Sample Pages From

Modern Missile Analysis

Guidance, Control, Seekers, And Technology

Applied Technology Institute

349 Berkshire Drive
Walter R. Dyer
Riva, Maryland 21140
888-501-2100/410-956-8805 All views presented herein are those of the author and do not
Website: www.ATIcourses.com necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Department of Defense or
Email: ATI@ATIcourses.com the Missile Defense Agency.
ATI Course Schedule: http://www.ATIcourses.com/schedule.htm
ATI’s Modern Missile Analysis: http://www.aticourses.com/missile_systems_analysis.htm
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 www.ATIcourses.com

Boost Your Skills 349 Berkshire Drive

Riva, Maryland 21140
with On-Site Courses Telephone 1-888-501-2100 / (410) 965-8805

Tailored to Your Needs

Fax (410) 956-5785
Email: ATI@ATIcourses.com

The Applied Technology Institute specializes in training programs for technical professionals. Our courses keep you
current in the state-of-the-art technology that is essential to keep your company on the cutting edge in today’s highly
competitive marketplace. Since 1984, ATI has earned the trust of training departments nationwide, and has presented
on-site training at the major Navy, Air Force and NASA centers, and for a large number of contractors. Our training
increases effectiveness and productivity. Learn from the proven best.

For a Free On-Site Quote Visit Us At: http://www.ATIcourses.com/free_onsite_quote.asp

For Our Current Public Course Schedule Go To: http://www.ATIcourses.com/schedule.htm


Outline Of The Course
• Introduction
– Types of Missiles
– Missile Basing
– Missile Systems Overview
• Warheads and Lethality
• Missile Propulsion
– The Rocket Equation
– Liquid and Solid Propellants
– Multistage Rockets
– Effects of Gravity and Drag
• Missile Autopilots and Control
– Pitch/Yaw Autopilots
– Inertial Instruments
– Body Modes and Rate Saturation
– Radomes and Their Effects
– Adaptive Autopilots
– Roll Autopilots and Roll-Yaw Coupling
– Exoatmospheric Missiles
1-2
• Missile Guidance
– Zero Effort Miss
– Proportional Navigation
– Trajectories and Miss Distance
– Augmented Proportional Navigation
– Predictive Navigation
– Optimal Navigation
– Beam Rider and Pursuit Guidance
• Seekers
– Seeker Measurements
– Radar Seekers
– Passive Seekers
– Seeker Noise and Noise Reduction
– Signal Processing
• Power and Power Conditioning
• Missile Simulation
– Types and Uses of Simulation
– 2-6-DOF Simulations and Their Uses
– Adjoint Simulation
– Current Capabilities and Future Trends
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 Missile Propulsion

American scientist Robert Goddard (1882-1945)

