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To dimension the circuit, specify the corner frequency (fC), the dc gain (A∞), and capacitor
(C1), and then solve for R1 and R2:
R1 + 1
2pf ca 1C 1
R 2 + R 3(A R * 1) and R2 + * R1 AR
R4
R3
A(s) + a R4
R 2ǒC 1)C 2Ǔ)R 1C 2(1*a) 1 with a+1)
1) w cR 1 R 2 C 1 C 2
·s ) 1
·1
w c 2 R 1R 2C 1C 2 s 2 R3
The unity-gain topology in Figure 16–28 is usually applied in low-Q filters with high gain
accuracy.
R2
C C
VIN
VOUT
R1
16-24
High-Pass Filter Design
A(s) + 1
1) 2
·1
w cR 1 C s
)w 1
2R
1
2 · s2
c 1R 2C
The coefficient comparison between this transfer function and Equation 16–5 yields:
AR + 1
a1 + 2
w cR 1C
b1 + 2 1
w c R 1R 2C 2
R1 + 1
pf cCa 1
a1
R2 +
4pf cCb 1
The MFB topology is commonly used in filters that have high Qs and require a high gain.
To simplify the computation of the circuit, capacitors C1 and C3 assume the same value
(C1 = C3 = C) as shown in Figure 16–29.
C2
C1=C C3=C
R1
VIN
VOUT
R2
* CC
A(s) + 2C 2)C 1
2
1) ·
w cR 1 C 2 C s
) w 2R 1
· s12
c 2R 1C 2C
Through coefficient comparison with Equation 16–5, obtain the following relations:
AR + C
C2
2C ) C 2
a1 +
w cR 1CC 2
2C ) C 2
b1 +
w cR 1CC 2
Given capacitors C and C2, and solving for resistors R1 and R2:
1 * 2A R
R1 +
2pf c·C·a 1
a1
R2 +
2pf c·b 1C 2(1 * 2A R)
The passband gain (A∞) of a MFB high-pass filter can vary significantly due to the wide
tolerances of the two capacitors C and C2. To keep the gain variation at a minimum, it is
necessary to use capacitors with tight tolerance values.
ai bi
Filter 1 a1 = 0.756 b1 = 0
First Filter
16-26
Band-Pass Filter Design
R1 + 1 + 1 + 2.105 kW
2pf ca 1C 1 2p·10 3Hz·0.756·100·10 *9F
Second Filter
With C = 100nF,
R1 + 1 + 1 + 3.18 kW
pf cCa 1 p·10 3·100·10 *9·0.756
1.65k
100n
VIN 100n 100n
2.10k VOUT
3.16k
DW
ǒ
1 s)1
s
Ǔ (16–7)
In this case, the passband characteristic of a low-pass filter is transformed into the upper
passband half of a band-pass filter. The upper passband is then mirrored at the mid fre-
quency, fm (Ω=1), into the lower passband half.
0 0
–3 –3
∆Ω
0 1 Ω 0 Ω1 1 Ω2 Ω
The corner frequency of the low-pass filter transforms to the lower and upper –3 dB fre-
quencies of the band-pass, Ω1 and Ω2. The difference between both frequencies is de-
fined as the normalized bandwidth ∆Ω:
DW + W 2 * W 1
W m + 1 + W 2·W 1
In analogy to the resonant circuits, the quality factor Q is defined as the ratio of the mid
frequency (fm) to the bandwidth (B):
fm fm 1
Q+ + + + 1 (16–8)
B f2 * f1 W2 * W1 DW
The simplest design of a band-pass filter is the connection of a high-pass filter and a low-
pass filter in series, which is commonly done in wide-band filter applications. Thus, a first-
order high-pass and a first-order low-pass provide a second-order band-pass, while a
second-order high-pass and a second-order low-pass result in a fourth-order band-pass
response.
