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Undergraduate Learners
Tonia A. Dousay
University of Georgia
07 November 2010
EFFECTS OF DESIGN ON SITUATIONAL INTEREST 2
Introduction
technology, it is important that new studies provide practical application of the research
studies as technologies advance and learners adapt to the new environment. Take for
example the notion of motivational design. Keller has noted that research that focuses
on learner motivation has the potential to impact course and lesson design (2010).
Online learning is often dominated by multimedia instruction, but multiple studies have
shown that this type of training often runs into challenges with learner motivation and
completion rates (Carr, 2000; Wojciechowski & Palmer, 2005). Further research has
student learning, Meyer noted that a number of online learners struggle because of a
represent an opportunity where research into multimedia design can directly inform
practical application.
Conceptual Framework
Examining illustrations and their effects on interest and information gain is not a
new field of interest. More than 20 years ago, newspapers originally tackled the concept
in order to better understand how readers perceived charts and graphs published with
articles. While research showed that readers did not retain any more information from
flashier graphics than from plain images, studies did support that readers saw these
importance of this latter revelation becomes more apparent when looking at the bigger
When compared to text alone, images placed in close proximity to text can
positively impact attention and recall of information. Houts, Doak, Doak, & Loscalzo
(2005) used this principle to examine how pictures improved communication between
health practitioners and patients. They noted that even patients with well-developed
language skills found it difficult to process medical information for a variety of reasons,
including unfamiliarity with the terminology and emotional effects (p. 174). Their
review of the literature found a number of studies that support the use of images to
enhance the appeal of medical handouts, specifically in the areas of likelihood to read
and recall the information provided. These studies only indicated a preference for
images and not any predictors of comprehension. It is clear that the relationship
environments become more prevalent, this method will not be able to gain or hold
readers’ attention for very long (Slough & McTigue, 2010). One approach to help
students better understand is to make the text more interesting through the use of visual
drawings, etc. This shift has been reported by teachers to be preferred among learners
(p. 210). However, research has indicated a distinct need to stress proper integration of
Looking across the various types of images, current technologies have allowed
for, and even encouraged, an increasing use of animations with respect to learning and
instructional text. Kim, Yoon, Whang, Tversky, & Morrison note that researchers and
educators initially assumed that animations would facilitate learning (2007, p. 260).
While the effects of animated images on learning are still a controversial topic, this style
of graphics continues to grow in popularity largely due to a belief that animations are
more interesting and aesthetically appealing. This perceived effect on motivation has
since been divided into two classifications, emotional interest and cognitive interest. As
such, effects may vary depending upon individual differences, including the need for
cognition (NFC), age, and spatial ability. Specifically, younger learners with a lower
NFC prefer animations over static images and find them to be motivating. This finding
presents several implications for designing learning materials. However, the most
significant of these is that animations should be used carefully, considering all of the
textbooks now include DVDs or links to websites that contain libraries of simulations
and other instructional images. As previously noted, many instructors find it appealing
to make use of these simulations. Yet, Adams et al. point out that little research exists to
content and how simulations can be designed and used most effectively (2008). After
conducting a study with college undergraduates, the researchers found that, in general,
students notice animated features first. With this in mind, they also discovered that
students only observing, and not interacting with the simulation, did not make new
connections with the material. Further, user control of various parameters is perceived
to be valuable by the users. In the case of the former, the researchers suggest using
puzzles to stimulate the learner. As for the latter, the researchers note that limiting the
students must believe the example. If they are skeptical about the applicability or
realism, any potential benefits will be lost. Further a perceived lack of knowledge about
a concept will increase the likelihood of a student to interact with a simulation. In short,
if designed well and used in the proper context, simulations can provide a powerful
learning environment where students can productively engage with the content.
These studies make it abundantly clear that the use of images to enhance learning
is a complex undertaking with a myriad of pros and cons. Whether the attempt uses
limitations and considerations. Still, while the field is beginning to close the gap on
examining the use and effects of images on interest, there is still more work to be done.