built and tested the world’s first rocket in 1926

© Walter R. Dyer, 2004

 1-4
The Rocket Equation
• As a rocket burns fuel, hot exhaust gas exits through a nozzle at the dv
back, and by conservation of momentum, the missile moves forward.
The rocket equation describes a missile’s speed during boost, ignoring
gravity and drag. To derive it, consider a small particle of exhaust gas
of mass dm leaving a rocket’s nozzle at speed U. Its momentum is
Udm. The missile has mass m and changes speed by an amount dv. Its
momentum change is (m−dm)dv ≅ mdv. Conservation of momentum dm
requires that mdv +Udm=0, since there are no external impulse applied.
Hence U
dm
dv = −U .
m
• The solution to this differential equation is
⎛m ⎞
∆v = v − v0 = U ln⎜ 0 ⎟.
⎝ m⎠
• This is one form of the rocket equation. m0 is the missile’s initial mass and v0 is its initial
velocity. m is the missile’s mass after all its fuel is expend (called the burnout mass) and v is
the burnout velocity. (More generally, m and v can be any mass and corresponding velocity.)
• The rocket equation shows that missile’s velocity results from expelling mass in a given
direction in the form of exhaust gas. No air is needed for the rocket’s thrust to push against.
– On Jan 13, 1920, the New York Times ridiculed Robert Goddard for this assertion, saying he lacked
"the knowledge ladled out daily in high schools.”
– Thirty five years later, the correctness of Goddard’s principle was proven correct by the successful
operation of rockets in space. The Times published an apology in 1969, shortly after Apollo 11
landed Astronauts Armstrong and Aldrin on the moon.)
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-5
Specific Impulse
• Another way to derive the rocket equation is through Newton’s a
second law (F=ma). Consider a missile of mass m propelled by a
rocket with constant thrust F. To produce the constant thrust, the
rocket expels fuel at a constant rate, m& *, and the missile’s mass
decreases at the this rate. The thrust F produces an acceleration, a,
according to F=ma, with m varying as m = m0 + m& t , where m& < 0.
dv Fdt
• Hence, F = ( m 0 + m t ) or dv =
& F
.
dt m 0 + m& t ⎛ m0 ⎞
• The solution to this differential equation is ∆ v = − F ln ⎜ ⎟.
m& ⎝ m 0 + m& t ⎠
• Equating ∆v from the two forms of the rocket equation, we get − F / m & =U.
• The quantity − F / m & is the thrust generated by burning rocket fuel at m& kg/sec. It
varies from one fuel to another, and equals the speed, U, of the hot gas exiting the
rocket’s nozzle. It has the dimension of m/sec.
• Instead of − F / m& , rocket scientistsuse − F / w& to measurethrust efficiency, where w& = m& g
the weight of fuel burned per second. The resulting quantity, called specific impulse,
Isp, is defined by I =−F =U.
sp
w& g
• The dimension of Isp is seconds (in every system of units). Conventional rocket
fuels have an Isp between 150 and 450 sec.
* m& = dm . We will use this shorthand notation for d throughou t the course.
dt dt © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-6
Specific Impulse (Continued)
• The most common form of the rocket equation is obtained by substituting U= Ispg into
∆v = U ln(m / m0 ) :
⎛m ⎞
∆v = I sp g ln⎜ 0 ⎟
⎝m⎠
• Combustion efficiency, burning temperature, rocket nozzle shape, and altitude all affect Isp. To
account for the altitude effects, Isp is sometimes quoted both at sea level and in a vacuum. For
example, the solid fuel HTPB (hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene) used in combination with
aluminum in many solid rockets, has a sea level Isp of 254 sec and a vacuum Isp of 302 sec.
• From the definition of I sp , burning fuel with a certain I sp at rate − w& * delivers a thrust
F = − I sp w& , and since F and w& are constant, if the fuel is burned over a time interval [ 0 ,t ],
t t w(t )
∫0
Fdt = − I sp ∫ w& dt = − I sp ∫
0 w0
dw

or Ft = I sp [ w 0 − w ( t )].
• Thus, burning an amount of fuel weighing ∆w over a period of time ∆t produces a total
impulse of F∆t = I sp ∆w
• Hence, Isp measures a fuel’s efficiency in converting weight into impulse, which can be written

I sp = − F = F∆t = U .
w& ∆w g
* i.e, the weight of the fuel decreases at the constant rate w& . © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-7
Example--Isp
• Isp is sometimes used incorrectly to compare the thrust-producing capability of rocket
fuels. This can lead to wrong conclusions because Isp is really measure of a fuel’s
efficiency in producing impulse.
• For example, the conventional fuels that propel missiles to supersonic speeds and
send satellites into space have Isp between 150 and 450 seconds, and some produce
over a million lb of thrust.
• On the other hand, NASA’s ion engine, which produces thrust by accelerating
ionized xenon atoms to 30 km/sec, has an Isp of 3(104)/g=3,100 sec. However, the ion
engine produces only 92 mN of thrust (about 1/3 oz)*.
Its mass flow rate is
kg
− m& = F = .092 = 3 (10 − 6 ) , or about 11 gm/hr
I sp g 3100 ⋅ 9 .8 sec
• The ion engine cannot produce enough thrust to lift
itself off the ground, but it can very efficiently
accelerate spacecraft to speeds of 5-10 km/sec in up to
a year of continuous operation, after the spacecraft is
first sent into space by a conventional rocket.
• The point to remember is that Isp= F∆t/∆w, so for a fixed
amount of fuel, ∆w, high Isp implies a large product of
thrust, F, and burning time, ∆t, not just high thrust. Ion Engine on NASA’s Deep
* Ion engines currently under development have demonstrated 1 N (0.225 lb) of thrust. Space 1 Satellite
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
Missile Autopilots And Control

THAAD Flight 10--June 10, 1999

© Walter R. Dyer, 2004

 1-9
Phases of Missile Flight
• At launch, a missile begins its boost phase where it is accelerated to high speed in
the general direction of the target by an axial rocket booster using thrust vector
control to follow a pre-computed trajectory. After its booster burns out, the missile
enters the midcourse phase of flight, gliding at high speed on a pre-calculated, radar
updated, approximate intercept course with its intended target.
• A missile does not track its target during midcourse. The midcourse phase serves to
fly the missile into an acquisition basket from where it can acquire the target with
its onboard seeker to begin homing. a
V, a CP CG V

