Manual-2 (B1 To B9)

1
Laboratory Manual
For
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
LABORATORY
(ME F215)
INDEX
Experiment Page
Name of Experiments
No. No.
B1 Verification of Bernoulli’s theorem. 2
B2 Study of flow measurement 9
B3 Study of pressure and Temperature measurement 20
B4 Study of Reynolds apparatus. 32
B5 Study of viscometers 36
B6 Study of Pressure Losses in Pipe : Major losses 46
B7 Study of Pressure Losses in Pipe fittings : Minor losses 55
B8 Study of Impact of jets 61
B9 Study of Free and Forced Vortices 67

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EXPERIMENT NO. B1
BERNOULLI’S THEOREM APPARATUS
Objective
To verify the Bernoulli’s equation using the Venturimeter (Law of Conservation of Energy)
Introduction
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in the speed of
the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential
energy. Bernoulli's principle can be derived from the principle of conservation of energy. This states
that “in a steady continuous flow of a frictionless incompressible fluid, the sum of the Potential
head, the pressure head & the Kinetic head is the same at all points”. In fact, there are different
forms of the Bernoulli equation for different types of flow; the simple form of Bernoulli's principle
is valid for incompressible flows (e.g. most liquid flows) and also for compressible flows (e.g.
gases) moving at low Mach numbers.
A fluid body can possess the types of energy, namely;
 Potential energy
 Pressure energy
 Kinetic energy
Potential Energy is the energy possessed by the fluid body by virtue of its position or location in
space.
Pressure Energy is the energy possessed by the fluid body by virtue of the pressure at which it is
maintained.
Kinetic Energy is the energy possessed by the fluid body by virtue of its motion.
Description
The present apparatus is a self contained unit operated on a closed circuit basis consisting of sump
tank, collecting tank (delivery Tank), over head tank connected to Venturimeter with connections to
Piezometer tubes at different sections. A constant steady supply of water by means of mono block
pump-set with outlet delivery valve for flow control. There is also a provision for measurement of
flow rate thus the velocity.
3
Procedure
1. Fill-in the Sump Tank with clean water.
2. Keep the delivery valve open.
3. Connect the power cable to 1 Ph, 220V, 6 Amps with neutral and earth connections
4. Switch-ON the pump. Now, you will find water flowing to the over head tank through
venturimeter.
5. Now, you may observe the different piezometric heads for corresponding points of
venturimeter for constant supply head & delivery head.
6. Note down all the piezometric readings & pressure head at particular point are also noted
separately by bringing the inserted probe to that point.
7. Note down the time taken for height of water collected in the collecting tank provided
downstream of the setup.
8. Change the delivery head by changing the overflow pipe and repeat the experiment.
Things to Remember
1. While conducting experiment ensure that the drain valves provided underneath the overhead
tank are kept at full closed condition.
2. While taking collecting reading (time for ‘n’ cm water rise) ensure that the valve provided
left hand side of the tank must be closed completely.
3. Avoid rounding of values for better results.
4. If needed any colouring agent can be added to the water so as to legibly view the pressure
values indicated in the pressure distribution scale.
4
Precautions
1. Do not start the pump, if the supply voltage is less than 180V (phase to phase voltage).
2. Do not forget to give electrical earth & neutral connections correctly.
3. Initially, fill-in the tank with clean water free from foreign material.
4. It is recommended to use clean water to avoid scale formation on venturimeter.
5. At least once in a week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent clogging of any rotating
and moving parts.
6. To start and stop the supply pump, always keep the delivery valve (Wheel Valve) partially/
full open.
7. Drain out the water from the sump & overhead tank and clean it with a cotton cloth, if you
are not operating the equipment.
8. In case of any major faults, please write to manufacturer and do not attempt to repair.
9. Damage incurred due to mishandling of Equipment Company will not be responsible for
such cases.
Observations
Static Head, mm of water Time taken

Balancing
for ‘R’ cm head
S.No
P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10 rise of water ‘mm’
P1 ‘T’ s
Area
491 357 245 153 120 150 202 279 369 471
mm²
1
2
3
5
Calculations Table
Pipe
Data
Length P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
P1
Area mm² 491 357 245 153 120 150 202 279 369 471
Discharge
35cm Velocity Head
Total Head
Discharge
30cm Velocity Head
Total Head
Formulae
i) Velocity:
V= m/s
Where,
Q = Flow rate in m3/s
2
a = Area of venturi section in m
ii) Discharge:
Q= m3/s
Where,
A = Area of collecting tank = 0.040 m2
R = Rise of water level in collecting tank in cm
t = Time taken for ‘R’ cm rise of water in collecting tank
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iii) Total Head:

7
Guidance of Readings with Calculation
BERNOULLI'S APPARATUS
PIPE
LENGTH DATA
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
HEAD AT POINT in cm
AREA OF VENTURI in m2
DELIVERY HEAD in cm
35 cm TIME FOR 3 cm of water in sec
2
AREA OF TANK IN m
3
DISCHARGE in m /s
VELOCITY in m / s
TOTAL HEAD in m
DATA P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10
HEAD AT POINT in cm
2
AREA OF VENTURI in m
30 cm DELIVERY HEAD in cm
TIME FOR 3 cm of water in sec
2
AREA OF TANK in m
3
DISCHARGE in m /s
VELOCITY in m / s
TOTAL HEAD in m
8
Sample Calculation
Velocity
Discharge
Total Head
9
EXPERIMENT NO. B2
STUDY OF FLOW MEASUREMENT
OBJECTIVES
The goal of this experiment is to measure flow of fluid using different measuring devices.
The objectives of these experiments are
1) To measure water flow using different apparatus like venturimeter, orificemeter, rotameter,
and water meter
2) To calculate point velocity in a fluid using pitot tube
3) To calculate the calculate coefficient of discharge of venturimeter and orificemeter
4) To calculate accuracy of rotameter and water meter
APPARATUS
The experimental setup consists of flow measuring devices like venturimeter, orificemeter, pitot
tube, rotameter, and water meter as shown in the figure below:
The setup consists of the above mentioned devices, a supply tank for storing and supplying
water, a pump for closed loop circulation of water, acrylic tank with graduations for measuring
discharge of water and differential pressure measuring tubes fixed on a stand alone structure.
UTILITIES
a. Water supply
b. Electric power supply 230V, 50Hz, 5 Amps single phase supply
GENERAL START-UP PROCEDURE
1) Remove the supply tank and fill it with distilled water. Place the supply tank at its location.
Ensure that the measuring tank drainpipe is inside the supply tank.
2) Ensure that the vent valve on the rubber bulb is fully closed. Keep the flow regulating valve
(V1) 50% and valve (V2) 100% open and switch on the pump.
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3) Check the working of rotameter by manipulating flow-regulating valve (V1).

4) Set the flow rate to 60 lph. Press rubber bulb 2-3 times to lower down the water levels in the
manometer tubes. Gently tap the manometer tubes to remove air entrapped.
5) Loosen the vent valve on the rubber bulb slightly. The water will rise in manometer tubes.
Set the water level at mid scale of the manometer. Ensure that all air bubbles are removed by
varying the flow rate from minimum to maximum range. (The average level in the
manometer can be raised by slightly venting out the air from vent valve of the air bulb or it
can be lowered by pumping air by rubber bulb).
THEORY AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR VENTURIMETER,

