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Functions of Several Variables Limits and Continuity Partial Derivatives Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations
Calculus
Functions of Several Variables and Partial Differentiation I
Outline
1 Functions of Several Variables
2 Limits and Continuity
3 Partial Derivatives
4 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations

Functions of Two and Three Variables
A function of two variables is a rule that assigns a real

number f (x, y) to each ordered pair of real numbers (x, y) in
the domain of a function. Mathematically, we write
f : D ⊂ R2 → R
A function of three variables is a rule that assigns a real

number f (x, y, z) to each ordered pair of real numbers
(x, y, z) in the domain of a function.
f : D ⊂ R3 → R
Finding the Domain of a Function of Two Variables

Example (1.1)
Find and sketch the domain for
1 f (x, y) = x ln y and
2x
2 g(x, y) = .
y − x2
Figure: [10.1a] The domain of Figure: [10.1b] The domain of

f (x, y) = x ln y. 2x
g(x, y) = .
y − x2
Finding the Domain of a Function of Three Variables
Example (1.2)
Find and describe in graphical terms the domains of
cos(x + z)
1 f (x, y, z) = and
xy
p
2 g(x, y, z) = 9 − x2 − y2 − z2 .
A Function Defined by a Table of Data (I)
In many applications, instead of having a formula representing

a function of interest, we only know values of the function at a
relatively small number of points.
A Function Defined by a Table of Data (II)

Example (1.3)
A computer simulation of the flight of a golf ball provided the
data displayed in the following table for the range in feet of a
ball hit with initial velocity v ft/s and backspin rate of ω rpm.
Each ball is struck at an angle of 11◦ above the horizontal.
Thinking of the range as a function R(v, ω), find

R(280, 0), R(260, 0), R(260, 4000) and R(260, 2000). Discuss the
results in golf terms.
Graphing Functions of Two Variables

The graph of a function of two variables is the graph of the equation z = f (x, y)
Example (1.4)
Graph
1 f (x, y) = x2 + y2 and
p
2 g(x, y) = 4 − x2 + y2 .
p
Figure: [10.2a] z = x2 + y2 . Figure: [10.2b] z = 4 − x2 + y2 .
Graphing Functions in Three Dimensions

Example (1.5)
Graph
1 f (x, y) = sin x cos y and
2
2 g(x, y) = e−x (y2 + 1).
Figure: [10.3a] The

traces of the surface in Figure: [10.3b] Figure: [10.3c]
2
the plane z = 0.5. z = sin x cos y. z = e−x (y2 + 1).
Matching a Function of Two Variables to Its Graph (I)
Example (1.6)
Match the functions f1 (x, y) = cos(x2 + y2 ), f2 (x, y) = cos(ex + ey ),
f3 (x, y) = ln(x2 + y2 ) and f4 (x, y) = e−xy to the surfaces shown in
Figures 10.4a-10.4d.
Matching a Function of Two Variables to Its Graph (II)
f1 (x, y) = cos(x2 + y2 ) f2 (x, y) = cos(ex + ey )

f3 (x, y) = ln(x2 + y2 ) f4 (x, y) = e−xy
Figure: 10.4a Figure: 10.4b

Matching a Function of Two Variables to Its Graph (III)
f1 (x, y) = cos(x2 + y2 ) f2 (x, y) = cos(ex + ey )

f3 (x, y) = ln(x2 + y2 ) f4 (x, y) = e−xy
Figure: 10.4c Figure: 10.4d

Different Viewing Windows of a Function

As with any use of technology, the creation of informative
three-dimensional graphs requires a significant amount of
knowledge and trial-and-error exploration.
Figure: [10.5a] Figure: [10.5b]

z = x2 + y2 . z = x2 + y2 .
Figure: [10.5c]
z = x 2 + y2
(parametric plot).
Different Viewpoints of a Function

In Figures 10.5a and 10.5b, we are looking at the paraboloid
from a view point that is above the xy-plane and between
positive x− and y−axes. Figure 10.6c shows the view from high
above the x−axis.
Figure: [10.6c]
Figure: [10.6a] Figure: [10.6b] 2
2 2 z = e−x (y2 + 1).
z = e−x (y2 + 1). z = e−x (y2 + 1).
Contour and Parametric Representations of a Function

Many graphing utilities provide a "contour mode" or "parametric
surface" option to graph functions.
Figure: [10.7b] z = x2 + y2
Figure: [10.7a] z = x2 + y2 (parametric plot).
(contour mode).
Contour Plots
A level curve of the function f (x, y) is the graph of the

equation
f (x, y) = c
, for some constant c.
A contour plot of f (x, y) is a graph of numerous level
curves f (x, y) = c for representative values of c.
Sketching Contour Plots

Example (1.7)
Sketch contour plots for
1 f (x, y) = −x2 + y and
2 g(x, y) = x2 + y2 .
Figure: [10.8a] Contour plot of Figure: [10.8b] Contour plot of

f (x, y) = −x2 + y. g(x, y) = x2 + y2 .
An Extensive Contour Plot of g(x, y) = x2 + y2 (I)

In the previous example, we used values for c that were equally
spaced. There is no requirement that we do so, but in can help
us to get a sense for how the level curves would "stack up" to
produce the three-dimensional graph.
Figure: [10.9a] Contour plot of Figure: [10.9b] z = x2 + y2 .