Theoretical Framework
By its very basic definition, multimedia is the use of multiple types of media. It
can therefore be inferred that multimedia is the presentation of words and pictures
from words and pictures, and multimedia instruction includes that which presents
words and pictures intended to promote learning. Multiple research studies have
proven that there are separate channels for processing visual and auditory information
and that humans are limited in the amount of information that can be processed by each
channel at one time (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley 1999; Chandler & Sweller, 1991; Paivio,
1986). Around the same time, Wittrock (1989) studied cognitive relationships in
upon signals, strategies, and plans to relate events to one another. Mayer (2001)
expounded upon these earlier foundations to propose that humans actively engage in
of the process that occurs when media are processed by sensory, working, and long-term
Figure 1. An overview of the process proposed by the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
Building upon the CTML process, research has provided design implications that
(2005) presented an Integrated Model of Text and Picture comprehension (ITPC) that
promotes six key principles for consideration in multimedia design. First, designers
should combine text with content-related images only when learners have low prior
knowledge and possess sufficient cognitive abilities to process both the text and
pictures. This combination is known as the basic multimedia principle. Second, the
proximity to related images. The temporal contiguity principle takes this concept a step
further and suggests presenting spoken text in close temporal proximity to related
images. The modality principle proposes the use of spoken words instead of written
text for animation. Related to this, the specific redundancy principle clearly states that
written text should not duplicate spoken words. Lastly, the coherence principle advises
against the use of extraneous words and pictures or unnecessary sound or music.
process information.
Learner Interest
within a person, associates positive feelings with a topic or activity, and attributes
Renninger, Hidi, & Krapp, 1992; Schiefele, 1991). Conversely, situational interest (SI)
1992; Hidi & Baird, 1986; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Krapp, 2002). Examining
situational interest further, there are attentional and affective reactions that can be
differentiated into triggered-SI and maintained-SI (Hidi & Baird, 1986; Hidi &
Harackiewicz, 2000; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Krapp, 2002; Mitchell, 1993). Where
triggered-SI is the initiation or arousal of interest (Hidi, 2001; Hidi & Harackiewicz,
2000; Hidi & Renninger, 2006), maintained-SI is where interest is held and individuals
begin to connect with the content (Hidi 2001; Mitchell, 1993). Learning strategies that
take these foundations of interest into consideration when designing instruction have
the potential to help students be engaged and focused. However, the effects of
result of their validity study on the Situational Interest Survey, Linnenbrink-Garcia et al.
found that triggered-SI reflects a positive affective reaction to the way material is
learners have to the material itself (2010). Based upon these findings, it will be
Practical Framework
clients add to the pressure on educational media designers and instructional project
specific design. Tobias (2006) has noted that research is beginning to explore the effect
course within traditional constructs, they are either interested in the content, motivated
relevant learning experiences (Fletcher & Tobias 2005). Thus, it would be worthwhile to
Simply stated, a gap exists when there is a difference between the way things are
and the way things should be. The role of motivational design could possibly be the key
for designers to use in bridging the gap between learner interest and content
may not have an optimal impact on learners. Keller (2008) suggests that even though
general principles of motivation and learning apply to all learning environments, there
are characteristic problems in a given setting requiring analysis and design to create
motivational and learning practices that exemplify those principles. Keller notes that
the processes of analysis and design should not be overlooked. Employing good design
principles can help mitigate potential user issues, including triggering and maintaining
demands while still attempting to design for the learner. Equipping designers with a set
of best practice guidelines, including techniques that are proven to enhance learner
Research Design
is that the information is presented in a design that negatively impacts interest, thus
Southeastern United States. Three treatment groups will be established from the
sample. One group will complete an online lesson that fails to incorporate the ITPC
principles of modality and redundancy. The second group will complete an online
lesson that blatantly violates the two principles. The third group will complete an online
lesson that incorporates the two principles. Upon completion of the lesson, students
(triggered-SI). Additional survey questions will measure whether the material itself is
viewed as enjoyable and meaningful (maintained-SI). This initial survey will use
treatment groups. Based on survey responses, the researcher also proposes to interview
a random sample to ask further investigative questions regarding how or why the
This study seeks to determine what types of course materials, when designed
using ITPC principles, positively affect learner interest. The following questions will be
used to guide the data collection, summary and framework for organizing the results of
this study:
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