ORIFICEMETER, PITOTTUBE, ROTAMETER AND WATERMETER
a) Venturimeter
Theory
The venturi is particularly adapted to installation in pipelines not having long, unobstructed runs.
The flow of fluid through the venturi tube establishes the pressure differential, which can then
be measured and related to the flow rate. Because of the gradual reduction in the area of flow
there is no vena contracta and the flow area is a minimum at the throat so that the coefficient of
contraction is unity. The meter is equally suitable for compressible and incompressible fluids.
Following figure shows general construction details.
Experimental Procedure
1) Start the set up as explained under “general start-up procedure” section.
2) Adjust rotameter flow rates in steps of 50 lph from 60 to 600 lph and wait for few minutes
till the steady state is reached.
3) Note the pressure difference across the venturi meter.
4) Close the outlet valve at the measuring tank.
5) Measure the time required for collecting 1.5 lit of water in measuring tank by stopwatch.
6) Drain the measuring tank by opening the drain valve (immediately).
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b) Orificemeter
Theory
The orifice meter consists of a thin circular metal plate with circular sharp edge hole in it. The
concentric orifice is by far the most widely used. As the fluid passes through the orifice, it
contracts in area. The minimum flow area is called vena contracta. Different types of taps are
used for orifice mete. The flow of fluid through the orifice meter establishes the pressure
differential across the orifice plate, which can then be measured and related to the flow rate.
3) Note the pressure difference across the orifice meter.
c) Pitot tube
Theory
The Pitot tube is primarily a device for measuring fluid velocity. It is combination of a total head
tube and a static tube. It consists simply of a tube supported in the pipe with the impact opening
arranged to point directly towards the incoming fluid. This is called the impact opening and is
used to measure the stagnation pressure. The static pressure is measured through the ordinary
pressure tap. The difference between impact pressure and static pressure represents velocity
head.
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3) Note the pressure difference between impact pressure and static pressure.
d) Rotameter
Theory
Rotameter is a variable area meter. In the variable area meter, the drop in pressure is constant
and the flow rate is a function of the area of the constriction. A rotameter consists of a tapered
tube with the smallest diameter at the bottom. The tube contains a freely moving float, which
rests on a stop at the base of the tube. When the fluid is flowing, the float rises until its weight is
balanced by the up thrust of the fluid, its position then indicating the rate of flow. The area for
flow is the annulus formed between the float and the wall of the tube. (The figure below shows
schematic details of rotameter tube and float. Use top edge of the float to note rotameter reading)
1) Start the set up as explained under “starting of equipment” sub heading.
2) Adjust rotameter flow rates in steps of 50 Lph from 60 to 600 Lph and wait for few minutes
4) Measure the time required for collecting 1.5 liters of water in measuring tank by stop watch.
5) Drain the measuring tank by opening drain valve (immediately).
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e) Water meter
Theory
Water meters are used for measuring cumulative water flow. The meter contains a rotating vanes
housed in side a cylindrical body. The flow of water through the meter results in the positive
displacement of vanes. The water enters in to slotted casing forcing the vanes to rotate about
vertical axis. The cumulative flow of water is obtained by gearing rotational motion of the vanes
to a counter. (The figure below shows internal construction of water meter. Black digits show
cumulative flow in Kiloliters. Next two digits in red color show reading in further decimals of
kiloliters. The small round dial in red shows reading in liter. The wiper blades can be used for
cleaning the cover window from inside.)
Experimental
Procedure
1) Ensure clean water in supply tank and switch on the pump.
2) Ensure that the outlet valve at the measuring tank is open.
3) Adjust Rotameter flow rate to say 300 lph and wait for few minutes till the steady state is
reached.
4) Note reading of water meter and start the stop watch.
5) Note the water meter reading after some time interval say 15 minutes.
OBSERVATIONS
a) Venturimeter
Known data
Inlet pipe diameter (D) = 0.0185 m
Throat diameter (d) = 0.010 m
Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2
Quantity of water measured (Q) = 1.5x 10-3 m-3
Density of water () = 998 kg/m3
Viscosity of water () = 1.00x10-3 kg/m.s
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Data acquisition
Pressure
Time (t)
Rotameter difference
required
S.No reading across
for 1.5
(lph) venturi in
litres
(m)
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
b) Orificemeter
Known data
Orifice diameter (d) = 0.0122 m
Quantity of water measured (Q) = 1.5x 10-3 m-3
Data acquisition
Pressure
Time
required
S. No reading across
for 1.5 lit.
(Lph) orifice
(sec) t
(m)
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
c) Pitot tube
Known data
Quantity of water measured (Q) = 1.5x 10-3m-3
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Data acquisition
Pressure
Time
required
S.no reading across
for 1.5
(lph) pitot tube
litres (sec)
(m)
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
d) Rotameter
Data acquisition
Rotameter Time required for

S.no
reading in lph 1.5 liters. in sec
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
e) Watermeter
Data acquisition
Initial Final
Rotameter reading
S.no Watermeter Watermeter
in lph
reading in liters reading liters
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
CALCULATIONS
a) Venturimeter

Inlet area of the venturimeter (a1) = xD 2 m2
4
 2 2
Throat area of the venturimeter (a2) = xd m
4
a1xa2
Venturimeter constant (K) = 2g
a12  a22
16
V 3
Actual discharge (Qa) = m /s
t
Theoretical discharge (QT)= K H m3/s
Qa Actual discharge
Coefficient of discharge (Cd) = =
QT Theoritical discharge
Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/a1
Duρ Du
Reynolds number = Re  
μ 
Data reduction
Time Pressure
Rotameter Actual Theoritical
required diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds
S.no reading discharge discharge
for 1.5 lit. Venturi discharge number
(Lph) (Lph) (Lph)
(sec) t (m) H
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
Required results
1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter.

2. Draw Graph for coefficient of discharge versus Reynolds number.
3. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus theoretical discharge.
b) Orifice meter

Inlet area of the orifice meter (a1) = xD 2 m2
4

xd 2 m2
Area of the orifice (a2) =
4
V
Actual discharge (Qa)= m3/s
t
a2
Theoretical discharge (QT)= 2 xgxH m3/s
a  a2
2 2
1
Q
Coefficient of discharge (Cd)= a
QT
Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/a1
Duρ Du
Reynolds No.= Re  
μ 
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Data reduction
Time Pressure
Rotameter Actual Theoritical
required diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds
S.no reading discharge discharge
for 1.5 Venturi discharge number
(lph) (lph) (lph)
liters (sec) (m) H
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
Required results
1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Orificemeter.

c) Pitot tube

Inlet area of the Pitot tube (a1) = xD 2 m2
4
V 3
Actual discharge (Qa)= m /s
t
Theoretical fluid velocity (V)= 2xgxH m/s
Theoretical discharge (QT)= A x Vm3/s
Qa
Coefficient of discharge (Cd)=
QT
Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/A

Duρ
Reynolds No.= Re 
μ
Data reduction
Time
Pressure
Rotameter required Actual Theoritical
diff.across Coeff.of Reynolds
Sr.No reading for 1.5 discharge discharge
Venturi discharge number
(lph) liters (lph) (lph)
(m) H
(sec)
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
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Required results
1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Pitot tube.

d) Rotameter
1.5x3600
Actual discharge =
Time required for1.5 liter water
Error = Rotameter reading- actual discharge
Error x 100
Accuracy=
Full flow of Rotameter
Data reduction
Rotameter Time Actual

Error Accuracy
S.no reading required for discharge
(Lph) %
(Lph) 1.5 lit. (sec) t (Lph)
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
Required results
1) Determine Accuracy of Rotameter in %.

2) Draw Graph for actual discharge versus rotameter reading.
3) Draw Graph for accuracy versus rotameter reading.
e) Watermeter
Water quantity by water meter= Final water meter reading – Initial water meter reading
Error= Water quantity by water meter-Water quantity by Rotameter
Error x 100
Accuracy =
Indicated water quantity
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Data reduction
Water
Rotamet Initial Final Water quantity
S. er Watermet Watermeter quantity by by Error Accuracy
no reading er reading reading Watermeter, Rotameter (Liters) %
(lph) F Liters, A Liters, B lit (B-A) (Liters)
F*t/60
1 60
2 100
3 150
4 200
5 250
Required results
1. Determine accuracy of Watermeter in %.

2. Draw Graph for actual discharge versus watermeter reading
LEARN MORE:
1. Other flow measuring devices.

2. Why rotameter tube is tapered?
3. Why vena contracta forms at distance after crossing orifice?
4. Which is the best flow-measuring device out of five available in the lab?
5. Different applications of flow measuring devices.
REFERENCES
McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”

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EXPERIMENT NO. B3
1 - DEAD WEIGHT PRESSURE GAUGE TESTER
(For Pressure Calibration)
Aim
To calibrate the given pressure gauge and to plot the graph.
Introduction
An external force may define pressure as the force executed on a unit area of a fluid or any other
substance. If ‘F’ represents the total force uniformly distributed over an area “A’ then pressure at
any point is P=F/A. However if the force is not uniform, the magnitude of pressure at any point
can be obtained from
Where, dF is the force acting on an infinitesimal area dA
Absolute Pressure
Pressure exerted by earths gravitation as commonly measured by barometer. It varies with
attitude.
Gauge Pressure
When pressure is measured either above or below atmospheric pressure at datum then it is
called gauge pressure. This is because practically all pressure gauges read zero when open to
atmospheric and read only the difference between the pressure of fluid and atmosphere.
Differential Pressure
The difference between two measured pressures such as on inlet and outlet process line is called
differential pressure.
Vacuum
If the pressure of a fluid is below atmospheric pressure, it is designated as vacuum or negative
gauge pressure.
Static Pressure
The force per unit area acting on a wall by a fluid at rest is called static pressure.
Pascal’s Law
Pressure at any point in a fluid at rest has the same magnitude in all directions. In other words
when a certain pressure is applied at any point in a fluid at rest, the pressure is equally
transmitted in all directions.
Note
Units: SI units
Metric gravitational units: Kg F/cm2 or Kg (F)/m2
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Dead Weight Pressure Gauge Tester

1. Initially the apparatus should be checked for oil level. Fill the oil if level is low.
2. Check the level by tightening screw rod & opening the valve completely in the drain side.
After checking close the valve and release the screw rod.
3. Apply full load on the plunger (which includes plunger weight). Remove the weight one
by one as indicated below.
Plunger weight = 0.13Kg

0.27 Kg = 2 Nos
0.57 Kg = 4 Nos
1.44 Kg = 2 Nos
Total weight = 8 weights + plunger weights Full load

= 5.7+0.13
= 5.83Kg
Total Weight = 5.83 Kg

5.56 Kg = weight of 7weights (After removing 8th load)
5.29 Kg = weight of 6 weights (After removing 7th load)
3.01 Kg = weight of 2 weights (After removing 3rd load)
1.57 Kg = weight of 1 weight (After removing 2nd load)
Note
Mark the Serial no on the loads provided say 1 to 8 from bottom to top.
4. Rotate the screw rod till the plunger lifts & gauge reads maximum.
5. Now note down the pressure gauge reading (MR) & total weight (AR) in the table given.
Calculate A and AR.
6. For each load note down meter reading.
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7. Repeat the same procedure by decreasing each weight & note down readings directly.
Calculate percentage error by using the equations provided.
8. Release the screw rod completely before taking out all the weights.
9. Plot the graphs
 Error v/s AR
AR v/s MR
Formulae
Where,
d = diameter of plunger, d = cm
Where,
AR = Actual Pressure reading.
W = Total Weight in Kg.
A = Area of plunger in m2
Where,
MR = Pressure indicated on the Gauge
Observation
Weight on Plunger Pressure gauge