g(x, y) = x2 + y2 .
An Extensive Contour Plot of g(x, y) = x2 + y2 (II)

In the following figures, we show a plot of the surface, with a
number of traces drawn in planes parallel to the xy-plane.
Notice that the projections of these traces onto the xy-plane
correspond to the contour plot shown in Figure 10.9a

g(x, y) = x2 + y2 .
An Extensive Contour Plot of g(x, y) = x2 + y2 (III)

It is observed from Figure 10.9a that the contour plot indicates
that the increase in the radii of the circles is not constant as you
increase z.

g(x, y) = x2 + y2 .
Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (I)
Example (1.8)
Match the surfaces of example 1.6 to the contour plots shown
in Figures 10.10a-10.10d.
Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (II)
f (x, y) = ln(x2 + y2 )
Figure: 10.10a
Figure: 10.4a
Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (III)
f (x, y) = cos(x2 + y2 )
Figure: 10.4c
Figure: 10.10b
Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (IV)
f (x, y) = e−xy
Figure: 10.4d
Figure: 10.10c
Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (IV)
f (x, y) = cos(ex + ey )
Figure: 10.4b
Figure: 10.10d
Density Plots
A density plot is closely related to a

contour plot. For a density plot, the
(x − y) graphing window is divided into
small rectangles. Each rectangle is
shaded according to the size of the
function value of a representative point in
that rectangle, ranging from light blue
(maximum function value) to black
(minimum function value).
Figure: A density plot
representation of
f (x, y) = cos(x2 + y2 )
Matching Functions and Density Plots

Example (1.9)
Match the density plots in Figures 10.11a-10.11c with the
1 2x
functions f1 (x, y) = 2 2
, f2 (x, y) = and
y −x y − x2
f3 (x, y) = cos(x2 + y2 ).
Figure: 10.11a Figure: 10.11b Figure: 10.11c

Level Curve (Isobar) Plots
Whether maps often show level

curves of atmospheric pressure
(see Figure 10.12a). In this setting,
the level curves are called isobars.
Figure: [10.12a] Weather map

showing barometric pressure.
Density Plot Representations of Temperature and

Precipitation
The following density plots are weather maps representing
temperature and degree of wetness with color coding.
Figure: [10.12b] Weather maps showing bands of temperature and

precipitation.
Color Density Plots

The following two figures are density plots plotting see-surface
height (which correlates with ocean heat content) indicating
changes in El Niño phenomenon over a period of several
weeks.
Figure: [10.12c] Ocean heat Figure: [10.12d] Ocean heat

content. content.
Graphing f (x, y, z): Sketching Level Surfaces
Example (1.10)
Sketch several level surfaces of f (x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 .
Figure: [10.13a] x2 + y2 + z2 = 1. Figure: [10.13b] x2 + y2 + z2 = 2.

The Concept of Limits to Functions of Two Variables (I)
When we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
we mean that
as x gets closer and closer to a (arbitrarily close to a and
can approach from either side of a), f (x) gets closer and
closer to L
Similarly, when we write
lim f (x, y) = L,
(x,y)→(a,b)
we mean that
as (x, y) gets closer and closer to (a, b), f (x, y) is getting
closer and closer to the number L.
The Concept of Limits to Functions of Two Variables

(II)
For the limit
lim f (x, y)
(x,y)→(a,b)
to exist, function values throughout

the interior of the circle (see figure)
must approach the same value as the
radius of the circle shrinks to zero.
Figure: [10.14] Interior of a

circle of radius r.
Computing lim f (x, y)

(x,y)→(a,b)
For many (nice) functions, we can compute limits by

substituting a and b into the function f (x, y), for instance,
lim (xy − 2) = 2 · 3 − 2 = 4
(x,y)→(2,3)
Unfortunately, we are often interested in limits which can not be

computed by substituting, for example

y 0
lim
(x,y)→(1,0) x + y − 1 0
General Rules for Computing Limits (I)

If lim f (x, y) and lim g(x, y) both exist. Then
(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)
1 Limits of Sums:
lim (f (x, y)±g(x, y)) = lim f (x, y)± lim g(x, y)

(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)
2 Limits of Products:

lim [f (x, y)g(x, y)] = lim f (x, y) lim g(x, y)
(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)
3 Limits of Quotients:
lim f (x, y)
f (x, y) (x,y)→(a,b)
lim =
(x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y) lim g(x, y)
(x,y)→(a,b)
General Rules for Computing Limits (II)

Computing Limits of a Polynomial of Two Variables
A polynomial of two variables x and y is any sum of terms of

the form
cxn ym ,
where c is a constant and n and m are nonnegative integers, for
instance
2x2 y + 3xy.
The limit of any polynomial always exists and is found simply by
substitution.
Finding a Simple Limit
Example (2.1)
2x2 y + 3xy
Evaluate lim .
(x,y)→(2,1) 5xy2 + 3y
A Method to Determine That a Limit Doesn’t Exist (I)

We say that
lim f (x, y) = L
(x,y)→(a,b)
means the function has to approach

L along every possible path. If there
is any way to approach the point
(a, b) without the function values
approaching the value L (e.g., by
virtue of the function values blowing
up, oscillating or by approaching
some other value), then the limit will
not equal L. This gives us a simple Figure: [10.15] Various
method for determining that a limit paths to (a, b).
does not exist.
A Method to Determine That a Limit Doesn’t Exist (II)
Theorem
If f (x, y) approaches L1 as (x, y)
approaches (a, b) along a path P1 and
f (x, y) approaches L2 as (x, y)
approaches (a, b) along a path P2 , then
lim f (x, y) does not exist