• After booster burnout, the missile enters the terminal phase (also called the homing
phase or end game), where is guided by changing the direction, not the magnitude,
of its velocity vector*. Endoatmospheric missiles do this by rotating aerodynamic
control surfaces (usually tails, wings or canards). Exoatmospheric missiles use
divert thrusters for homing.
• In the next section, we discuss how missiles accurately control lateral acceleration
in the homing phase so as to hit their targets or pass as close to them as possible.
* In endo missiles, there is some slowdown due to atmospheric drag, but every effort is made to minimize it.
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-10
Introduction To Missile Autopilots
• The purpose of an autopilot is to produce lateral missile ac
acceleration a in response to commanded acceleration ac.
• Exoatmospheric missiles produce acceleration t
perpendicular to their center lines using divert thrusters, Acceleration Command
a
which act through the missile’s CG.
• Endoatmospheric missiles create acceleration t
perpendicular to their centerlines using the aerodynamic Ideal Zero Order Autopilot
force from the angle of attack α between the missile’s (No Delay, No Accl Limit)

centerline and velocity vector. a

63%
• An autopilot’s time constant is the approximate time it
Time constant τ
takes for the missile to achieve a commanded acceleration. t
First Order Response
VT
a
V S
LO
CL= S
F LO

α t
V Higher Order Response

Thrust ac a
Saturation
CP Auto-
t
t pilot

F
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-11
Missile Control
• Missiles use tail, wing, canard, or thrusters to maneuver and control their attitude.
Some missiles use a combination of these control systems.
– Thrusters are used exclusively to control exo missiles, and sometimes in combination
with other types of controls in endo missiles.
– In tail- and canard-controlled missiles, the control surfaces are placed as far as possible
from the CG to produce the maximum pitch/yaw moment. In wing control, surfaces are
located at or near the CG.
– In endoatmospheric missiles, fixed surfaces are often added to improve stability and, in
tail- and canard-controlled missiles, to increase forces at the CP for high lateral
acceleration.
• Tail control
– Allows uniform component mass distribution (seeker and
warhead (if any) front, avionics and power mid, control
surfaces and actuators aft).
a
– Most stable in supersonic flight (minimal roll problems
from downwash from fixed surfaces) G
CP C
– Lowest drag on control surfaces (with positive static V
margin).
– Highest angle of attack without control surfaces stalling
(with positive static margin).
– Initial motion in wrong direction (corrected with forward
thrusters) and slightly reduced lift from tails. © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-12
Missile Control (continued)
• Canard control
– Produces largest moment for given control surface area. a
– Slightly more efficient than tail control because initial
CP CG
motion is in right direction (if static margin is positive). V
– Canards can stall at relatively low angle of attack.
– Downwash from canards complicates roll control.
– Nonuniform component mass distribution (seeker and control
system must be at front).
• Wing control
– Minimizes angle of attack, reducing body drag and relaxing a
seeker FOV requirement.
– Allows angle of attack to be controlled directly, eliminating
the need for accelerometers in simple missiles. CP=CG
V
– Wings must be large compared to tails or canards, increasing
drag, servo motor size, power consumption, missile mass,
and volume requirements.
– Requirement to pivot wing at or near CG makes the missile
sensitive to CG and CP shifts. a
• Exoatmospheric missiles use divert and attitude control
thrusters to accelerate missile normal its center line and V
maintain attitude directly. No aerodynamic problems in
space. © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-13
Exoatmospheric Missiles
• Exoatmospheric missiles obey the same six Euler y
equations as endoatmospheric missiles. Making the a V x
α
same assumptions as before, the motion decouples into
two orthogonal planes described by the same linear γ ψ σ
differential equations, mVγ& = Fy and Iψ&& = M z .
• Outside the atmosphere these equations can be
mechanized directly using divert and attitude control
thrusters to provide Fy and Mz. There is no need for aerodynamic coefficients.
• Exo missiles can fly at any angle of attack, α, without concern for aerodynamic forces, and an
exo seeker can point at a target continuously (σ ≈ψ). Just as in the endo case, missile
acceleration, Vγ& is referenced to V , so it is necessary to divide acceleration commands by cosγ.
• Radomes are unnecessary, eliminating the problems of radome error slope.
• The exoatmospheric missile’s airframe response does not change with flight conditions, so
open loop autopilots could be considered. However, an IMU is necessary for midcourse fly
out and position and rate feedback enhance thruster firing precision, improving both miss
distance and fuel economy. Hence gyro and accelerometer feedback are used in most designs.
• Although there is no atmospherically-induced roll, roll control is still desirable (though not
mandatory), because it prevents precession, reduces image smearing the on seeker’s focal
plane array, and decouples lateral missile motion from attitude.
• As divert and attitude control system (DACS) fuel burns, the missile’s CG shifts, causing the
divert thrusters to produce moment as well as the desired lateral ∆V. This is the largest source
of unwanted coupling in exo missiles, and the ACS must be sized to counter it. © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 Missile Guidance