S.No including Plunger Reading (MR) in
weight (W) in Kg kg/cm2
1 5.83
2 5.56
3 5.29
4 4.72
5 4.15
6 3.58
7 3.01
8 1.57
Sample Calculation & Reading

23
Weight on Pressure
plunger including Gauge Actual pressure
plunger weight in Reading in on the plunger in
Kg (W) Kg/cm2 (MR) Kg/cm2 (AR) % Error
Graph
a)  error v/s reading (Pressure gauge reading) = MR
b)  Actual reading v/s meter reading
Precautions
1. Initially connect the instrument to the digital meter kit by using the connecting cable
provided.
2. Set the pressure gauge and the digital meter to read zero. If the digital meter is not
reading zero make it to zero by using the fine zero tuner.
3. Calibrate the digital meter with respect to pressure gauge by using the CAL tuner.
4. While conducting experiment make sure the pressure valve is tighten completely and
then place the weight on the plunger.
5. Release the pressure valve completely when readings are not taken.
6. While unloading the weights from the plunger ensure atleast one weight is placed on the
plunger so as to avoid spillage of oil from the instrument.
7. Company will not be responsible for any damage incurred due to mishandling of the
equipment.
VACUUM GAUGE TESTER

24
Aim
To calibrate the Digital Vaccum meter with respect to McLeod gauge.
Apparatus Used
 Vacuum Pump
 Vacuum digital meter
 McLeod gauge
Description
Atmospheric, Absolute, Gauge and Vacuum Pressures
The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with which it is in contact, and it
is known as atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure varies with the altitude and it can
be measured by means of a barometer. As such it is also called the barometric pressure. At sea
level under normal conditions the equivalent values of the atmospheric pressure are 10.1043 x
104 N/m2; or 1.03 kg(f)/cm2 , 3m of water; or 76 cm of mercury.
Fluid pressure may be measured with respect to any arbitrary datum. The two most common
datum’s are (i) absolute zero pressure and (ii) local atmospheric pressure. When pressure is
measured above absolute zero (or complete vacuum), it is called an absolute pressure. When it
is measured either above or below atmospheric pressure as a datum, it is called gauge pressure.
This is because practically all pressure gages read zero when open to the atmosphere and read
only the difference between the pressure of the fluid to which they are connected and the
atmospheric pressure.
If the pressure of a fluid is below atmospheric pressure it is designated as vacuum pressure (or
suction pressure on negative gage pressure); and its gage value is the amount by which it is
below that of the atmospheric pressure. A gage which measured vacuum pressure is known as
vacuum gauge.
All values of absolute pressure are positive, since in the case of fluids the lowest absolute
pressure which can possibly exist corresponds to absolute zero or complete vacuum. However,
gauge pressures are positive if they are above that of the atmosphere and negative if they are
vacuum pressures.
From the foregoing discussion it can be seen that the following relations hold:
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gage pressure.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure – Vacuum pressure.
McLeod gauge
25
McLeod gage is basically manometric method of measuring a vacuum pressure that is useful
between 0.01 and 100 μm of mercury column. This range translates to absolute pressure in the
range of 0.001 to 10 Pa. Note that this range will also translate to 10-8 to 10-4 bar. The principle
of operation of the McLeod gauge is as described below.
A known volume (V) of the gas at the vacuum pressure (p) given by the volume of the capillary,
the bulb and the bottom tube up to the opening is trapped by lowering the movable reservoir
down to the appropriate extent. It is then slowly raised till the level of the manometer liquid
(usually mercury) in the movable reservoir is in line with the reference level marked on the stem
of the forked tube.
Procedure
1. Place the mercury limb module in horizontal position such a way that all Hg must settle
in sump only.
2. Switch on the unit.
3. Then observe that digital meter reads zero if not press the ‘Δ’ to make zero in the digital
meter.
4. Switch on the vacuum pump and then slowly open the valve and read the digital meter
reading.
5. Slowly bring the McLeod gauge module to vertical position from horizontal position
such a way that right side limb of Hg to be in zero position.
6. Note the value of the left side limb Hg level in McLeod gauge and note down
7. The reading of digital gauge to be noted.
8. Bring the McLeod gauge to horizontal position and then switch off the vacuum pump for
safety of Hg (to avoid the jump in the tube) which may break the glass tube.
9. Switch off the mains
Tabulation
26
Mcleod gauge Digital Vaccum meter

% Error
Reading in mm of Hg Reading in mm of Hg
Guidance Calculations
Note the reading of digital meter which is in mm of Hg.
After setting the right side limb to zero then note the corresponding left side limb reading.
= 0.15mm of Hg
Thus from digital gauge reading = 0.2 mm of Hg and McLeod gauge reading is 0.15mm of Hg
and 0.05 mm of Hg is the error in McLeod gauge.
Precautions
i. In horizontal position make sure that all the mercury present in the McLeod gauge is in
sump only.
ii. Make sure that the valve from the vacuum pump is closed before switching on the
vacuum pump.
iii. After completion of the experiment place the McLeod gauge to horizontal position
before switching OFF the vacuum pump.
iv. Close the vacuum pump valve after switching OFF the vacuum pump.
27
EXPERIMENT NO. B3
2 - STUDY OF TEMPERATURE MEASURING DEVICES
(For Temperature Calibration)
OBJECTIVES
The goal of this experiment is to study various temperature measuring devices, their
characteristics and time constants.
Different temperature measuring devices are:
A) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

B) Thermistor
C) Thermocouple
D) Liquid filled thermometer
E) Bimetallic Thermometer
APPARATUS
The temperature-measuring set-up consists of temperature sensors such as mercury in glass

thermometer, bimetallic dial Thermometer, RTD, thermistor and thermocouple. It has a hot
water bath, ice bath, multimeter and 4.1/2 digit milivoltmeter and a temperature indicator. It also
has bare elements of RTD, thermistor, and thermocouple to visualize actual elements. Using the
Multimeter it is possible to check the output of RTD, thermistor and thermocouple. The RTD
type temperature sensor shows resistance in Ω, the Thermistor type sensor shows resistance in
KΩ and thermocouple type sensor gives out put in milivolts.
UTILITIES
1. Electric supply: single phase, 220V AC
THEORY
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a transducer. The metallic resistance of RTD

increases with the temperature. This increase is nearly linear. Metals used in these devices vary
from platinum, which is very repeatable, quite sensitive and very expensive, to nickel, which is
not quite as repeatable, more sensitive and less expensive. An RTD is simply a length of wire
whose resistance is to be monitored as a function of temperature. The construction is in general
such that the wire is wound in form of a coil to achieve small size and improve thermal
conductivity to decrease response time. In many cases, the coil is protected from the
environment by a sheath or protecting tube that certainly increases response time but may be
necessary in hostile environments.
Thermistors
Thermistors are semiconductors made from carbon, germanium, silicon and mixtures of certain
metallic oxides that show high temperature coefficients. The resistance temperature relationship
of a thermistor is negative and highly nonlinear. Thermistors are usually designated in
28
accordance with their resistance at 25°C. The commonly used ratings are from 1 Kohms to 470
Kohms.
Thermocouples
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, which produce a
small unique voltage at a given temperature. This voltage is measured and interprets for
temperature measurement. Thermocouple gives an economic means of measuring temperature. It
is capable of measuring over wide temperature ranges. Thermocouples are easy to install and are
available in many forms, from probes to bare wires or foil. The thermocouple is essentially a
differential rather than an absolute temperature measuring device, one junction must be at a
known temperature to find the temperature of the other junction.
Liquid Filled Thermometers
Liquid filled thermometers operate on the principle of liquid expansion with increase of
temperature. The glass thermometer was the first closed thermal expansion system. Liquid filled
thermometers are intermediate in cost and performance between the simplest measuring devices
like bimetallic thermometers and the more complex electrical measuring elements. Mercury or
some other liquid (alcohol, pentane) fills the glass bulb and extends in to the capillary bore of
the stem.
Bimetallic Temperature Sensors
Bimetallic devices take advantage of the difference in rate of thermal expansion between
different metals. Strips of two metals are bonded together. When heated, one side will expand
more than the other, and the resulting bending is translated into a temperature reading by
mechanical linkage to a pointer.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Use of Multimeter and milli-voltmeter
1. For measuring the response of RTD and Thermistor, take the out put to multimeter and
adjust the multimeter for reading the resistance
2. For reading the response of the thermocouple, the milivoltmeter provided can be connected
to the thermocouple output in addition to using the multimeter..
For finding out the time constant of the temperature measuring device (as per instructor)
1. Heat the water in electric kettle, to some fixed temperature (say 90 oC) and maintain the
temperature constant.
2. Adjust the timing of the beep near to a pre-decided value.
3. Dip the particular temperature sensor in the electric kettle and note the response of the sensor
at each beep.
4. Plot the time vs response curve for each temperature sensor.
5. Find out the time constant, i.e. the time taken for the sensors to reach 63.2 % of the total
change indicated.
6. Classify the sensors in terms of the responsiveness based on the results of the experiment
29
For plotting the characteristics of different sensors and calibration
1. Take some crushed ice in the thermos and dip the resistance sensor to be studied along with
a thermometer.
2. Allow time for steady state to reach and then note down the temperature of the bath and the
reading shown by a particular temperature sensor in appropriate units.
3. Remove some ice and add some water and thus slightly increase in the temperature of the
water. Note corresponding sensor reading.
4. Repeat step 3 till room temperature is reached noting sensor reading (for each temperature
rise).
5. Now shift the sensor probe and the thermometer to the electric kettle. Switch on the heater.
6. Increase the temperature in steps and allow steady state to reach at each step before
recording the reading of the particular sensor.
7. Plot the temperature vs resistance curve for the sensor.
8. For thermocouple, keep one probe always dipped in ice bath and follow same steps from 1-6
mentioned above and plot temperature vs milivolts curve.
9. Now these curves can give the value of temperature for a particular value of resistance or
voltage and gives us a calibration of a particular temperature sensor.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Take care while handling hot water so that it does not spill on you
2. Thermometers should be handled with care to avoid any kind of breakage
3. Never switch on the heater when no water is there in the electric kettle.
30
OBSERVATIONS
Time Response of various Temperature Sensors
Beep interval in seconds (T):
Observed
Observed Observed
Observed Temp. (Bi-
Reading Resistance Observed Voltage
Time in Temp. metallic
No. (RTD Resistance (Thermocouple
seconds (Thermometer thermometer
(beep) reading) (Thermistor reading)
reading) reading)
Ω reading) kΩ milivolts
°C °C
0
0
(Initial)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Up to
Steady
State
Observation table of RTD
Approx. temperature
Thermometer reading Resistance of RTD
at readings to be taken.
°C Ω
°C
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
31
Observation table of Thermistor
Approx. temperature
Thermometer reading Resistance of Thermistor
°C kΩ
°C
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Observation table of Thermocouple
Approx. temperature
Thermometer reading Output of Thermocouple
°C (milivolts)
°C
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
EXPECTED RESULTS
1. Determine the time constant for various temperature-measuring instruments studied.

