INTRODUCTION

Salmonella Enteritidis (SE) in shell eggs represents a significant public health hazard in the egg
industry worldwide. Every year a significant number of human salmonellosis is caused by the
consumption of raw or partially cooked (SE) contaminated eggs. For egg laying operations to be
able to meet consumer demand and be profitable, a significant economy of scale must be
achieved. To attain this economy of scale, poultry is generally reared under confinement in large
populations (Li et al., 2007). This large concentration of chickens within one building creates large
volumes of dust and manure, contaminating every surface in the poultry house. This environment
is also conducive to developing potentially large populations of flies and rodents (Kreager, 1998).
Measures to control Salmonella in the poultry house are multiple and difficult to use effectively
because there are numerous sources of Salmonella infection. Prevention of hazards in the early
stages of the supply chain is vital in achieving appropriate levels of public health protection.
HACCP is recognised as an important management tool and the gold standard to improved food
safety (Woteki et al., 2004). The HACCP system has been used with great success at the processing
level in a wide variety of food industries. There is fairly small information on the application of
HACCP programmes in egg-producing farms. Most food safety efforts developed at the farm level
have been developed as quality assurance programmes based on HACCP principles to reduce the
risk of producing contaminated eggs

FOOD SAFETY/HACCP TEAM MEMBERS

The HACCP team shall consist of individuals with specific knowledge on egg production. The team
may include a veterinarian or extension poultry specialist, farm manager and egg production
employee. It would also be beneficial to have a HACCP expert assisting the HACCP team and
ensuring the proper application of the HACCP principles. Training and education of the HACCP
team should involve potential biological and chemical hazards present in egg production. The farm
manager should be the team coordinator responsible for the development, implementation and
maintenance of the HACCP plan

TERMS OF REFERENCE

The HACCP study reviews the biological, chemical and physical hazards throughout egg
production. Biological and chemicals hazards at the poultry farm are more likely to contaminate
eggs than are physical hazards. Physical hazards are unlikely to be a problem because of the
protective nature of the shell. The primary hazard is the presence of SE inside eggs. The goal of the
HACCP study is to reduce the number of Salmonella Enteritidis-contaminated eggs for the table
egg market

PRODUCT/PROCESS DESCRIPTION

Product

The product is a freshly laid shell egg. It is intended for use by shell egg-processing plants located
on the same farm site where they were laid or sold to other egg-grading plants to be processed for
the table egg market. The primary function of the egg is to protect the embryo from impact and
microbial challenge, permit exchange of water and gases, and provide a source of calcium for the
growing embryo. The egg has natural barriers to defend the egg contents from microbial
challenge. This natural defence is partially physical, the shell, its membranes, and the albuminous
sac, and partially chemical, the shell membranes and albumen (Stadelmann and Cotterill, 1995).
The shell is a porous structure where gas and moisture exchange occurs. The pores on the shell are
sealed by a thin protein layer, called the cuticle that is deposited on the exterior surface of the
shell just before the egg is laid. This is the first physical line of defence against horizontal
transmission of hazards into the egg contents. Inside the egg, next to the shell are the inner and
outer shell membranes. These two layers are highly fibrous and protect the egg against microbial
invasion. In addition to their function as a physical barrier, the shell and shell membranes also act
as a chemical barrier. Proteins with antibacterial properties have also been associated with the
shell and shell membranes (Gantois et al., 2009). Following the shell membranes is the albumen
that consists of four layers – two thick and two thin. The albumen is a gel-like substance of
proteins with antimicrobial activity, capable of binding iron and biotin, and with the ability to
break down the cell wall of some bacteria. Additionally, during storage the albumen pH rises from
neutral to about 9.6, providing a hostile environment for microbial growth (Sharp and Powell,
1931; Board, 1974). Finally, the vitelline membrane (yolk membrane) contains all the nutrients in
the yolk needed for the development of the embryo. The yolk provides an excellent

Chemical hazards

Chemical hazards that could be present in eggs include agricultural chemicals (pesticides,
veterinary drugs) and environmental contaminants (dioxins). These are controlled by pest control
and flock health management prerequisite programmes.

Biological hazards

Salmonella Enteritidis is a major cause of foodborne illnesses that are closely associated with the
consumption of contaminated shell eggs. The egg contents may become contaminated with (SE)
by two routes: (1) trans-shell (horizontal transmission), penetration through the shell from the
colonised gut, faeces or from contact with contaminated surfaces, And (2) trans-ovarian (vertical
transmission), through infection of the bird’s reproductive tissue, primarily ovaries and oviduct
tissue. This type of infection is considered to be the major route of SE contamination.
Experimental oral inoculation of laying hens with SE resulted in the invasion of a variety of internal
organs, including the ovary and oviduct, and the production of contaminated eggs for a few weeks
after infection. However, even when very large oral doses of SE are administered, the reported
incidence of resulting egg contamination is usually relatively low and involves small numbers of
bacterial cells. The overall incidence of SE-contaminated eggs in the United States has been
estimated to occur in 1 of 20 000 eggs produced. Although, at the time of writing in 2010, the
emerging outbreak will be likely to have an impact on that number. Eggs that are naturally
contaminated may contain no more than a few hundred Salmonella cells. Most strains of SE that
typically infect egg-laying flocks do not generally cause clinical disease in these birds. In the United
States, SE has been detected in the laying house environment of approximately 7% of egg-laying
flocks. Sources of SE infection may include infected dayold chicks, people that come in contact
with poultry, residual environmental contamination that resisted the clean-out efforts, rodents
and insects present on the premises, feed, water, bird mortality and manure.