HAWK Missile Intercepting LANCE Target

December 8, 1995
Hawk1.mov

© Walter R. Dyer, 2004

 1-15
Homing Guidance Introduction
• Missiles make measurements for homing guidance with on-board seekers that track
the line-of-sight (LOS) to the target, and sometimes measure the range and range rate
also. In command guided missiles, a radar makes the LOS measurement by tracking
the missile and the target from the ground, then uplinks commands to the missile.
• The homing guidance laws we will derive apply to both endoatmospheric and
exoatmospheric missiles. Exo intercepts can be easier because their targets usually
cannot maneuver and there are no aerodynamic or aero-optical effects in space.
• A target’s speed and capability to maneuver, deliberately or inadvertently, determine
the missile homing guidance law best suited to intercept it.
– Stationary, or slowly moving targets are the easiest to intercept, and guidance laws for
them can use simple seeker measurements of the look angle between the missile’s center
line and the LOS. Such missiles have minimal requirements for inertial instruments, but
perform poorly against moving or maneuvering targets.
– For faster moving targets and maneuvering targets, commanding missile acceleration
proportional to the LOS turning rate is very effective, and most of today’s homing missiles
rely on this measurement. However, LOS turning rate measurements require accurate rate
gyros aboard the missile to measure and remove body rates and/or a gimbaled seeker head.
– Combining estimates of target acceleration with LOS turning rate can reduce miss
distance, but if the target acceleration estimates are inaccurate, they can increase miss
distance relative to what it would have been if the estimate were not used.
– By taking missile and target time constants and acceleration limits into account, optimum
homing guidance laws maximize a missile’s effectiveness against maneuvering© Walter targets.
R. Dyer, 2004
 1-16
Homing Guidance Law Development
• Early guided missiles were command guided by ground based radar, which tracked
the missile and its target and uplinked guidance commands.
• Some early missiles engaged their targets by flying directly at them. The guidance
law simply aligned velocity vector (in command guided missiles) or the missile
center line (in missiles with seekers) with the target. This technique, called pure
pursuit, always ended up in a tail-chase, and had limited effectiveness against
moving targets.
• In another early homing technique, called beam rider guidance, the missile was
commanded to fly along a radar beam from the launcher to the target. Beam rider
missiles had poor performance against fast-moving targets. They tended to oscillate
about the beam and waste energy by reacting to noise and beam jitter. They also
required large acceleration as they approached their targets.
• Proportional navigation (PN) was developed in the late 1940’s and tested in the
early 1950’s. PN commands a missile to accelerate in proportion to the LOS turning
rate, allowing it to arrive at a predicted future point simultaneously with the target.
PN has been found to be very effective against most targets of interest. Because of
its great success, some form of PN is still used today in most missiles.
• Highly maneuverable targets require homing guidance laws that account for missile
autopilot time constants and acceleration limits. While, these optimum homing laws
outperform PN, they still use LOS turning rate as a primary variable.
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-17
Missile Guidance Using Line-Of-Sight Change
• The figures below show a missile intercepting a target by accelerating laterally to
keep the line of sight (LOS) angle constant. The technique is the basis for a very
effective homing guidance law. It has similarities to a method used for centuries by
sailors to prevent ship collisions by avoiding “constant bearing, decreasing range.”
MF=TF

VT
VM
M1 T1
Line of Sight (LOS)
T0
M0
Intercept: LOS Angle Remains Constant
(Constant Bearing Decreasing Range)
Miss Distance With
No missile .
MF Miss Distance With
No missile

. . VM
.