2. Understand the variation of resistance with temperature for RTD and thermistor.
3. Plot necessary graphs as instructed.
TO LEARN MORE
1. Find out the various applications for each of the temperature sensors
2. Identify various sources of errors in measurement of temperature and also find out possible
remedies for the same.
REFERENCES
McCabe, W. L.; Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”

32
EXPERIMENT NO. B4
REYNOLDS FLOW APPARATUS
Objective
To illustrate laminar, transitional and turbulent flows and to determine the condition under
which these types of flows occurs.
Introduction
If there were no viscosity, the velocity of a flowing fluid would be uniform across a pipe section.
The presence of even the small absolute viscosity of a gas induces a shearing action between
adjacent fluid particles that reduces the velocity to zero at the pipe wall and thus forms a non-
uniform velocity profile. Reynolds observed that, in the absence of swirl, a Newtonian fluid had
two distinctly different velocity profiles.
In Reynolds experiment, a dye stream was injected into a flow of water in a glass pipe. At low
velocities the dye stream was observed to remain parallel to the pipe axis along the length of
pipe. However, when the velocity was increased, the dye stream initially oscillated, but
eventually mixed completely with the water, at some distance from the dye injection point. In
the first profile the fluid moves in layers or laminar, with one layer sliding over another. In the
second, dye mixes with the fluid, and turbulent agitation occurs. Theses profiles were observed
to be separated by a transition regime where both laminar and turbulent conditions may exists a
differing pipe radius.
At lower velocities or for more viscous forces restrain fluid particles into parallel – layer motion.
At higher velocities, or for less viscous fluids, inertia forces overcome viscous forces and
particle move in a turbulent, almost random manner. The laminar profile is easily analyzed, but
turbulent profiles with their complex and random motions are not well understood.
Reynolds Number
In Reynolds experiments, the ratio of inertia to viscous forces was observed to be dimensionless
and related to viscosity, average pipeline velocity, and geometrically similar boundary
conditions. For a homogeneous Newtonian fluid, this dimensionless ration is
μ
Where,
V = average velocity of the fluid flow in m/s
D = diameter (inside) the glass tube
 = mass density of the fluid = 101.9 Kg/m3 for water
µ = dynamic viscosity of fluid = 10-4 Kg-Sec/m2
From an engineering viewpoint, the many variables that affect velocity profile cannot be
evaluated for all possible flow meters and for all pipe line conditions. For this reason, steady
flow and a fully developed flow profile, as defined by a Newtonian, homogeneous fluid, are
initially assumed. Coefficient variation can then be predicted with the dimensionless Reynolds
33
number. This number has been found to be an acceptable correlating parameter that combines
the effects of viscosity, density, and pipeline velocity.
And Re  2000 for laminar flow

Re 2500 for turbulent flow
Re = 2000 – 2500 in transition zone
When the dye filament wavers in the Reynolds experiment, it indicates critical state of flow, and
the corresponding Reynolds number is called the critical Reynolds number Re c ≈2000, beyond
which the flow is in transition state and then becomes turbulent.
Description
The apparatus consists of supply tank (with provision for maintaining the constant head),
collecting tank (with overflow pipe), sump tank, pump set, the glass tube to pass the water at
required velocity, and the dye tank to supply the colored liquid. The water is drawn from the
sump tank and fed to the supply tank through valve. The constant head can be maintained either
by controlling the water flow or by over flow pipe adjustment. The water enters the glass tube
through bell mouth entry and passes through the glass tube. The velocity in the glass tube is
controlled by outlet valve at the downstream. During the flow, the dye is injected to the centre
of the tube just after the entry, and the flow is observed, and the results are tabulated.
Specifications
Diameter of glass tube ‘D’ = 0.04m
Area of collecting tank ‘a’ = 0.041m2
Procedure
1. Fill the sump tank with clean water.
2. Keep the delivery valve open.
3. Connect the power cable to 1 Ph, 220V, 6 Amps with neutral and earth connections
34
4. Switch-ON the pump. Now, you will find water flowing to the over head tank.
5. Adjust the flow in the overhead tank in such a way that there is continuous flow of water
(Minimum flow) through the over flow pipe fitted inside.
6. Now, you may observe certain piezometric head maintained in the over head tank.
7. Allow the dye to flow through the needle provided at upstream portion of the glass tube
of diameter 0.04m and adjust the valve so as to maintain the desired type of flow namely
laminar, transient and turbulent.
8. Note down the over head tank reading indicated in the piezometer and the time taken for
‘n’ cm height of water collected in the collecting tank provided downstream of the setup.
Things to Remember
1. While conducting experiment ensure that the drain valves provided underneath the
overhead tank is completely closed.
2. While taking collecting reading (time for ‘n’ cm water rise) ensure that the valve
provided left hand side of the tank must be closed completely.
3. Avoid rounding of values for better results.
Precautions
1. Do not start the pump, if the supply voltage is less than 180V (phase to phase voltage)
3. Initially, fill the sump tank with clean water free from foreign material.
4. At least once in a week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent clogging of any
rotating and moving parts.
5. To start and stop the supply pump, always keep the delivery valve (Wheel Valve)
partially open.
6. Drain out the water from the sump & overhead tank and clean it with a cotton cloth, if
you are not operating the equipment.
equipment.
Tabulation
Height of Time
Head at water taken Velocity Reynolds Remarks
the supply collected, seconds: Flow Rate ‘V’ in Number (Type of Flow)
tank, mm mm (h) ‘t’ ‘Q’ in m/sec. Re
35
Formulae
Reynolds Number
μ
Where,
= mass density in Kg/m3
V = Velocity in m/s
D = inside dia of glass tube = 0.04m
 = dynamic viscosity = 1 x10-4 Kg-s/m2
Density
= 101.9 Kg/m3
Velocity
Where,
Q= discharge in m3/s
A= area of glass tube in m2
Discharge
Where,
A= area of collecting tank = 0.041 m2
h= height of water collected in collecting tank in cm
t= time for ‘h’cm water rise in collecting tank in seconds
Readings and Calculations
Height (h) of
Head at Time for 'h'
water collected Discharge Velocity 'V' Reynolds Number
Supply m water rise Type of Flow
in collecting 'Q' in m3/s in m/s 'Re'
Tank in m 'T' in Sec
tank in m
36
EXPERIMENT NO. B5
1- REDWOOD VISCOMETER
Aim
To determine the viscosity ’’ of a given oil sample at different temperatures.
Introduction
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that offers resistance to its own flow. It is an indicator of flow
ability of a lubricating oil; the lowest the viscosity, greater the flow ability. It is mainly due to
the forces of cohesion between the molecules of lubricating oil. If two layers of a liquid
separated by a distance ‘d’ and moving with a relative velocity difference ‘n’ then force per unit
area (F) required to maintain this velocity difference is given by,
Where is the coefficient of viscosity. If d=1 cm and =1 cm/s, then F= .