16-28
Band-Pass Filter Design
Replacing s with
1 s)1
DW s
ǒ Ǔ
yields the general transfer function for a second-order band-pass filter:
A 0·DW·s
A(s) + (16–9)
1 ) DW·s ) s 2
When designing band-pass filters, the parameters of interest are the gain at the mid fre-
quency (Am) and the quality factor (Q), which represents the selectivity of a band-pass
filter.
Therefore, replace A0 with Am and ∆Ω with 1/Q (Equation 16–7) and obtain:
Am
Q
·s
A(s) + (16–10)
1 ) Q1 ·s ) s2
Figure 16–32 shows the normalized gain response of a second-order band-pass filter for
different Qs.
0
–5
Q=1
–10
|A| — Gain — dB
–15
–20
Q = 10
–25
–30
–35
–45
0.1 1 10
Frequency — Ω
The graph shows that the frequency response of second-order band-pass filters gets
steeper with rising Q, thus making the filter more selective.
R C
VIN
VOUT
C 2R
R2
R1
The Sallen-Key band-pass circuit in Figure 16–33 has the following transfer function:
G·RCw m·s
A(s) +
1 ) RCw m(3 * G)·s ) R 2C 2w m 2·s 2
Through coefficient comparison with Equation 16–10, obtain the following equations:
1
mid-frequency: f m +
2pRC
R2
inner gain: G+1)
R1
Am + G
gain at fm:
3*G
Q+ 1
filter quality:
3*G
The Sallen-Key circuit has the advantage that the quality factor (Q) can be varied via the
inner gain (G) without modifying the mid frequency (fm). A drawback is, however, that Q
and Am cannot be adjusted independently.
Care must be taken when G approaches the value of 3, because then Am becomes infinite
and causes the circuit to oscillate.
To set the mid frequency of the band-pass, specify fm and C and then solve for R:
R+ 1
2pf mC
16-30
Band-Pass Filter Design
Because of the dependency between Q and Am, there are two options to solve for R2: ei-
ther to set the gain at mid frequency:
2A m * 1
R2 +
1 ) Am
R 2 + 2Q * 1
Q
R1 C
R2
VIN
VOUT
R3
The MFB band-pass circuit in Figure 16–34 has the following transfer function:
R 2R 3
*R Cw m·s
1)R 3
A(s) + 2R 1R 3 R R R
1)R Cw m·s ) R1 )R
2 3
C 2·w m 2·s 2
1)R 3 1 3
The coefficient comparison with Equation 16–9, yields the following equations:
mid-frequency: f m +
1
2pC
Ǹ R1 ) R3
R 1R 2R 3
R2
gain at fm: * Am +
2R 1
filter quality: Q + pf mR 2C
B+ 1
bandwidth:
pR 2C
The MFB band-pass allows to adjust Q, Am, and fm independently. Bandwidth and gain
factor do not depend on R3. Therefore, R3 can be used to modify the mid frequency with-
out affecting bandwidth, B, or gain, Am. For low values of Q, the filter can work without R3,
however, Q then depends on Am via:
* A m + 2Q 2
R2 + Q + 10 + 31.8 kW
pf mC p·1 kHz·100 nF
R2
R1 + + 31.8 kW + 7.96 kW
* 2A m 4
* A mR 1
R3 + + 2·7.96 kW + 80.4 W
2Q 2 ) A m 200 * 2
Similar to the low-pass filters, the fourth-order transfer function is split into two second-or-
der band-pass terms. Further mathematical modifications yield:
A mi A mi s
Qi
·as Qi a
·
A(s) + · (16–12)
ƪ1 ) as
Q1
) (as) ƫ ƪ1 )
2 1 ǒsǓ
Qi a
) ƫ
ǒas Ǔ 2
Equation 16–12 represents the connection of two second-order band-pass filters in se-
ries, where
16-32
Band-Pass Filter Design
D Ami is the gain at the mid frequency, fmi, of each partial filter
D Qi is the pole quality of each filter
D α and 1/α are the factors by which the mid frequencies of the individual filters, fm1
and fm2, derive from the mid frequency, fm, of the overall bandpass.