(x,y)→(a,b)
Figure: [10.15] Various

paths to (a, b).
A Method to Determine That a Limit Doesn’t Exist (III)
The simplest paths to try are:

1 x = a, y → b (vertical lines)
2 y = b, x → a (horizontal lines)
3 y = g(x), x → a (where b = g(a))
4 x = g(y), y → b (where a = g(b))
Figure: [10.15] Various

paths to (a, b).
A Limit That Does Not Exist
Example (2.2)
y
Evaluate lim .
(x,y)→(1,0) x + y − 1
A Limit That Is the Same Along Two Paths but Does

Not Exist
Example (2.3)
xy
Evaluate lim .
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2
A Limit Problem Requiring a More Complicated

Choice of Path
Example (2.4)
xy2
Evaluate lim .
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y4
xy2
Figure: [10.16a] z = , for Figure: [10.16b] Density plot of
x2 + y4
−5 ≤ x ≤ 5, −5 ≤ y ≤ 5. xy2
f (x, y) = 2 .
x + y4
Generalized Squeeze Theorem (I)
We have introduced a simple method for showing that a limit

does not exist. We now introduce a tool for evaluating limits that
do exist and it is given in Theorem 2.1.
Theorem (2.1)
Suppose that | f (x, y) − L| ≤ g(x, y) for all (x, y) in the interior of
some circle centered at (a, b), except possibly at (a, b).
If lim g(x, y) = 0, then lim f (x, y) = L.
(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)
Generalized Squeeze Theorem (II)

Theorem (2.1)
Suppose that | f (x, y) − L| ≤ g(x, y) for all (x, y) in the interior of
some circle centered at (a, b), except possibly at (a, b).
If lim g(x, y) = 0, then lim f (x, y) = L.
(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)
1 The theorem states that if |f (x) − L| is trapped between 0

and a function (g) that approaches 0, then |f (x) − L| also
must have 0 limit.
2 In practice, we start with a conjecture for the limit (obtained
by calculating the limit along several path). Then look for a
simpler function that is larger than |f (x) − L|.
3 We sometimes find such a function by discarding terms in
|f (x) − L| to get a larger function g(x, y). As long as g tends
to zero as (x, y) → (a, b), we can use the theorem.
Proving That a Limit Exists
Example (2.5)
x2 y
Evaluate lim .
(x,y)→(0,0) x2 + y2
Finding a Limit of a Function of Two Variables
Example (2.6)
(x − 1)2 ln x
Evaluate lim .
(x,y)→(1,0) (x − 1)2 + y2
Continuity of Functions of Several Variables
As with function of one variable, the concept of continuity is

closely related to limits. Recall that a function is continuous at a
point whenever the limits of continuous functions of a single
variable and the value of the function are the same. This same
characterization applies to continuous functions of several
variables.
Continuity at a Point
Definition (2.1)
Suppose that f (x, y) is defined in the interior of a circle centered
at the point (a, b). We say that f is continuous at (a, b) if
lim f (x, y) = f (a, b).
(x,y)→(a,b)
Continuity on a Region (I)

Open Disk and Closed Disk
Before we define the concept of continuity on a region R ⊂ R,

we need to introduce several concepts.
1 We refer to the interior of a circle as an open disk.
2 A closed disk consists of circle and its interior.
Figure: [10.17a] Open disk. Figure: [10.17b] Closed disk.

Continuity on a Region (II)

Interior Point and Boundary Point
1 For a given two-dimension region R, a point (a, b) in R is

called an interior point of R if there is an open disk
centered at (a, b) that lies completely inside of R.
2 A point (a, b) in R is called a boundary point of R if every
open disk centered at (a, b) contains points in R and points
outside of R
Figure: [10.18a] Interior point. Figure: [10.18b] Boundary point.

Continuity on a Region (III)

Closed and Open Sets
1 A set R is closed if it contains all of its boundary points.

2 A set R is open if it contains none of its boundary points.
Note that these are analogous to closed and open intervals of
the real line.
Continuity on a Region (IV)

Continuity at Boundary
If the domain of a function contains any of its boundary points,

we need to modify our definition of continuity slightly.
Definition
If (a, b) is a boundary point of the domain D of a function, we
say that f is continuous at (a, b) if
lim f (x, y) = f (a, b)

(x,y)→(a,b)
(x,y)∈D
This indicates that the limit is taken only along paths lying
completely inside D.
Continuity on a Region (V)
Definition
We say that a function f (x, y) is continuous on a region R if it is
continuous at each point in R
Consequences of Continuity in Terms of Limit
Because we define continuity in terms of limits, we immediately

have the following results.
Theorem
If f (x, y) and g(x, y) are continuous at (a, b), then
f + g,
f − g,
f · g and
f /g (provided that g(a, b) 6= 0)
are all continuous at (a, b).
Determining Where a Function of Two Variables Is

Continuous
Example (2.7)
Find all points where the given function is continuous:
x
1 f (x, y) = 2 and
x −y
x4

, if (x, y) 6= (0, 0)

2 g(x, y) = x(x2 + y2 ) .
0, if (x, y) = (0, 0)

Continuity of Composite Functions
Suppose that f (x, y) is continuous at (a, b) and g(x) is

continuous at the point f (a, b). Then
h(x, y) = (g ◦ f )(x, y) = g(f (x, y))
is continuous at (a, b).