Hence coefficient of viscosity may be defined as the force per unit area required to maintain a
unity velocity gradient between two parallel layers. For every degree rise in temperature, there is
a decrease of roughly 2% in the coefficient of viscosity of most of liquids. Absolute viscosity
may be defined as “the tangential force per unit area which is required to maintain a unit
velocity gradient between two parallel layers.
In industry viscosity of lubricating oil is determined by Redwood, Saybolt and Engler

instruments. In Redwood viscometer the measure of viscosity of oil is the time in seconds for
50ml of oil to flow through standard orifice under a given set of condition, where as in Saybolt
viscometer, it is the time seconds required for 60ml of oil to pass through a standard orifice. In
Engler viscometer the viscosity is expressed as the ratio of the time for oil to the time taken by
water at 200C.
The Redwood viscometer is of two types: (i) Redwood viscometer No.1 and (ii) Redwood
viscometer No.2. The Viscometer No.1 is used for determining the viscosities of thin lubricating
oils and has the jet bore diameter of 1.62mm and length 10mm where on the other hand
viscometer No.2 is used for determining the viscosities of thick lubricating oil. It has a jet
diameter of 3.8mm and length 15mm.
Description
The Redwood Viscometer consists of a heavily silver plated oil cup with a dished bottom
mounted in a bright chrome plated water bath. The water bath is mounted on a stand with
leveling screws. The level to which the oils are to be filled into cups is given by an index
37
(pointer) fixed to the inside wall of the oil cup. A standard size of jet of stainless steel is fitted at
the center of the bottom of the cup for the flow out of oil or liquid to be measured. The
cylindrical water bath spun from sheet copper surrounds the oil cup and is provided with a tap
for emptying. Proper heating arrangement for the water bath is provided and is stirred manually
by means of a cylinder surrounding the oil cup provided with three vanes having their upper and
lower positions turned in opposite directions. A curved shield is fixed to the upper edge of the
cylinder to check water spillage and is provided with insulated handle for rotating the stirrer and
a support for the bath thermometer. The valve for starting and stopping the flow of the liquid
from the oil cup consists of a ball carried on a stiff wire, both heavily silver plated. The upper
end of the wire is bent to provide a hook by means of which the valve may be hung on the
thermometer support, allowing the flow of the oil through the jet. The oil cup thermometer is
supported on a spring clip on a block sliding in an upright rod at the upper edge of the oil cup
diametrically opposite the oil level index. The oil cup cover is fitted with an insulated handle,
and has suitable slots for the oil cup thermometer and valve rod.
Apparatus Required
 Thermometers
 Kohlrausch Flask
 Stopwatch
 Oil Sample
 Energy regulator
Procedure
38
 Initially fill the viscometer bath with clean water.

 Rest the ball valve in the depression in jet, pour the oil sample into the oil cup through a
filter or metal gauge not coarse than BS 100mesh up to a little above index level
 Place two thermometers, one in the oil cup to record the oil temperature and the other in
the bath to observe the temperature of water.
 Heat the Viscometer bath to a few degrees above the desired temperature.
 Adjust the temperature of the bath by stirring the contents of the bath until the sample
inside the cup is maintained at the test temperature.
 Stir the sample during the preliminary period by means of the thermometer. Place the oil
cup cover, which shall be slightly warmed on the oil cup and fit a thermometer to it.
 When the temperature of the oil sample has become quite steady at the desired value
adjust the liquid level by allowing the sample to flow out until the surface of the sample
touches the index.
 Place the clean dry 50ml Kohlrausch flask below the oil cup provided with a jet of
standard size and remove the ball valve depressed in the jet to allow the oil to flow in to
the flask and start the stop watch.
 Stop the watch at the instant the sample reaches the graduation mark on the flask and
note the time taken also the final reading of the oil cup thermometer.
 Repeat the experiment at different temperatures of oil and the record the appropriate
readings and tabulate it.
Precautions
1. Handle the equipment cautiously.

2. Use oils having low viscosity for testing.
3. Before filling oil in the oil cup check the orifice provided at downstream of the oil cup
for any obstruction. Clean the orifice if needed.
4. Drain the water from the equipment when readings are not taken.
equipment.
Formulae
1. Kinematic Viscosity:
Where
V= kinematic viscosity of oil in centistokes
t = Time in seconds
Note:
39
A= 0.226 and B=180 when t= 40to 85 seconds

A=0.247 and B=65 when t= 85 to 2000 seconds
2. Density of Oil:
Where,
m1 = weight of measuring jar without oil, grams
m2 = weight of measuring jar with oil, grams
3. Dynamic Viscosity:
μ
Where,
= density of oil, Kg/m3
V= Kinematic Viscosity, m2/s
Tabulation
Temperature Time for Weight of the Weight of the Kinematic Absolute

0
of oil C Collecting measuring jar measuring jar Viscosity Viscosity
50ml oil in without oil with oil
m2/s N-s/m2
S.No
sec
in ‘g’ (m1) in ‘g’ (m2)
1.
2.
Sample Calculations
For 50 degree C
Graphs
40
1. Plot Kinematic Viscosity Vs Temperature

2. Plot Absolute Viscosity Vs Temperature
Result
1. Density of given oil =

2. Kinematic Viscosity of given oil =
3. Absolute Viscosity of given oil =
Conclusion
41
2 - SAYBOLT VISCOMETER
Aim
To determine the viscosity of the given oil using Saybolt viscometer at different temperatures.
Theory
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that offers resistance to its own flow and is mainly due to the
cohesive force between the molecules of lubricating oil. In industry viscosity of lubricating oil
is determined by Redwood, Saybolt and Engler instruments. In Saybolt viscometer the viscosity
measurement of oil is the time seconds required for 60ml of oil to pass through a standard orifice
maintained under certain condition.
Absolute viscosity is “the tangential force per unit area which is required to maintain a unit
velocity gradient between two parallel layers.
Apparatus Required
 Thermometers
 Receiving flask 60ml
 Oil Sample
 Stopwatch
 Clean the oil cup and wipe it dry thoroughly and an orifice jet with a fine thread.
 Close the orifice opening at the bottom with the rubber cork provided.
42
 The oil sample to be tested is poured into the oil cup and a thermometer is placed in
contact with the oil inside the cup to record its temperature.
 The bath surrounding the oil cup is filled with water up to 15 to 20mm below the top
portion and place a thermometer in the bath to record the temperature.
 The water bath is stirred at regular interval to maintain uniform temperature while
heating.
 Take a clear flask of 60ml and place it under the orifice jet of the oil cup and center it.
 When the required test temperature is attained pull the rubber cock open and the start the
stop watch and allow the oil to flow into the flask.
 Adjust the flask so that the oil flowing out of the jet will strike the neck of the flask to
avoid foaming.
 Wait till the oil level reach the 60ml mark in the flask, stop the watch and the time of
flow for 60ml is noted.
 Repeat the experiment at different temperature and record the readings and tabulate it.
Precautions
1. Handle the equipment cautiously.
2. Use oils having low viscosity for testing.
3. Before filling oil in the oil cup check the orifice provided at downstream of the oil cup
for any obstruction. Clean the orifice if needed.
4. Drain the water from the equipment when readings are not taken.
equipment.
Formulae
1. Kinematic Viscosity:
Where,
V=kinematic viscosity of oil in centistokes
t = Time in seconds
Note:
A= 0.226 and B=180 when t= 40to 85 seconds
A= 0.247 and B=65 when t= 85 to 2000 seconds
2. Density of given oil:

43
Where,
m1= weight of the empty jar in grams
m2= weight of the jar with 60ml oil in grams
3. Absolute Viscosity:
μ
Where,
= density of oil sample in Kg/m3
V= Kinematic viscosity m2/s
Observation
Time for Weight of the Weight of the jar
Collecting 60ml empty jar in gms with oil in gms
Temperature
S.No of oil
of oil (m1) ( m2)
sec
0
c
Table of Observation and Results

Oil taken for testing is SAE 20-40
Time for Weight of the Weight of Density of Kinematic Absolute

collecting empty jar in the jar with oil viscosity viscosity
Temperature
S.No of oil in 0c 60ml of oil in gms (m1) oil in gms m2/s
Kg/m3 N-s/m2
sec ( m2)
1
Graphs
 Plot Kinematic Viscosity Vs Temperature
 Plot Absolute Viscosity Vs Temperature
44
Result
 Density of given oil =
 Kinematic Viscosity of given oil =
 Absolute Viscosity of given oil =
Conclusion
45
3 - OSWALD VISCOMETER
Aim
To determine the viscosity of the given oil using Oswald viscometer at different temperatures.
Theory
Observation
Temperature Time (t) in

Sr. No.
( ) in Celsius in oC seconds
Formulae
Ostwald viscometer
The absolute or dynamic viscosity of water at room temperature can be evaluated using
f = 0.00002414  10J (2)

 247.8 
where J =  
 T 140 
The viscosity  of water at higher temperatures can be evaluated using
μ ρt
 (3)
μ s ρs  t s
where μ s and ρs denote the viscosity and density of water at room temperature
The density of water at room and higher temperatures respectively can be evaluated using
1
 where v = 9.9917  104 + t (6.5  108 + 3.83333  109 t )

Conclusion:
46
EXPERIMENT NO. B6
EXPERIMENT ON FRICTION IN PIPES
(Major Losses)
Objective
To determine Darcy Friction Co-efficient of flow in a pipe and to investigate the velocity for
different diameters of pipe.
Experimental Setup
1. Pipe line of three different diameters of G.I.
2. Pressure indicator to measure the pressure difference across the tapping at either end of the
pipe line fitted with a ball valve.
3. A constant steady supply of water using centrifugal pump with a means for varying the flow
rate.
4. Collecting tank to measure the level of water collected.
5. Each pipe line is provided with separate control valve to conduct experiment separately.
Theory
A closed circuit of any cross-section used for flow of liquid is known as a pipe. In hydraulics,
generally, pipes are assumed to be running full and of circular cross section. Liquids flowing
through pipes are encountered with frictional resistance resulting in loss of head or energy of
liquids. This resistance is of two types depending upon the velocity of flow.
1. Viscous Resistance and