In a fourth-order band-pass filter with high Q, the mid frequencies of the two partial filters
differ only slightly from the overall mid frequency. This method is called staggered tuning.
ƪ ƫ
2
a·DW·a 1 (DW) 2
a2 ) ) 12 * 2 * +0 (16–13)
b 1ǒ1 ) a 2Ǔ a b1
with a1 and b1 being the second-order low-pass coefficients of the desired filter type.
To simplify the filter design, Table 16–2 lists those coefficients, and provides the α values
for three different quality factors, Q = 1, Q = 10, and Q = 100.
After α has been determined, all quantities of the partial filters can be calculated using the
following equations:
f
f m1 + am (16–14)
f m2 + f m·a (16–15)
with fm being the mid frequency of the overall forth-order band-pass filter.
The individual pole quality, Qi, is the same for both filters:
ǒ1 ) a 2Ǔb 1
Q i + Q· a·a 1
(16–16)
The individual gain (Ami) at the partial mid frequencies, fm1 and fm2, is the same for both
filters:
A mi +
Qi
Q
· Ǹ
Am
B1
(16–17)
with Am being the gain at mid frequency, fm, of the overall filter.
The task is to design a fourth-order Butterworth band-pass with the following parameters:
D mid frequency, fm = 10 kHz
D bandwidth, B = 1000 Hz
D and gain, Am = 1
16-34
Band-Pass Filter Design
In accordance with Equations 16–14 and 16–15, the mid frequencies for the partial filters
are:
The overall Q is defined as Q + f mńB , and for this example results in Q = 10.
With Equation 16–17, the passband gain of the partial filters at fm1 and fm2 calculates to:
A mi + 14.15 ·
10
Ǹ11 + 1.415
The Equations 16–16 and 16–17 show that Qi and Ami of the partial filters need to be inde-
pendently adjusted. The only circuit that accomplishes this task is the MFB band-pass fil-
ter in Paragraph 16.5.1.2.
To design the individual second-order band-pass filters, specify C = 10 nF, and insert the
previously determined quantities for the partial filters into the resistor equations of the
MFB band-pass filter. The resistor values for both partial filters are calculated below.
Filter 1: Filter 2:
Qi 14.15 Qi 14.15
R 21 + + + 46.7 kW R 22 + + + 43.5 kW
pf m1C p·9.653 kHz·10 nF pf m2C p·10.36 kHz·10 nF
R 21 46.7 kW R 22 43.5 kW
R 11 + + + 16.5 kW R 12 + + + 15.4 kW
* 2A mi * 2· * 1.415 * 2A mi * 2· * 1.415
Figure 16–35 compares the gain response of a fourth-order Butterworth band-pass filter
with Q = 1 and its partial filters to the fourth-order gain of Example 16–4 with Q = 10.
5
A2
A1
0
Q=1
–5
Q = 10
|A| — Gain — dB
–10
–15
–20
–25
–30
–35
100 1k 10 k 100 k 1M
f — Frequency — Hz
Figure 16–35. Gain Responses of a Fourth-Order Butterworth Band-Pass and its Partial Filters
Two of the most popular band-rejection filters are the active twin-T and the active Wien-
Robinson circuit, both of which are second-order filters.
DW (16–18)
s ) 1s
which gives:
A 0ǒ1 ) s 2Ǔ
A(s) + (16–19)
1 ) DW·s ) s 2
Thus the passband characteristic of the low-pass filter is transformed into the lower pass-
band of the band-rejection filter. The lower passband is then mirrored at the mid frequen-
cy, fm (Ω=1), into the upper passband half (Figure 16–36).