Receiving chicks in pullet buildings

 Newly hatched baby poultry (chicks) are delivered to the rearing facilities loaded in boxes in a
truck with environmentally controlled conditions where they are kept for approximately 18 weeks
prior to move to the egg-laying buildings. SE can be vertically transmitted by eggs from
asymptomatic breeding stock. Following vertical transmission, environmental contamination and
hatchery cross-contamination are a major source of SE infection (WHO, 1993). Chicks are highly
susceptible to Salmonella infection, even at very low exposure doses, for several days after
hatching (Gast, 2007) due to an absence of protective gut flora (Cox et al., 1996). Chickens
exposed to SE shortly after hatching can apparently remain infected until maturity, at which time
they might produce contaminated eggs or spread the infection to other susceptible, previously
unexposed, hens (Gast and Holt, 1998). Birds infected at 1 day of age also experience reduced
ability to respond to vaccination (Holt et al., 1999). Hatcheries, where young birds are at their
stage of maximum susceptibility to infection, are especially critical Salmonella control points (Gast,
2009). Salmonella control in egg production starts with a breeder production flock that is free
from SE (Muira et al., 1964). Written assurances from breeding flocks and hatcheries of the SE
status of the flock must be obtained from approved chick suppliers. In the United States, control
strategies, monitoring programmes and laboratory methods used at the primary breeding level
follow the provision of the USDA’s National Poultry Improvement Program (NPIP). These
programmes ensure that flocks and their progeny are pullorum-typhoid clean and SE clean. Chick
deliveries must be accompanied by NPIP certification or a certificate of veterinary inspection
declaring the SE-clean status of the breeder flocks and hatcheries. Furthermore, because SE
infection in poultry is asymptomatic, chick deliveries must be regularly monitored by testing chick
box liner papers at delivery to verify the SE status of the flock.

Biosecurity practices must be followed while receiving chicks at the pullet farm to prevent the
introduction of disease in the pullet house. Allow only essential personnel into your pullet
facilities. If people must come in the building, they require the use of hairnets, coverall and foot
cover and require hand-washing and/or hand disinfection prior to having contact with birds.

Pullet and layer flock management

The successful control of (SE) contamination in eggs is based on the use of best management
practices (BMPs) aimed at reducing the risk of introduction, build-up or spread of SE in the flock.
These Salmonella control practices include the following.

Traffic control

Limit the access to the farm to authorised personnel and visitors. Control entry to the farm with
fences, gates and signs. Require visitors to use hairnets, coveralls and foot covers to protect
poultry from contamination on clothing and footwear. Enforce hand-washing and disinfection
before and after visiting poultry houses. Restrict access of company and contract personnel
hauling feed, spent hens, manure, dead birds and trash to outside the poultry buildings. Do not
permit contact of pets, stray poultry and wildlife with pullets or egg-laying birds. Restrict the
movement of dirty equipment and vehicles in the farm. Require farm personnel not to raise
poultry at home and to avoid contact with other poultry and wild birds. The risk of spreading
Salmonella in cage systems where the birds are kept above the floor is smaller than in floor
systems where Salmonella can be spread by movement of people (shoes). Poultry housed
outdoors present a problem, as it is difficult to maintaining adequate biosecurity if the hens are
exposed to SE contamination from pests and wildlife.

Water quality

Drinking water plays an important role in the transmission of many pathogenic bacteria, including
Salmonella. Water contamination can occur if surface water drains into the well. Well sites should
be graded to drain surface water away from the well casing. Locate wells as far as practical from
septic tanks and land application areas for manure. Evaluate the quality of the water at least once
a year for municipal water and twice a year for well water. If the well water is contaminated,
determine whether the source is the well or the distribution system. For a properly sealed and
located well, treatment with a chlorine source may resolve the problem. If continued chlorination
is necessary, maintain approximately 3–5 ppm of residual chlorine in the water. Water pH should
be maintained from 6 to 7.5. Monitor the levels of chlorine regularly. If the lines are the source of
the contamination, flush the line periodically to remove any build-up, including biofilm, in the
water system. Use approved products to remove and kill bacteria present in biofilm.