Determining Where a Composition of Functions Is

Continuous
Example (2.8)
2
Determine where f (x, y) = ex y is continuous.
Limits of Functions of Three Variables
As with limits of functions of two variables, in order to have
lim f (x, y, z) = L
(x,y,z)→(a,b,c)
we must have that f (x, y, z) approaches L along every

possible path through the point (a, b, c).
Just as with functions of two variables, notice that if a
function of three variables approaches different limits along
two particular path, then the limit does not exist.
A Limit in Three Dimensions That Does Not Exist
Example (2.9)
x2 + y2 − z2
Evaluate lim .
(x,y,z)→(0,0,0) x2 + y2 + z2
Continuity of Functions of Three Variables
We extend the definition of continuity to functions of three

variables in the obvious way, as follows.
Definition (2.2)
Suppose that f (x, y, z) is defined in the interior of a sphere
centered at (a, b, c). We say that f is continuous at (a, b, c) if
lim f (x, y, z) = f (a, b, c).
(x,y,z)→(a,b,c)
Continuity for a Function of Three Variables
Example (2.10)
Find all points where f (x, y, z) = ln(9 − x2 − y2 − z2 ) is
continuous.
Derivatives and Partial Derivatives
Recall that a function f of a single variable, we define the

derivative function as
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim ,
h→0 h
for any values of x for which the limit exist. At any particular
value x = a, we interpret f 0 (a) as the instantaneous rate
change of the function with respect to x at that point.
In this section, we generalize the notion of derivative to
functions of more than one variable.
Partial Derivatives (I)
Consider a flat metal plate in the

shape of the region R ⊂ R. Suppose
that the temperature at any point
(x, y) ∈ R id given by f (x, y).
Problem
What is the rate change of the
temperature f in the x-direction at a
point (a, b) ∈ R.
Figure: [10.19] Change in

temperature on a
horizontal line segment.
Partial Derivatives (II)
Notice that on the line segment, the

value of y remains constant. So, the
average rate change on this
segment is given by
f (a + h, b) − f (a, b)
h
To take the instantaneous rate of
change of f in the x-direction at the
point (a, b), we take the limit as
h → 0:
f (a + h, b) − f (a, b) Figure: [10.19] Change in
lim
h→0 h temperature on a
horizontal line segment.
Partial Derivatives (III)
To take the instantaneous rate of

change of f in the x-direction at the
point (a, b), we take the limit as
h → 0:
f (a + h, b) − f (a, b)
lim
h→0 h
Since f is a function of two variables
and we have held the one variable
fixed (y = b), we call this the partial
derivative of f with respect to x at
the point (a, b), denoted
∂f f (a + h, b) − f (a, b) Figure: [10.19] Change in

(a, b) = lim temperature on a
∂x h→0 h horizontal line segment.
Partial Derivatives (IV)

A Graphical Interpretation
∂f
In defining (a, b), we are looking only at points in the plane
∂x
y = b. The intersection of z = f (x, y) and y = b is a curve (see
∂f
Fig. 10.20a), and (a, b) gives the slope of the tangent line to
∂x
this curve at x = a (see Fig. 10.20b).
Figure: [10.20a] Intersection of Figure: [10.20b] The curve

the surface z = f (x, y) with the z = f (x, b).
plane y = b.
Partial Derivatives (V)
Likewise, if we move along a vertical

line segment from (a, b) to (a, b + h),
the average rate of change of f
along this segment is given by
f (a, b + h) − f (a, b)
h
Figure: [10.21] Change in

temperature on a vertical
line segment.
Partial Derivatives (VI)
The instantaneous rate change of f

in the y-direction at the point (a, b) is
then given by
f (a, b + h) − f (a, b)
lim
h→0 h
In this case, we have the value of x
fixed and referred to this as the
partial derivative of f with respect to
y at the point (a, b), denoted
∂f f (a, b + h) − f (a, b)
(a, b) = lim Figure: [10.21] Change in
∂y h→0 h temperature on a vertical
line segment.
Partial Derivatives (VII)

A Graphical Interpretation
∂f
In defining (a, b), We are looking only at points in the plane
∂y
x = a. The intersection of z = f (x, y) and x = a is a curve, and
∂f
(a, b) gives the slope of the tangent line to the curve at y = b.
∂y
Figure: [10.22a] The intersection Figure: [10.22b] The curve

of the surface z = f (x, y) with the z = f (a, y).
plane x = a.
Partial Derivatives (VIII)
Definition (3.1)
∂f
The partial derivative of f (x, y) with respect to x, written , is
∂x
defined by
∂f f (x + h, y) − f (x, y)
(x, y) = lim ,
∂x h→0 h
for any values of x and y for which the limit exists. The partial
∂f
derivative of f (x, y) with respect to y, written , is defined by
∂y
∂f f (x, y + h) − f (x, y)
(x, y) = lim ,
∂y h→0 h
for any values of x and y for which the limit exists.