16-36
Band-Rejection Filter Design
0 0 ∆Ω
–3 –3
0 1 Ω 0 Ω1 1 Ω2 Ω
The corner frequency of the low-pass transforms to the lower and upper –3-dB frequen-
cies of the band-rejection filter Ω1 and Ω2. The difference between both frequencies is the
normalized bandwidth ∆Ω:
DW + W max * W min
Identical to the selectivity of a band-pass filter, the quality of the filter rejection is defined
as:
fm
Q+ + 1
B DW
Therefore, replacing ∆Ω in Equation 16–19 with 1/Q yields:
A 0ǒ1 ) s 2Ǔ
A(s) + (16–20)
1 ) Q1 ·s ) s 2
R/2
VIN VOUT
R R
2C
C C
R/2
VIN
R R
VOUT
2C
R2
R1
kǒ1 ) s 2Ǔ
A(s) + (16–21)
1 ) 2(2 * k)·s ) s 2
Comparing the variables of Equation 16–21 with Equation 16–20 provides the equations
that determine the filter parameters:
1
mid-frequency: f m +
2pRC
R2
inner gain: G+1)
R1
passband gain: A 0 + G
1
rejection quality: Q +
2 ( 2 * G)
The twin-T circuit has the advantage that the quality factor (Q) can be varied via the inner
gain (G) without modifying the mid frequency (fm). However, Q and Am cannot be adjusted
independently.
To set the mid frequency of the band-pass, specify fm and C, and then solve for R:
R+ 1
2pf mC
Because of the dependency between Q and Am, there are two options to solve for R2: ei-
ther to set the gain at mid frequency:
R 2 + ǒA 0 * 1 ǓR 1
16-38
Band-Rejection Filter Design
ǒ
R2 + R1 1 * 1
2Q
Ǔ
16.6.2 Active Wien-Robinson Filter
The Wien-Robinson bridge in Figure 16–39 is a passive band-rejection filter with differen-
tial output. The output voltage is the difference between the potential of a constant voltage
divider and the output of a band-pass filter. Its Q-factor is close to that of the twin-T circuit.
To achieve higher values of Q, the filter is connected into the feedback loop of an amplifier.
VIN
R 2R1
C VOUT
R C R1
R2 R1 2R1
R4
VIN C R
VOUT
The active Wien-Robinson filter in Figure 16–40 has the transfer function:
b
ǒ1 ) s 2Ǔ
1)a
A(s) + * (16–22)
1 ) 1)a
3
·s ) s 2
R2 R2
with a + and b+
R3 R4
Comparing the variables of Equation 16–22 with Equation 16–20 provides the equations
that determine the filter parameters:
1
mid-frequency: f m +
2pRC
b
passband gain: A 0 + *
1)a
1)a
rejection quality: Q +
3
To calculate the individual component values, establish the following design procedure:
R+ 1
2pf mC
a + 3Q * 1
b + * A 0·3Q
R
R 3 + a2
and
R2
R4 +
b
In comparison to the twin-T circuit, the Wien-Robinson filter allows modification of the
passband gain, A0, without affecting the quality factor, Q.
Figure 16–41 shows a comparison between the filter response of a passive band-rejec-
tion filter with Q = 0.25, and an active second-order filter with Q = 1, and Q = 10.
16-40
All-Pass Filter Design
–5
Q = 10
|A| — Gain — dB
Q=1
–10 Q = 0.25
–15
–20
1 10 100 1k 10 k
Frequency — Ω
Because of these properties, all-pass filters are used in phase compensation and signal
delay circuits.
Similar to the low-pass filters, all-pass circuits of higher order consist of cascaded first-or-
der and second-order all-pass stages. To develop the all-pass transfer function from a
low-pass response, replace A0 with the conjugate complex denominator.
with ai and bi being the coefficients of a partial filter. The all-pass coefficients are listed in
Table 16–10 of Section 16.9.
Ǹǒ1 * b W Ǔ
P
i i
2
2
) a i 2W 2 ·e *ja
A(s) + (16–24)
P Ǹǒ 2
i 1*bW Ǔ i
2 ) a i W 2 ·e )ja
2
To transmit a signal with minimum phase distortion, the all-pass filter must have a constant
group delay across the specified frequency band. The group delay is the time by which
the all-pass filter delays each frequency within that band.