Farm sanitation

Cleaning and disinfection of poultry buildings and equipment are essential to prevent SE infection
and other poultry pathogens, in pullet and egg-laying environments. Intensified rodent control
should be initiated immediately (prior to depopulation), so as to avoid rodent migration to other
poultry buildings. Disinfection should not take place until poultry manure or litter and bird
mortality have been removed, the entire poultry building is thoroughly clean, and all repairs have
been completed. Verify and document the cleaning and disinfection of poultry buildings and
equipment, feed system, water lines and bird-moving equipment. Bacteriological monitoring of
the efficacy of disinfection procedures is recommended when SE has been detected in the flock.
Routine pest control procedures should also be carried out at this time.

Pest control

Rodents, flies and wildlife infected with SE serve as a source of continual reinfection in the hen
house. Pest control programmes must prevent and reduce pests from the farm premises.

Rodents

Mice and rats are important reservoirs and multipliers of SE, and can quickly recontaminate
cleaned and sanitised poultry buildings. It has been found that mice naturally infected with SE can
excrete approximately 230 000 SE bacteria per pellet. Effective decontamination of SE-positive
houses is difficult to achieve if rodents are not controlled inside and between hen houses. BMPs
for rodent control include the following:

Elimination of harbourage areas inside and outside poultry buildings

Rodent-proofing poultry houses

Rodent monitoring (trap records)

Rodent reduction through baiting (bait use records)

Record-keeping

Insects

Flies, cockroaches, darkling beetles and their larvae are vectors for transmission of SE and other
pathogens inside the hen house (Kopanic et al., 1994; McAllister et al., 1994). Insect population
growth is enhanced by the presence of wet manure, warm temperatures and humid conditions in
the poultry house. BMPs to reduce fly breeding include maintaining effective airflow rates,
composting manure rows under the cages, periodic removal of manure from the poultry houses,
removal of manure from houses during winter, preventing water leaks into the pits and seepage of
water into the pits. Work with a pest control operator with experience in animal production to
reduce insect populations.

Other animals

Wild birds, cats, skunks and lizards have been found to be reservoirs of SE and can directly and
indirectly cause transmission to poultry flocks (Sharma and Pathak, 1976; Kinde et al., 1996;
Craven et al., 2000). Prevent the entrance of pets and wildlife to the poultry houses. Conduct
regular inspections at night to monitor wildlife activity in the poultry houses.

Vaccination

Vaccination is an important tool used by the egg industry to increase the resistance of birds
against Salmonella exposure and decrease shedding. Vaccination used as part of an overall
management, hygiene and biosecurity package can make a valuable contribution to the reduction
of SE infection. The use of live attenuated and/or inactivated vaccines provide the birds with
cellular immunity of the gut and circulating antibodies to reduce the following (Gast, 2009):

 Susceptibility of individual birds to SE infection

 Horizontal transmission of infection within flocks
 Vertical transmission of infection to progeny of breeding flocks
 Salmonella load in the poultry house environment (and the likelihood of transmission to
subsequent flocks)
 Frequency of egg contamination

Poor vaccine performance has been associated with weak rodent control or sanitation problems in
poultry buildings, feed or water withdrawal and environmental stresses such as heat. Vaccination
must be used in conjunction with strong biosecurity practices and should be implemented under
the supervision of a poultry veterinarian.

Testing

The environmental persistence of salmonellae in poultry houses creates continual opportunities

for laying hens to become infected by oral ingestion (Gast et al., 2007). Because most SE infections
of poultry are asymptomatic, routine SE monitoring of the flock environment is essential to detect
and control SE contamination when it occurs. Samples for monitoring procedures must be
routinely collected from the birds and their housing environments during the rearing and
production phases, and equipment and poultry buildings after cleaning and disinfection
procedures have been completed. Laboratory results then should be circulated to appropriate
managers to verify freedom from infection or take corrective actions as needed.

Feed manufacturing

The most important risk factors in the production of poultry feed are feed ingredients. Require
written assurances from suppliers attesting to following good agricultural and manufacturing
practices in the processing of feed ingredients. SE is not normally found as a contaminant in feed;
it is nonetheless recommended to monitor the Salmonella status of feed used in poultry houses.
Purchase animal protein ingredients from suppliers that follow a Salmonella prevention
programme. Require letters or documentation that they have in place a Salmonella prevention
programme.

Feed should be stored in clean closed bins to prevent access by birds and pests. Spilled feed
should be cleaned immediately to remove attractants for wild birds and pests. Feed mills should
follow the guidelines of the Recommended Salmonella Control for Processors of Livestock and
Poultry Feeds published by the American Feed Industry Association. Require a letter or document
from each mill indicating the mill meets these standards. The use of feeds subjected to bactericidal
treatments is recommended to control Salmonella in poultry feed.

Receiving and storage of feed

Maintain dry conditions inside the feed bins to prevent bacterial and mould growth. Cover feed
bins with a lid to prevent exposure to wild birds and rain. Regularly, clean and sanitise feed
systems to prevent microbial build-up.