0
O,

a00
J, \ %i GROUND WIRE SOLIDLY GROUNDED
Itz
0_ 20 BOTH TERMINALS
fir-
Conrad F. DeSieno, Peter P. Marchenko, and Gregory S. Vassell: 1
The authors wish to thank the discussers for enlarging the scope FAULT POINT
of the paper through their questions and suggestions, and they
C
appreciate the kind comments. 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 54 56
We agree with Dr. Barthold that further refinements can be made DISTANCE ALONG THE LINE IN MILES
in selecting ground wire characteristics in the design of lines by
using probability functions in the treatment of such variables as Fig. 7. Calculated ground wire fault current profile for 138-kV
double-circuit transmission line with one ground wire; fault point
1 mile from left terminal, showing effect of disconlnecting the
Manuscript received April 9, 1970. ground wire from station ground at both terminals.
1900 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-89, NO. 8, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1970
disconnected ground wire conditions. As illustrated, disconnecting
the ground wire reduces I,,' at the fault point from 67.0 to 36.9
percent. However the current I.' in the span immediately to the
right of the fault increases from 31.2 to 60.8 percent. Thus, the
maximum ground wire current is reduced from 67.0 to 60.8 percent,
which is not a substantial reduction for design purposes.
Dr. Sebo extends appreciably the list of references and provides an
interesting short history of this subject. He raises some interesting
questions, to which we comment as follows.
1) We have not checked the results of our method against other
approacl.hs for very short lines with the fault five to ten spans away
from the feeding point. Judging from the excellent agreement be-
tween test results and calculations at the point of fault, which is in
itself an end effect, we feel that the results for short lines are meaning-
ful and of sufficient accuracy for design purposes. The profile in-
dicated in Fig. 7, where the fault is only 1 mile from the feeding point,
certainly appears realistic.
2) We also feel that the end effect at the feeding point is reasonably
accurately indicated. The boundary assumption of zero resistance
and zero voltage between ground wire and ground at the feeding
points does, of course, have some effect on the current magnitude in
the last several spans, depending on the actual resistances. As in-
dicated in Fig. 7 for the extreme case of infiniite resistance between
ground wire and ground, the current profile is changed materially
and the end effects are dramatized, but the maximum ground wire
current is not reduced appreciably. Thus we feel that the zero-
Lightning Strokes to Power Transmission Lines
and the Shielding Effect of Ground Wires
A. BRAUNSTEIN
Abstract-A method for predicting the probability of lightning
strokes to transmission lines and the shielding effect of ground wires
is presented. This method, which is based on electromagnetic field
concepts, also makes it possible to determine which parts of the
system (ground wires, phase wires, etc.) are more attractive to
various lightning strokes for a given geometrical configuration of the
transmission line. The study presented showsthat the area "covered"
by a transmission system, in which every lightning strikes the
transmission line, and the shielding angle are not constant. They are
a function of the down-going charges from the cloud and the con-
figuration of the transmission line and cannot be expressed by simple
geometrical methods.
INTRODUCTION
THE prediction of the area "covered" by a transmission
line and the shielding effect of ground wires is of major
importance when the outage rate of a power system is studied.
Many authors have discussed these problems and some methods
Paper 70 TP 102-PWR, recommended and approved by the
Transmission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power
Group for presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New
York, N. Y., January 25-30, 1970. Manuscript submitted August 1,
1969; made available for printing December 5, 1969.
The author is with the Division of Electrical Power Systems
Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden.
resistance assumption and the resulting end-effect error at the feed-
ing point are not critical to any evaluation of ground wire capability
or to the proper selection of the ground wire in designing new lines.
Using the general approach presented, a more complicated set of
equations probably could be derived by changing the boundary
conditions to include a finite resistance between ground wire and
ground at the terminals, but we doubt that the effort is justified
for practical applications.
3) The equations as presented are based on the assumption of
homogeneous soil having uniform resistivity. Where resistivity is not
uniform or is not known, an appropriate range is assumed and the
upper and lower current values are calculated. Then the engineer
can best judge the effects of these assumptions or discontinuities.
4) Referring to Fig. 4, the computed current was 0.8 percent higher
than the test result at the span immediately to the left of the fault
point, which is the most important span from a capability and design
viewpoint. The computed current to the right of the fault point was
15.2 percent higher than the test current. As indicated in the paper,
the resistance of the tower to the left of the fault point was 30
percent of the average and that of the tower to the right was 280
percent of the average.
Again, the authors wish to emphasize that the method presented,
together with the resulting equations, is a powerful tool to aid the
engineer in the analysis and design of transmission lines to assure
that the capability of the ground wire is sufficient to withstand
anticipated fault currents.
are presented in several papers; see, for example, [1]-[9]. Due
to the complicated nature of the problem, approximations were
used in several papers, which introduce notable errors. The
method presented here is a more accurate study of the phe-
nomenon and can, therefore, give the designer a better tool for
predicting the outage rate of the system.
The charges, which are lowered from the cloud toward the
earth by the down-going leader, cause electric field strength
components in space. Field strength components, whose ampli-
tudes vary with time, exist at the ground wires and phase wires,
at the transmission towers, and at the ground surface. If these
field strength components exceed certain critical values, streamers
(and following leaders) are to be expected from various points
at the transmission system. These upward-going discharges may
not appear simultaneously, and the first one to meet the down-
going leader determines a probable stroke to the point from
which it started. In that way both the area covered by the trans-
mission line and the shielding effect of the ground wires can be
studied.
PRESTROKE PHENOMENON AND ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD
The prestroke phenomenon has been studied by many authors
and is described in numerous papers; for example, [10]-[12].
The down-going leader, which starts from the cloud, proceeds