Notation
Since we are dealing with functions of several variables,
we can no longer use the same old prime notation for
denoting partial derivatives.
Here we introduce several convenient types of notation.
For z = f (x, y), we write
∂f ∂z ∂
(x, y) = fx (x, y) = (x, y) = [f (x, y)]
∂x ∂x ∂x
and
∂f ∂z ∂
(x, y) = fy (x, y) = (x, y) = [f (x, y)]
∂y ∂y ∂y
∂ ∂
The expression ( ) is a partial differential
∂x ∂y
operators. It tells us to take the partial derivative with
respect to x (y) of whatever expression follows it.
Rules for Computing Partial Derivatives (I)
To compute partial derivatives, we can use all of our usual

rules for computing ordinary derivatives.
∂f
In the definition of , the value of y is held constant, say
∂x
at y = b. If we define g(x) = f (x, b), then
∂f f (x + h, b) − f (x, b)
(x, b) = lim
∂y h→0 h
g(x + h) − g(x)
= lim = g0 (x)
h→0 h

∂f ∂f
That is, to compute , we simply take an ordinary
∂x ∂x
derivative with respect to x(y), while treating y(x) as a
constant.
Rules for Computing Partial Derivatives (II)
Since we are holding one variables fixed when we compute a

partial derivative, we can use all of our familiar rules for
computing derivatives. For instance, we have
the product rules:
∂(uv) ∂u ∂v ∂(uv) ∂u ∂v
=v +u and =v +u
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂y
the quotient rules:
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
v −u
∂ u v ∂x − u ∂x ∂ u ∂y ∂y
= and =
∂x v v2 ∂y v v2
Computing Partial Derivatives
Example (3.1)
∂f ∂f
For f (x, y) = 3x2 + x3 y + 4y2 , compute (x, y), (x, y), fx (1, 0)
∂x ∂y
and fy (2, −1).
Computing Partial Derivatives
Example (3.2)
x ∂f ∂f
For f (x, y) = exy + , compute and .
y ∂x ∂y
An Application of Partial Derivatives to

Thermodynamics
Example (3.3)
For a real gas, van der Waals’ equation states that
n2 a

P + 2 (V − nb) = nRT.
V
Here, P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, T

is the temperature (in degrees Kelvin), n is the number of moles
of gas, R is the universal gas constant and a and b are
∂P ∂T
constants. Compute and interpret and .
∂V ∂P
Higher-Order Partial Derivatives

For a function of two variables f (x, y), there are four different
second-order partial derivatives. They are:
1
∂2f

∂ ∂f
2
= = fxx
∂x ∂x ∂x
2
∂2f

∂ ∂f
2
= = fyy
∂y ∂y ∂y
3 (mixed second-order partial derivative)
∂2f

∂ ∂f
= = fxy
∂y∂x ∂y ∂x
4 (mixed second-order partial derivative)
∂2f

∂ ∂f
= = fyx
∂x∂y ∂x ∂y
Computing Second-Order Partial Derivatives
Example (3.4)
Find all second-order partial derivatives of
f (x, y) = x2 y − y3 + ln x.
Notice in the example that fxy = fyx . This is true for most, but not
all, of the functions that we will encounter.
Are fxy (x, y) and fyx (x, y) the Same?
Theorem (3.1)
If fxy (x, y) and fyx (x, y) are continuous on an open set containing
(a, b), then fxy (a, b) = fyx (a, b).
The proof of Theorem 3.1 can be found in most texts on

advanced calculus.
Computing Higher-Order Partial Derivatives
Example (3.5)
For f (x, y) = cos(xy) − x3 + y4 , compute fxyy and fxyyy .
Partial Derivatives of Functions of Three Variables
We have worked with partial derivatives of functions of two

variables. The extensions to functions of three or more
variables are completely analogous to what we have discussed
for functions of two variables.
Computing Partial Derivatives of Functions of Three

Variables
Example (3.6)
p
For f (x, y, z) = xy3 z + 4x2 y, defined for x, y, z ≥ 0, compute
fx , fxy and fxyz .
An Application of Partial Derivatives to a Sagging Beam
Example (3.7)
The sag in a beam of length L, width ω and height h (see
L4
Figure) is given by S(L, ω, h) = c 3 for some constant c. Show
ωh
∂S 4 ∂S 1 ∂S 3
that = S, = − S, and = − S. Use this result to
∂L L ∂ω ω ∂h h
determine which variable has the greatest proportional effect
on the sag.
Figure: [10.23] A horizontal beam.

Estimating Partial Derivatives from a Table of Data
Example (3.8)
A computer simulation of the flight of a baseball provided the
data displayed in the following table for the range f (υ, ω) in feet
of a ball hit with initial velocity υ ft/s and backspin rate of ω rpm.
Each ball is struck at an angle of 30◦ above the horizontal.
∂f ∂f
Use the data to estimate (160, 2000) and (160, 2000).
∂υ ∂ω
Interpret both quantities in baseball terms.
Tangent Line and Linear Approximations
The equation of the tangent line

to the curve y = f (x) at x = a is
given by
y = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
Since the function on the right

side of the above equation is a
linear function of x, we called
this the linear approximation to
f (x) at x = a.
Figure: [10.24a] Linear
approximation.
Tangent Plane and Linear Approximations

Similarly, information about the behavior of a function of two
variables near a given point can be obtained from the tangent
plane to the surface at that point.
Consider the graph of
z = 6 − x2 − y2
and its tangent plane at the

point (1, 2, 1), for instant.
Notice that near the point
(1, 2, 1), the surface and the
tangent plane are very close. Figure: [10.24b]z = 6 − x2 − y2
In this section, we will develop and the tangent plane at (1, 2, 1).
this approximation.
Tangent Planes (I)
We now proceed on finding a general equation for the tangent

plane to z = f (x, y) at the point (a, b, f (a, b)).
Our development of the tangent plane will parallel to the
tangent line shown in section 2.1.
For functions of two variables, we shall see that the
tangent plane is determined by two slopes, given by the
partial derivatives
∂f ∂f
(a, b) and (a, b)
∂x ∂y
Tangent Planes (II)