2. Frictional Resistance, due to different diameters.
The viscous resistance is due to the molecular attraction between the molecules of the fluid. At
low velocities, the fluid appeared to move in layer or lamina, and hence the nature of this flow is
termed laminar flow or Stream line. If the velocity of the liquid is steadily increased, at certain
velocity termed as the lower critical velocity the parallel bands of liquid will become wavy. On
further increase in the velocity these instabilities will increase in intensity until a velocity
corresponding to the upper critical velocity is attained. The region of flow bounded by the lower
and upper critical velocities is termed the transition zone. For all further increase in velocity of
flow the streamline remains in a diffused state and the nature of this type of flow is termed
turbulent. In this case the flow is restricted by the friction between the liquid and the pipe
surface which is known as frictional resistance.
47
Definitions
Laminar Flow
A flow is said to be laminar, when the various fluid particles appear to move in layers (or
laminar) with one layer of fluid sliding smoothly over an adjacent layer. Thus in the
development of laminar flow, the viscosity of the fluids plays a significant role. Laminar flow
occurs when the viscous forces predominate over the inertia forces; it has been generally
accepted now that if Reynolds number is less than 2,000, Laminar flow is sustained in pipes.
Laminar flow is characterized by low velocity, narrow boundary and high viscosity. The loss of
head due to friction (hf) is directly proportional to velocity (V) in laminar flow through pipes
i.e., hf is proportional to V.
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow is an irregular motion in which fluid particles move in an entirely haphazard or
disorderly manner that results in rapid and continuous mixing of the fluid particle. It is
characterized by high velocity and low viscosity. Turbulent flow occurs when inertial forces
predominate over viscous forces; and generally turbulent flows are considered to occur in pipes
at Reynolds number more than 4,000. The loss of head due to friction (hf) in turbulent pipe flows
varies as Vn, where, V is the velocity of flow and n varies from 1.72 to 2.0
Transitional Flow
The state of flow in between the laminar and turbulent flow is called as Transitional Flow. That
is, for pipe flows at Reynolds number between 2,000 and 4,000, transitional state of flow
prevails, which is a region of uncertain behavior. As change of state of flow cannot be abrupt,
the transition from one state of flow to another alternates back and forth between laminar and
turbulent, within the range of Re from 2,000 to 4,000.
48
Reynolds Number
Reynolds number signifies the relative predominance of the inertia to the viscous forces
occurring in a flow system. Thus it is the key to decide whether a flow is laminar or turbulent.
It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force and is given by, Reynolds number,
Where V = average velocity of flow

D = diameter of pipe
= Kinematic viscosity coefficient of the fluid
= 1x10-6 m2/sec
Reynolds number is a function of boundary geometry and for non-circular conduits, it is given
by Re= VL/ , where L is a characteristic length defining the boundary geometry.
Critical Reynolds Number & Critical Velocity

The concept of critical Reynolds number and critical velocity is used to distinguish between the
regions of laminar, turbulent and transitional state of flow.
Critical state is occurs when flow changes from one state in to another. Lower critical Reynolds
number for flow of fluid in pipes is of greater importance as it indicates a condition below which
all turbulence entering the flow from any source will damped out by viscosity and thus sets a
limit below which laminar flow will always occur. Experimentally, the value of lower critical
Reynolds number has been found to be approximately 2,000 for flow through pipes.
Upper Critical Reynolds number and upper critical velocity are the limiting Reynolds number
and limiting velocity above which the flow will always be turbulent, that is, it marks the upper
limit of laminar flow. The upper critical Reynolds number is indefinite, being dependent upon
initial disturbances affecting the flow, shape of entry to pipe, roughness of the boundary etc. By
carefully conducting the experiment, laminar flows have been obtained at Reynolds number has
high as 14,000. However the practical value of upper critical Reynolds number may be
considered to lie between 2,700 to 4,000 for pipe flows; the value of 4,000 is generally accepted
as upper critical Reynolds number, above which flow in pipes is considered to be turbulent.
Between Reynolds number of 2,000 and 4,000 the transitional region exists in pipes.
Darcy - Weisbach Friction Factor

Darcy Weisbach equation is commonly used for computing the loss of head due to friction in
pipes. It is given by,
Where,
hf = loss of head due to friction
L = length of pipe
V = mean velocity of flow in the pipe
f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor.
49
The above equation indicates that the loss of energy head varies directly with velocity head
(V2/2g), pipe length L and inversely with pipe diameter (D). The constant of proportionality
used in Darcy Weisbach equation, in the above form ’f’ is called friction factor.
Procedure
All the necessary instrumentations along with its accessories are readily connected. It is just
enough to follow the instructions provided below:
1. Fill-in the sump tank with clean water.

2. Keep the delivery valve closed.
3. Connect the power cable to 1 Ph, 220V, 6 Amps with earth connection.
4. Switch -ON the Pump & open the delivery valve.
5. Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump.
6. Open the corresponding ball valves of the pipe line.
7. Note down the differential head reading in the pressure indicator.
8. Operate the butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the known time
and keep it open when the reading are not taken.
9. Change the flow rate & repeat the experiment for different diameter of pipes.
Precautions and things to remember

1. Do not start the pump if the voltage is less than 180 V.
2. Do not forget to give electrical neutral & earth connections correctly.
3. Frequently (at least once in a month) Grease / Oil the rotating parts, if necessary.
4. Initially, fill the sump tank with clean water free from foreign material and change once in a
week.
5. At least every week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent clogging of the moving
Parts.
6. Drain out the water from the sump & collecting tank and clean it with a cotton cloth, if you
8. Company will not be responsible for any damages incurred due to mishandling of the
equipment.
Note:
While conducting experiment for major losses say 1” inch GI pipe ensure that all the other ball
valves except the one provided for 1”inch pipe are at closed condition (3/4” & ½” inches
pipes). Likewise, while conducting experiments in the other two pipes say ¾” inch & ½” inch
valves must be kept open only for that particular pipe rest must be kept closed. Additionally the
sensors provided at either side for sensing the pressure care must be taken that the knobs
provided are maintained at closed position while taking reading. If in case, aforesaid instruction
is not followed then it is likely to have error in the values obtained.
50
Observation
Manometer Reading mm
of hg Time taken for
Type of pipe
S.No 10cm rise of water, Valve position
fitting
h T‘s’
Full Open
1. 1'' ¾ Open
(Dia) 27mm ½ Open
¼ Open
Full Open
¾” ¾ Open
2.
(Dia ) 21mm ½ Open
¼ Open
Full Open
½” ¾ Open
3.
(Dia ) 15mm ½ Open
¼ Open
51
Tabulation
Time
taken Collecting
Maning
for Discharge
Darcy’s Hydraulic Chezy’s Velocity s F Re
Valve Type Of Pipe Pressure Tank hf (Q) Constan Head
in mm of 10cm Area (A) Constant Mean Constan
Position Fitting (d) Hg t© m/sec t
rise of (m) (m3/sec) (f) Depth (m)
water t
's'
Full Open
1”
¾ Open
(Dia ) 27mm
½ Open
¼ Open
Full Open
¾ Open ¾”
½ Open (Dia ) 21mm
¼ Open
Full Open
½”
¾ Open (Dia ) 15mm
½ Open
¼ Open
hf = Loss of Head due to Friction in m Re = Reynolds Number

Q = Discharge in m3/sec V = Velocity Head in m/s
f = Friction Factor
Conversion
To convert pressure in terms of mm of Hg multiply by 735.559
52
Formulae
 Area of Measuring Tank, “A” = 0.095 m2

 Length of pipe, “L” = 1.8m.
 Kinematic viscosity, = 1.00 x 10-6 m2/s
 Acceleration due to gravity, “g’’ = 9.81 m/s2
 Diameter of pipe, “d’’ = 27, 21, 15 mm, (G.I)
i) Loss of Head due to Friction (hf)
Where,
H = Difference in pressure
12.6 & 1000 are conversion factors.
ii) Discharge (Q)
Where,
A = Area of Collecting tank = 0.095 m2
R = Rise of water in collecting tank in cm
t = time taken for ‘R’cm rise of water in collecting tank in sec.
iii) Velocity Head (V)
Where,
Q = Discharge in m3/s.
a = area of pipe (π d2/4) in m2.
iv) Friction factor (f)
Where,
hf = The loss of head due to friction
g = Specific gravity = 9.81 m/s2
d = diameter of pipe in m.
L = length of the pipe (pressure tapping distance in m = 1.8 m
f = Friction factor or co-efficient.
V = Velocity Head
53
v) Hydraulic Mean Depth (m)
d = diameter of pipe in m.
vi) Chezy’s Constant
V = Velocity Head.
m = Hydraulic mean depth
L = length of the pipe (pressure tapping distance)
in m = 1.8 m
vii) Manning’s Constant (H)
Where,
m = Hydraulic mean depth
L = length of the pipe (pressure tapping distance)
in m = 1.8 m
V = Velocity Head
viii) Reynolds Number (Re)
Where,
V = average velocity of flow
= Kinematic viscosity coefficient of the fluid (water) 1x10-6 m2/s
54
Readings and Calculation
Time
Type taken Collectin Loss of
Pressure Velocity Darcy’s
Area of of Valve for 5cm g Tank head due Discharge
in mm Head, Consta
inlet pipe Opening rise of Area to friction (Q)
of hg v nt (f)
fitting water (a) hf
't' sec
Darcy’s Hydraulic Reynolds