The frequency at which the group delay drops to 1ń Ǹ2 –times its initial value is the corner
frequency, fC.
df
t gr + * (16–26)
dw
To present the group delay in normalized form, refer tgr to the period of the corner frequen-
cy, TC, of the all-pass circuit:
t gr w
T gr + + t gr·f c + t gr· c (16–27)
Tc 2p
df
T gr + * 1 · (16–28)
2p dW
16-42
All-Pass Filter Design
Inserting the ϕ term in Equation 16–25 into Equation 16–28 and completing the derivation,
results in:
a iǒ1 ) b iW 2Ǔ
1
T gr + p ȍ (16–29)
1 ) ǒa 1 2 * 2b 1Ǔ·W 2 ) b 1 W 4
2
i
Setting Ω = 0 in Equation 16–29 gives the group delay for the low frequencies, 0 < Ω < 1,
which is:
1
T gr0 + p ȍ ai (16–30)
i
The values for Tgr0 are listed in Table 16–10, Section 16.9, from the first to the tenth order.
In addition, Figure 16–42 shows the group delay response versus the frequency for the
first ten orders of all-pass filters.
3.5
10th Order
3 9th Order
Tgr — Normalized Group Delay — s/s
8th Order
2.5
7th Order
2 6th Order
5th Order
1.5
4th Order
1 3rd Order
2nd Order
0.5
1st Order
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Frequency — Ω
Figure 16–42. Frequency Response of the Group Delay for the First 10 Filter Orders
VIN VOUT
R C
C R
R1 R2
VIN R3
VOUT
16-44
All-Pass Filter Design
b 1 + a 1pf cR 2C (16–35)
a12
a+ + R (16–36)
b1 R3
To design the circuit, specify fC, C, and R, and then solve for the resistor values:
a1
R1 + (16–37)
4pf cC
b1
R2 + (16–38)
a 1pf cC
R3 + R
a
(16–39)
Inserting Equation 16–34 into Equation16–30 and substituting ωC with Equation 16–27
gives the maximum group delay of a second-order all-pass filter:
t gr0 + 4R 1C (16–40)
Figure 16–42 confirms that a seventh-order all-pass is needed to accomplish the desired
delay. The exact value, however, is Tgr0 = 2.1737. To set the group delay to precisely 2 ms,
solve Equation 16–27 for fC and obtain the corner frequency:
T gr0
fC + + 1.087 kHz
t gr0
To complete the design, look up the filter coefficients for a seventh-order all-pass filter,
specify C, and calculate the resistor values for each partial filter.
Cascading the first-order all-pass with the three second-order stages results in the de-
sired seventh-order all-pass filter.
C2
R11 R11
C2 R2
R12 R22
VIN R32
R1 C1 R2
C3
C3 R3
R13 R23
R33
R3
C4
C4 R4
R14 R24
R34
VOUT
R4
16-46
16.8 Practical Design Hints
This section introduces dc-biasing techniques for filter designs in single-supply applica-
tions, which are usually not required when operating with dual supplies. It also provides
recommendations on selecting the type and value range of capacitors and resistors as
well as the decision criteria for choosing the correct op amp.
VIN
VOUT
– VCC
For the single supply circuit in Figure 16–47, the lowest supply voltage is ground. For a
symmetrical output signal, the potential of the noninverting input is level-shifted to midrail.
+VCC
RB R2
CIN R1
VIN
VMID VOUT
RB
The coupling capacitor, CIN in Figure 16–47, ac-couples the filter, blocking any unknown
dc level in the signal source. The voltage divider, consisting of the two equal-bias resistors
RB, divides the supply voltage to VMID and applies it to the inverting op amp input.
For simple filter input structures, passive RC networks often provide a low-cost biasing
solution. In the case of more complex input structures, such as the input of a second-order