A global view and a local view of f (x, y) = 6 − x2 − y2 are
shown below.
Observe that the graph of the function near the vicinity of
(1, 2) looks like a plane surface (see Figure 10.25b).
Figure: [10.25a] z = 6 − x2 − y2 , Figure: [10.25b] z = 6 − x2 − y2 ,

with −3 ≤ x ≤ 3 and −3 ≤ y ≤ 3. with 0.9 ≤ x ≤ 1.1 and
1.9 ≤ y ≤ 2.1.
Tangent Planes (III)
Recall that an equation of a plane can be constructed from a

point in the plane and any vector normal to the plane.
One point the lying in the tangent plane is the point of the
tangency (a, b, f (a, b)).
To find a normal vector, we will use two vectors lying in the
plane and then take their cross product.
Tangent Planes (IV)

Imagine intersecting the surface z = f (x, y), with the plane
y = b, as shown in the figure.
The result is a curve in the
plane y = b whose slope at
x = a is given by
fx (a, b).
Since the value of y doesn’t

change at all along the curve, a
vector with the same direction
as the tangent line is then Figure: [10.26a] The
intersection of the surface
< 1, 0, fx (a, b) >, z = f (x, y) with the plane
y = b.
and this vector lies in the
tangent plane.
Tangent Planes (V)

Now, intersecting the surface z = f (x, y), with the plane x = a,
as shown in the figure.
The result is a curve in the
plane x = a whose slope at
y = b is given by
fy (a, b).
Since the value of x doesn’t

change at all along the curve, a
vector with the same direction
as the tangent line is then Figure: [10.26b] The
intersection of the surface
< 0, 1, fy (a, b) >, z = f (x, y) with the plane
x = a.
and this vector lies in the
tangent plane.
Tangent Planes (VI)
We have now found two vectors in

the tangent plane:
T 1 = < 1, 0, fx (a, b) > and

T 2 = < 0, 1, fy (a, b) > .
A vector normal to the plane is then

given by the cross product
Figure: [10.26c] Tangent
T 1 × T 2 =< fx (a, b), fy (a, b), −1 > plane and normal vector.
Tangent Planes (VII)
Theorem (4.1)
Suppose that f (x, y) has continuous first partial derivatives at
(a, b). A normal vector to the tangent plane to z = f (x, y) at
(a, b) is then h fx (a, b), fy (a, b), −1i. Further, an equation of the
tangent plane is given by
fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b) − [z − f (a, b)] = 0
or
z = f (a, b) + fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b).

Normal Line
Since we now know a normal vector to the tangent plane, a line

orthogonal to the tangent plane is given by
x = a + fx (a, b)t
y = b + fy (a, b)t
z = f (a, b) − t
This line is called the normal line to the surface at the point
(a, b, f (a, b))
Finding Equations of the Tangent Plane and the

Normal Line
Example (4.1)
Find equations of the tangent plane and the normal line to
z = 6 − x2 − y2 at the point (1, 2, 1).
Figure: [10.27] Surface, tangent plane and normal line at the point
(1, 2, 1).
Finding Equations of the Tangent Plane and the Normal Line
Example (4.2)
Find equations of the tangent plane and the normal line to
x2
z = x 3 + y3 + at (2, 1, 13).
y
Figure: [10.28] Surface, tangent plane and normal line at the point
(2, 1, 13).
Linear Approximation
From Theorem 4.1, we have that the tangent plane to z = f (x, y)

at the point (a, b) is given by
z = f (a, b) + fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b)
We define the linear approximation L(x, y) of f (x, y) at the

point (a, b) to be the function defining the z-values on the
tangent plane, namely,
L(x, y) = f (a, b) + fx (a, b)(x − a) + fy (a, b)(y − b)

Finding a Linear Approximation
Example (4.3)
2
Compute the linear approximation of f (x, y) = 2x + ex −y at
(0, 0). Compare the linear approximation to the actual function
values for
1 x = 0 and y near 0;
2 y = 0 and x near 0;
3 y = x, with both x and y near 0 and
4 y = 2x, with both x and y near 0.
Increments and Differentials (I)
We have examined linear approximations from a graphical

perspective, we will examine these in a symbolic fashion.
In the course of doing so, we will gain some insight into the
behavior of functions of several variables.
Increments and Differentials (II)

Functions of One Variable
Recall that the increment ∆y for the

function f (x) at x = a is defined as
∆y = f (a + ∆x) − f (a).
Referring to the figure, notice that for ∆x

small,
∆y ≈ dy = f 0 (a)∆x
where we referred to dy as the differential
of y.
Figure: [10.29] Increments
and differentials for a
function of one variable.
Increments and Differentials (III)

Functions of One Variable
Further, if f is differentiable at x = a and

∆y − dy
= , then we have
∆x
∆y − dy
=
∆x
f (a + ∆x) − f (a) − f 0 (a)∆x
=
∆x
f (a + ∆x) − f (a)
= − f 0 (a) → 0
∆x
as ∆x → 0. Solving for ∆y in terms of ,
we have
∆y = dy + ∆x Figure: [10.29] Increments
and differentials for a
where → 0, as ∆x → 0. function of one variable.
Increments and Differentials (IV)