Chezy’s Manning’s Friction factor,
Constant Mean number,
Constant © Constant (h) f
(f) Depth (m) Re
55
EXPERIMENT NO. B7
EXPERIMENT ON LOSS OF HEAD IN PIPE FITTINGS
(Minor Losses)
Objective
 To determine the head loss due to friction in pipe fittings and hence, to determine the
“ Head Loss Co-efficient ”.
 To determine the equivalent length of a pipe of the given fittings that is fitted to that
particular pipe line.
Experimental Setup
 The Pipe lines in two different branches containing;
a) Valves in first line.
b) Bends, Elbows, sudden expansion & sudden contraction in the second
line.
 Pressure indicator for measuring the pressure.
 A constant steady supply of water using centrifugal pump with a valve for changing the
flow rate.
 Collecting tank with piezometer for measuring the level of water collected.
 The sump tank mounted below the collecting tank.
 The butterfly valve for instantaneous dumping of collected water into the Sump tank and
the overflow pipe to facilitate to run the equipment on Closed circuit basis.
www.indlabequipments.com
56
Theory
Like the straight pipes produce the friction to the flow of fluid due to its inside roughness, the
pipe fittings such as Valves, Bends, Elbows, Reducers / Expanders, etc also offer Resistance /
Friction to the flow of fluid. While the head loss due to friction in straight pipes is expressed by
the standard formulae:
The head loss due to friction in pipe fittings is expressed by
By equating (a) and (b), we get the factor K = f L/d where K is the local head loss Co-efficient
of pipe fittings (non-dimensional) expressed in terms of the friction factor (f), length (L) and
diameter (d) of the pipe to which the particular type of fitting is fitted.
In the equations, where the branches of pipes are used for flow analysis, all the resistances
offered by the fittings are expressed in “equivalent length” of pipe to which they are fitted,
namely; L = Kd/f .This is to be added to the length of the straight pipe of diameter‘d ’with the
friction factor ‘f’ (0.025 generally assumed), and the analysis is done further. Note that the
value of ‘K’ is to be evaluated from the formulae h f (pipe fitting) = KV2/ 2g , where V is the
velocity of fluid flowing in the pipe line of diameter‘d’ to which the pipe fitting is fitted.
57
Further, it is also be noted that, if in a branch of pipe lines, where the various diameter pipes are
involved, the similar kind of method is used for converting all the other pipe of different
diameters to the equivalent length of one particular diameter. This way the analysis becomes
simpler. In such cases, the equivalent length is calculated from the formulae;
Specifications
* Pump Capacity : 1 HP, 1 Ph.
* Collecting Tank Area : 0.095 m2.
* Nominal Dia of Pipe : 1” NB (27mm ID).
* Fittings Used
a. Valves I Line
b. Bends, Elbows, Sudden II Line
Expansion & Contraction
Operating Procedures
All the necessary instrumentation along with its accessories are readily connected. It is just
enough to follow the instructions provided below:
1. Fill-in the sump tank with clean water.
2. Keep the delivery valve closed.
3. Connect the power cable to 1Ph, 220V, 6A with earth connection.
4. Switch-ON the Pump & open the delivery valve.
5. Open the corresponding ball valve of the pipe line.
6. Adjust the flow through the control valve of the pump.
7. Open the corresponding ball valves.
8. Note down the differential pressure head reading from the pressure indicator.
9. Operate the butterfly valve to note down the collecting tank reading against the known
time and keep it open when the readings are not taken.
10. Change the flow rate & repeat the experiment for different diameter of pipe fittings.
Precautions and things to remember

1. Do not start the pump if the voltage is less than 180 V.
2. Do not forget to give electrical neutral & earth connections correctly.
3. Frequently (at least once in a month) Grease / Oil the rotating parts, if necessary.
4. Initially, fill the sump tank with clean water free from foreign material and change once in a
week so as to avoid formation of scales in flow meters namely venturi, orifice, nozzle and
rotameter.
5. At least every week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent clogging of the moving
Parts.
6. Drain out the water from the sump & collecting tank and clean it with a cotton cloth, if you
equipment.
58
Note:
While conducting experiment for minor losses say Non-Return Valve ensure that all the other
ball valves except the one provided for Non-Return Valve are maintained at closed condition.
Likewise, while conducting experiments in the other pipe fittings (valves) and pipe bends only
the corresponding valves must be kept open whereas rest of the valves must be kept completely
closed. Additionally the sensors provided at either side for sensing the pressure care must be
taken that the knobs provided are maintained at closed position while taking reading. If in case,
aforesaid instruction is not followed then it is likely to have error in the values obtained.
Observation
Manometer Reading mm of Time taken

Sl. Hg for 10cm rise Valve
Type of pipe fitting
No. of water, position
H1 H2 T‘s’
1. Non Return Valve
2. Gate Valve
3. Wheel Valve
Sudden Contraction
4.
27 - 15mm
Sudden Expansion
5.
15 - 27mm
6. 90° Long Bend
7. 90° Short Bend
8. 45° Long Bend
9. 45° Short Bend
Note: Valve operation:

Clockwise rotation = Valve close
Anti-clockwise rotation = Valve open
Avoid rounding of values in time taken for better result.

Formulae
Actual discharge (Q)
Where,
100 is the conversion factor from cm to m.
A = Area of collecting tank in m2 (0.095 m2)
R = Rise of water level in collecting tank in cm
t = Time for R cm of rise in water in collecting tank in seconds.
Loss of Head due to fitting (hf)
59
Where,
H = Difference in pressure
12.6 & 1000 are conversion factors.
Velocity Head (V)
Where,
a1 = Area of pipe to which the fitting is fitted.
d = 27mm
= d2/4 m2
= 5.72 x 10-4 m2
Additional Friction Loss (K)
Note:
Additional frictional loss (K) for sudden contraction and sudden expansion is calculated from
the formula as given below.
Additional Frictional Loss for sudden expansion (K)
Where,
a2 = area of the smaller diameter =  d2/4.
d = 15mm
Additional Frictional Loss for sudden contraction (K)
60
Readings and Calculations
Area of
Time Taken For Collecting
inlet Valve Type of Pipe Pressure in Discharge Q
10cm Rise of tank Area (A)
section Opening Fitting mm of Hg in m3/sec
Water t 's' in mm2
(a1)
Loss of Velocity Additional

Velocity
Head hf in (V) in Frictional
head in m
m m/sec Loss (K)
Time Taken For

Area of inlet Area of inlet Valve Type of Pipe Pressure in Area (A) in
10cm Rise of
section (a1) section (a2) Position Fitting mm of Hg mm2
Water t 's'
Loss of Additional
Discharge Q Velocity (V1) Velocity (V2) Additional
Head hf in frictional
in m3/sec in m/sec in m/sec frictional Loss
m Loss
61
EXPERIMENT NO. B8
IMPACT OF JET ON VANES
Objective
To determine the Co-efficient of impact Jet - Vane combination by comparing the actual force with
the theoretical force for stationary vanes of different shapes, Viz., flat, inclined and Hemi-spherical
vanes made of acrylic.
Introduction
When the jet of water is directed to hit the vane of any particular shape, the force is exerted on it by
the fluid in the opposite direction. The amount of force exerted depends on the diameter of jet,
shape of vane, fluid density, and flow rate of water. More importantly, it also depends on whether
the vane is moving or stationary. In our present case, we are concerned about the force exerted on
the stationary vanes. The following are the theoretical formulae for different shapes of vane, based
on flow rate.
Hemi - spherical
Flat Plate
Inclined - Plate
= 450
Where,
g = 9.81 m/s2
A = Area of Jet in m2
w = Specific weight of water = 9810 N/m3
V = Velocity of Jet in m/s
 = Angle the deflected jet makes with the axis of the striking jet, in degree
Ft = the theoretical force acting parallel to the direction of jet.
Fa = Actual force developed as indicated by the digital force indicator.
62
Description
It is a closed circuit water re-circulation system consisting of sump tank, mono block pump set, Jet /
Vane Chamber, Rota meter for flow rate measurement and digital force indicator. The water is
drawn from the sump tank by mono block centrifugal pump and delivers it vertically to the nozzle
through rotameter. The rotameter is a direct flow rate indicating instrument which gives the
discharge in LPM (liters per minute) which is determined by the top - position of the float. The flow
control valve is also provided for controlling the flow into the nozzle. The water is issued out of
nozzle as jet. The jet is made to strike the vane, the force of which is transferred directly to the force
indicator. The force is read in Kgf. The provision is made to change the vane of different shapes.
Specifications
 Vane shapes : Flat, Hemispherical & Inclined.
 Material : Acrylic
 Jet Diameter : 4, 6 & 8mm
 Measurement : Flow rate of water by Rotameter. Jet force by digital
force indicator.
 Type : Re-circulating with sump & jet Chamber made of
Stainless steel
 Jet Chamber :Fixed with toughened glass windows with leak proof
rubber gasket.
63
Operating Procedure
1. Fix the nozzle and the vane of required shape in position and set the force indicator to read
zero.
2. Close the front transparent cover tightly.
3. Keep the delivery valve partially open and switch ON the pump.
4. Open the delivery valve and adjust the flow rate of water as to read on the rotameter.
5. Observe the force indicated in the force indicator.
6. Note down the diameter of jet, shape of vane, flow rate and force and tabulate the results.
64
7. Switch OFF the pump after the experiment is over and close the delivery valve.
8. Repeat the experiment at different flow rates with same jet and vane.
9. Change the vane and jet and carryout the experiment with different flow rates.
Precautions
10. Do not start the pump, if the supply voltage is less than 180V (phase to phase voltage).
12. Initially, fill-in the tank with clean water free from foreign material.
13. It is recommended to use clean water to avoid scale formation.
14. At least once in a week, operate the unit for five minutes to prevent clogging of any rotating
and moving parts.
15. To start and stop the supply pump, always keep the delivery valve (Wheel Valve) partially
open.
16. Drain out the water from the sump tank, if you are not operating the equipment.
17. Do not attempt to change the calibration of the load cell or the load force indicator as it has
already been calibrated.
equipment.
Calibration of Load/Force Indicator