Functions of Two Variable
For z = f (x, y), we define the increment

of f to be
∆z = f (a + ∆x, b + ∆y) − f (a, b)
That is, ∆z is the change in z that occurs

when a(b) is incremented by ∆x(∆y), as
shown in the figure
Figure: [10.30] Linear

approximation.
Increments and Differentials (V)

For z = f (x, y), we define the increment

of f to be
∆z = f (a + ∆x, b + ∆y) − f (a, b)
That is, ∆z is the change in z that occurs

when a(b) is incremented by ∆x(∆y), as
shown in the figure
Figure: [10.30] Linear

approximation.
Increments and Differentials (VI)

As long as f is continuous in some open

region containing (a, b) and f has first
derivatives on that region, we can write
∆z = f (a + ∆x, b + ∆y) − f (a, b)

= [f (a + ∆x, b + ∆y) − f (a, b + ∆y)]
+[f (a, b + ∆y) − f (a, b)]
= fx (u, b + ∆y)[(a + ∆x) − a] + fy (a, v)[(b + ∆y) − b]
= fx (u, b + ∆y)∆x + fy (a, v)∆y
by the Mean Value Theorem. Here, u is

some value between a and a + ∆x and v
is some value between b and b + ∆y(see Figure: [10.31] Intermediate
Figure 10.31) points from the Mean Value
Theorem.
Increments and Differentials (VII)

The above result can be further

expressed as
∆z = fx (u, b + ∆y)∆x + fy (a, v)∆y

= {fx (a, b) + [fx (u, b + ∆y) − fx (a, b)]}
+{fy (a, b) + [fy (a, v) − fy (a, b)]}∆y
= fx (a, b)∆x + fy (a, b)∆y
+1 ∆x + 2 ∆y
where
1 = fx (u, b + ∆y) − fx (a, b)

Figure: [10.31] Intermediate
2 = fy (a, v) − fy (a, b) points from the Mean Value
Theorem.
Increments and Differentials (VIII)

From the expression
∆z = fx (a, b)∆x + fy (a, b)∆y + 1 ∆x + 2 ∆y
where
1 = fx (u, b + ∆y) − fx (a, b)

2 = fy (a, v) − fy (a, b)
we observe that:
If fx and fy are both continuous in some open region
containing (a, b), then 1 and 2 will both tend to 0, as
(∆x, ∆y) → (0, 0).
Further, the product 1 ∆x and 2 ∆y both tend to 0 even
faster that do 1 , 2 , ∆x or ∆y individually.
Increments and Differentials (IX)

Theorem (4.2)
Suppose that z = f (x, y) is defined on the rectangle
R = {(x, y)|x0 < x < x1 , y0 < y < y1 } and fx and fy are defined on
R and are continuous at (a, b) ∈ R. Then for
(a + ∆x, b + ∆y) ∈ R,
∆z = fx (a, b)∆x + fy (a, b)∆y + ε1 ∆x + ε2 ∆y,
where ε1 and ε2 are functions of ∆x and ∆y that both tend to

zero, as (∆x, ∆y) → (0, 0).
Computing the Increment ∆z
Example (4.4)
For z = f (x, y) = x2 − 5xy, find ∆z and write it in the form
indicated in Theorem 4.2.
Total Differential
In the expression
if we increment x by the amount dx = ∆x and increment y by

dy = ∆y, then we define the differential of z to be
dz = fx (x, y)dx + fy (x, y)dy.
This is sometimes referred to as a total differential. Notice

that for dx and dy small, we have from the above equation that
∆z ≈ dz
Differentiability of Functions of Two Variables
For functions that can be approximated linearly in the preceding

fashion we give a special name, as in the following definition.
Definition (4.1)
Let z = f (x, y). We say that f is differentiable at (a, b) if we can
write
where ε1 and ε2 are both functions of ∆x and ∆y and

ε1 , ε2 → 0, as (∆x, ∆y) → (0, 0). We say that f is differentiable
on a region R ⊂ R2 whenever f is differentiable at every point in
R.
Differentiability and Partial Derivatives
Noth that from Theorem 4.2, if fx and fy are defined on

some open rectangle R containing the point (a, b) and if fx
and fy are continuous at (a, b), then f will be differentiable
at (a, b).
Just as with functions of one variable, it can be shown that
if f is differentiable at a point (a, b), then it is also
continuous at (a, b).
Due to Theorem 4.2, if a function is differentiable at a
point, then the linear approximation (differential) at that
point provides a good approximation to the function near
that point.
However, if a function has partial derivatives at a point, it
need not be differentiable or even continuous at that point.
Linear Approximation in Higher Dimension Space (I)
The idea of the linear approximation extends easily to three or

more dimensions, and we have the following definition.
Definition (4.2)
The linear approximation to f (x, y, z) at the point (a, b, c) is
given by
∂f
L(x, y, z) = f (a, b, c) + (a, b, c)(x − a)
∂x
∂f ∂f
+ (a, b, c)(y − b) + (a, b, c)(z − c).
∂y ∂z
Linear Approximation in Higher Dimension Space (II)
Recall that the linear approximation to f (x, y, z) at the point