 Initially switch off the Load/ Force indicator.
 Long press SET button and put on the power switch.
 CAL 2 appears in the load/force indicator, then press UP ARROW button. Now you can
notice some values displayed on the indicator, allow till it shows the stable value, then press
UP ARROW button.
 CAL 5 appears on the load/ force indicator, then press UP ARROW button. Again some
values will be displayed. Now place 1Kg weight on the doom nut provided at the top of the
jet chamber. Care should be taken to ensure that the weight placed is not touching any part
of the load cell.
 After placing weight you can observe some values displayed on the indicator. Allow till it
reaches the stable value and then press ENT button.
 Now it show some values say 0100. Suppose if you need to calibrate the load cell say for 1
Kg enter the values as 0100 by using the UP & DOWN arrow buttons and then press ENT
button.
 Now dp will be displayed. Press UP ARROW button and set it to 1.
 Again press UP ARROW or ENT button so that it shows FILE in the indicator display.
Hence the calibration of load cell has been done.
65
Note
Do not attempt to change the calibration of the load cell frequently which may leads to
malfunctioning of the indicator. If any problem reported due to mishandling of the equipment or its
accessories, company will not be responsible for such cases.
Observation
Diameter of
Water flow rate Actual Force
the jet Type of vane
Sl.No ‘Q’ ‘Fa’
‘d’
LPM Kg
mm
FLAT
INCLINED
4,6 & 8
 = 45
HEMI-SPHERE
Formulae
Discharge (Q):
Where,
60 & 1000 are conversion factors to m3/s
Q = Rota meter reading in LPM (liter per min)
1m3 = 1000 liters
Velocity (V):
Where,
A = Area of jet considered,
=  d2 / 4 m2
66
Theoretical force (Ft):
Flat Vane:
Flat Inclined Vane:
Hemispherical or Curved Vane:
Where,
g = acceleration due to gravity in m/s2
w = Specific weight of water = 9810 N/m3
θ = 450
Co-efficient of Impact:
Where,
F = Actual force, obtained directly from Scale
A
67
EXPERIMENT NO. B9
FREE AND FORCED VORTEX FLOW
Free Vortex Flow Experimental Setup
Aim
To obtain the surface profile in a free vortex flow.
Theory
When water flows out of a vessel through a central hole in the base, a free vortex is formed, the
degree of rotation being dependent in initial disturbance. The water moves spirally towards the
centre with stream line in motion, so that, neglecting losses caused by viscosity, the energy per unit
mass remains constant. If, while the mass is rotating, the central hole is plugged, the flow of water
in the vertical plane ceases and the motion becomes one of simple rotation in the horizontal plane,
and is known as free cylindrical vortex.
Some more examples of free vortex flow are:

1. Flow of liquid through a hole provided at the bottom of the container.
2. Flow of liquid around a circular bend in a pipe.
3. A whirlpool in a river.
4. Flow of fluid in a centrifugal pump casing. Under steady conditions, each particle will move
with the same angular velocity and there will not be any relative motion between fluid
particles. Streamlines for such a flow will be concentric circles and the total energy is
constant along a streamline but varies from one streamline to another.
68
Setup and utilities required:

The setup consists of an open transparent cylinder which is stationary at its base. At the bottom
centre of the graduated carriage an orifice discharge has been given to create free vortex. Suitable
arrangements for water supply, drainage and traveling of pointer are provided.
Procedure:
1. Apparatus is cleaned and made dust free and then drain valves are closed.
2. The tank is filled to ¾ of its height and then the open flow control valve is opened.
3. All switches are checked to be on OFF position.
4. Now main power supply and pump are switched ON.
5. Flow control valve is now operated and the orifice at the bottom of the tank is opened so that
the water can be discharged outside at a steady rate.
6. Now surface profile readings are taken when steady state is reached and surface elevation at
r=0 is taken as the datum for all these readings.
Precautions
1. Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 180 Volts.
2. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
3. To prevent clogging of moving parts, run the pump at least once in a fortnight.
4. Frequently Grease/Oil the rotating parts, atleast once in two weeks.
5. Always Use Clean Water.
6. If the Apparatus is not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely.
7. Error may be introduced if readings are taken before steady state.
Observations
Orifice Diameter Total Head Maintained

in mm in Vessel in mm X-Axis Y-Axis
Graph:
Results:
Forced Vortex Experiment Setup

69
Aim
To obtain the surface profile and the total head distribution in a forced vortex flow.
Theory
Forced vortex flow can be generated by rotating a cylinder containing water about its axis. Under
steady conditions, each particle will move with the same angular velocity and there will not be any
relative motion between fluid particles. Streamlines for such a flow will be concentric circles and
the total energy is constant along a streamline but varies from one streamline to another. As shown
above Z and H at any radial distance r are measured with reference to the horizontal datum passing
through the lowest point of surface profile. It can be proved that
ω- Angular speed.
Z = Distance with reference to horizontal datum line up to a point on surface profile at radial
Distance ‘r’ from axis of rotation.
H =Distance with reference to horizontal datum line up to a point on total energy line at radial
Distance r from axis of rotation.
Setup and utilities required

The setup consists of an open transparent cylinder which is free to rotate about its vertical axis. The
cylinder is suitably mounted on a variable speed motor.
The utilities required are,
 Power supply: Single Phase, 220 volts, 50 Hz, 5Amp with earth and neutral connection
 Water supply
 Measuring scale
Procedure
70
1. Cylinder is filled with water up to certain height (lower than its half)
2. Cylinder is rotated with a constant speed until a parabolic free surface is formed. Note the
speed of rotation now.
3. After the steady state condition is achieved, surface profile readings are taken by measuring
at different radius and its corresponding heights.
4. The surface elevation at r = 0 is taken as the datum for all these readings.
5. Repeat the same procedure for two more speeds of rotation.
Observations and Calculations
Speed in
X -axis Y- axis ω H in cm Z in cm
RPM
Results
Precautions:
1. Do not run the pump at low voltage i.e. less than 180 Volts.
2. Always keep apparatus free from dust.
3. To prevent clogging of moving parts, run the pump at least once in a fortnight.
4. Frequently Grease/Oil the rotating parts, atleast once in two week.
5. Always Use Clean Water.
6. If the Apparatus is not in use for more than one month, drain the apparatus completely.

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1

B2 Study of flow measurement 9

B3 Study of pressure and Temperature measurement 20

B4 Study of Reynolds apparatus. 32

B6 Study of Pressure Losses in Pipe : Major losses 46

B7 Study of Pressure Losses in Pipe fittings : Minor losses 55

B8 Study of Impact of jets 61

B9 Study of Free and Forced Vortices 67

A fluid body can possess the types of energy, namely;

Static Head, mm of water Time taken

iii) Total Head:

Guidance of Readings with Calculation

The objectives of these experiments are

GENERAL START-UP PROCEDURE

3) Check the working of rotameter by manipulating flow-regulating valve (V1).

THEORY AND EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE FOR VENTURIMETER,

Rotameter Time required for

Theoretical discharge (QT)= K H m3/s

1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter.

Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/a1

1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Orificemeter.

Theoretical discharge (QT)= A x Vm3/s

Velocity of pipe (u)= Qa/A

1. Determine Coefficient of discharge of Pitot tube.

Error = Rotameter reading- actual discharge

Rotameter Time Actual

1) Determine Accuracy of Rotameter in %.

1. Determine accuracy of Watermeter in %.

1. Other flow measuring devices.

McCabe, W. L., Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”

Where, dF is the force acting on an infinitesimal area dA

Dead Weight Pressure Gauge Tester

Plunger weight = 0.13Kg

Total weight = 8 weights + plunger weights Full load

Total Weight = 5.83 Kg

Weight on Plunger Pressure gauge

Sample Calculation & Reading

VACUUM GAUGE TESTER

Mcleod gauge Digital Vaccum meter

A) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The temperature-measuring set-up consists of temperature sensors such as mercury in glass

1. Electric supply: single phase, 220V AC

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

A resistance temperature detector (RTD) is a transducer. The metallic resistance of RTD

Liquid Filled Thermometers

Bimetallic Temperature Sensors

Use of Multimeter and milli-voltmeter

For plotting the characteristics of different sensors and calibration

Time Response of various Temperature Sensors

Beep interval in seconds (T):

Observation table of RTD

Observation table of Thermistor

Observation table of Thermocouple

1. Determine the time constant for various temperature-measuring instruments studied.

McCabe, W. L.; Smith, J. C. and Harriott, P. “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”

And Re  2000 for laminar flow

Readings and Calculations

To determine the viscosity ’’ of a given oil sample at different temperatures.

Where is the coefficient of viscosity. If d=1 cm and =1 cm/s, then F= .

In industry viscosity of lubricating oil is determined by Redwood, Saybolt and Engler

 Initially fill the viscometer bath with clean water.

1. Handle the equipment cautiously.

V= kinematic viscosity of oil in centistokes