(a, b, c) is given by
∂f ∂f
L(x, y, z) = f (a, b, c) + (a, b, c)(x − a) + (a, b, c)(y − b)
∂x ∂y
∂f
+ (a, b, c)(z − c)
∂z
If we increment x ∆x, y ∆y and z ∆z, then the increment of
w = f (x, y, z) is given by
∆w = f (x + ∆x, y + ∆y, z + ∆z) − f (x, y, z)

≈ = fx (x, y, z)∆x + fy (x, y, z)∆y + fz (x, y, z)∆z
Linear Approximation in Higher Dimension Space (III)
A good way to interpret the expression
∆w = f (x + ∆x, y + ∆y, z + ∆z) − f (x, y, z)

≈ = fx (x, y, z)∆x + fy (x, y, z)∆y + fz (x, y, z)∆z
is that each partial derivative represents the change in the

function relative to the change in that variable. The linear
approximation starts with the function value at the known point
and adds in the approximated changes corresponding to each
of the independent variables.
Approximating the Sag in a Beam
Example (4.5)
Suppose that the sag in a measurements with error
beam of length L, width w and tolerances
height h is given by L = 36 ± 1, w = 2 ± 0.4 and
L4 h = 6 ± 0.8. Use a linear
S(L, w, h) = 0.0004 3 , with all
wh approximation to estimate the
lengths measured in inches. possible range of sags in the
We illustrate the beam in beam.
Figure 10.32. A beam is
supposed to measure
L = 36, w = 2 and h = 6 with a
corresponding sag of 1.5552
inches. Due to weathering and
other factors, the manufacturer
only guarantees Figure: A typical beam.
Estimating the Gauge of a Sheet of Metal
Example (4.6)
Manufacturing plants create rolls of metal of a desired gauge
(thickness) by feeding the metal through very large rollers. The
thickness of the resulting metal depends on the gap between
the working rollers, the speed at which the rollers turn and the
temperature of the metal. Suppose that for a certain metal, a
gauge of 4 mm is produced by a gap of 4 mm, a speed of 10
m/s and a temperature of 900◦ . Experiments show that an
increase in speed of 0.2 m/s increases the gauge by 0.06 mm
and an increase in temperature of 10◦ decreases the gauge by
0.04 mm. Use a linear approximation to estimate the gauge at
10.1 m/s and 880◦ .

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Functions of Several Variables Limits and Continuity Partial Derivatives Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations

1 Functions of Several Variables

2 Limits and Continuity

4 Tangent Planes and Linear Approximations

Functions of Two and Three Variables

A function of two variables is a rule that assigns a real

A function of three variables is a rule that assigns a real

Finding the Domain of a Function of Two Variables

Figure: [10.1a] The domain of Figure: [10.1b] The domain of

Finding the Domain of a Function of Three Variables

A Function Defined by a Table of Data (I)

In many applications, instead of having a formula representing

A Function Defined by a Table of Data (II)

Thinking of the range as a function R(v, ω), find

Graphing Functions of Two Variables

Graphing Functions in Three Dimensions

Figure: [10.3a] The

Matching a Function of Two Variables to Its Graph (I)

Matching a Function of Two Variables to Its Graph (II)

f1 (x, y) = cos(x2 + y2 ) f2 (x, y) = cos(ex + ey )

Figure: 10.4a Figure: 10.4b

Matching a Function of Two Variables to Its Graph (III)

f1 (x, y) = cos(x2 + y2 ) f2 (x, y) = cos(ex + ey )

Figure: 10.4c Figure: 10.4d

Different Viewing Windows of a Function

Figure: [10.5a] Figure: [10.5b]

Different Viewpoints of a Function

Contour and Parametric Representations of a Function

A level curve of the function f (x, y) is the graph of the

Sketching Contour Plots

Figure: [10.8a] Contour plot of Figure: [10.8b] Contour plot of

An Extensive Contour Plot of g(x, y) = x2 + y2 (I)

Figure: [10.9a] Contour plot of Figure: [10.9b] z = x2 + y2 .

An Extensive Contour Plot of g(x, y) = x2 + y2 (II)

Figure: [10.9a] Contour plot of Figure: [10.9b] z = x2 + y2 .

An Extensive Contour Plot of g(x, y) = x2 + y2 (III)

Figure: [10.9a] Contour plot of Figure: [10.9b] z = x2 + y2 .

Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (I)

Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (II)

Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (III)

Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (IV)

Matching Surfaces to Contour Plots (IV)

A density plot is closely related to a

Matching Functions and Density Plots

Figure: 10.11a Figure: 10.11b Figure: 10.11c

Level Curve (Isobar) Plots

Whether maps often show level

Figure: [10.12a] Weather map

Density Plot Representations of Temperature and

Figure: [10.12b] Weather maps showing bands of temperature and

Color Density Plots

Figure: [10.12c] Ocean heat Figure: [10.12d] Ocean heat

Graphing f (x, y, z): Sketching Level Surfaces

Figure: [10.13a] x2 + y2 + z2 = 1. Figure: [10.13b] x2 + y2 + z2 = 2.

The Concept of Limits to Functions of Two Variables (I)

The Concept of Limits to Functions of Two Variables

For the limit

to exist, function values throughout

Figure: [10.14] Interior of a

Computing lim f (x, y)

For many (nice) functions, we can compute limits by

Unfortunately, we are often interested in limits which can not be

General Rules for Computing Limits (I)