}
Acceleration Acceleration
TF TF
}

aM for
VM VT MF VT
intercept

aM for
intercept
M0 T0
M0 T0
Miss: LOS Angle Increasing With Time Miss: LOS Angle Decreasing With Time
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-18
Zero-Effort Miss
• In deriving homing guidance laws, it is useful to know what the miss distance would
be if the missile and target did nothing but continue on their current courses (VM and
VT in the diagram below). This is called the zero-effort miss (ZEM). It is the miss
distance, calculated at any time, t, during the homing phase, assuming neither the
missile nor the target accelerates (in any direction) from time t until their closest
point of approach (CPA) at time tf.
• The logic behind ZEM is that if we know how far a missile will miss its target
without effort, an acceleration can be applied that will reduce that miss. A homing
guidance law can then be derived using ZEM by repeating the process: “Find ZEM,
compute missile acceleration to reduce ZEM”, …, throughout the homing phase.
• Previous charts showed that planar analyses can be used for y VT
VM
LOS motion of without loss of generality. The planar r T
diagram at the right shows a missile, M, and its target, T, σ y
Ref = Initial LOS
x
moving with velocities VM and VT respectively, with M
the x-axis along the initial LOS, as in the previous charts.
• Assume the range rate, r&, is consant. Then for any two times t and τ , the range is
r (τ ) = r (t ) + (τ − t )r&. If τ = t f = the time of closest point of approach (CPA), then
r (t f ) ≈ 0, and r (t ) ≅ −(t f − t )r&. Defining t go = (t f − t ), this can be written r ≅ − r&t go .
• Define the relative missile-target y-displacement as y=yT−yM, then the miss distance,
y(tf), assuming no accelerations take place during time interval tgo is the ZEM, Z.
Z = y + y&t go . © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-19
Zero-Effort Miss and LOS Turning Rate
• ZEM is closely related to the LOS turning rate, σ& . Ignorance of this relationship has
led some to assert they discovered new guidance laws using ZEM, which later turned
out to be simply existing laws with σ& converted to ZEM.
• The xy and rσ systems are rectangular and polar coordinate representations of the
same problem. We retain both because rectangular coordinates are usually easier to
work with, while missile seekers make measurements in polar coordinates.
• To derive the relationship between ZEM and σ& , recall y
VT
from the last chart that ZEM is given by Z = y + y& t go , so VM
from the diagram at the right, since σ is small, r (xT , yT )
σ y
x
y = r sin σ ≅ rσ . (xM , yM )

Differentiating, y& ≅ r&σ + rσ& ,

and ZEM can be written Z = rσ + ( r&σ + rσ& ) t go .
But from the last chart r&t go = − r ,

so Z = rt goσ& .

• Alternatively, Z = − r&t go
2
σ& .
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-20
Proportional Navigation
• Russian mathematician Aleksandr Lyapunov (1857-1918) developed a stability theory
which follows from the fact that a quantity that is always positive and decreasing
approaches zero asymptotically. Lyapunov’s theorem states that for a system with
state vector x, if a scalar function V(x) can be found with the following two properties
for all nonzero x,
V( x ) > 0 and V& ( x ) < 0,
then the system is asymptotically stable (||x(t)||→ 0 asymptotically as t→∞).
• Lyapunov’s theorem enables the derivation of a very effective homing guidance law.
• Let the state variables be y and y& , and choose V ( y, y& ) = Z 2 = ( y + y& t go ) 2 . Then V > 0*,
and V& is V& = 2 ZZ& = 2 Z [ y& − y& + (t − t ) &y&] = 2 Zt &y&,
f go

where &y& = &y&T − &y&M = aT − a M is the relative missile - target lateral acceleration.
• If we assume zero effort, aT = a M = 0, V& = 0, and the missile probably misses the
target. To make || x || = y 2 + y& 2 → 0 requires a missile acceleration, a M , that satisfies
V& = 2 Zt go ( aT − a M ) < 0 with aT remaining zero. That is, V& = 2 Zt go ( − a M ) < 0. Using
Z = rt goσ& , from the previous chart, this becomes V& = −2 rt go
2
σ& a M < 0. Dividing by
− 2 rt go
2
, this simplifies to σ& a M > 0.
• A missile acceleration, a M , that satisfies this inequality throughout the homing phase will
reduce || x || = y 2 + y& 2 , and therefore Z , asymptotically to zero.
* V = Z 2 > 0 provided Z ≠ 0. If Z = 0 , there is nothing to solve. Intercept occurs with zero effort. © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-21
Proportional Navigation (continued)
• A sufficient condition for the inequality, σ& aM > 0, of the previous chart to hold is
a M = K σ& , with K > 0 .
• This simple guidance law is called proportional navigation (PN)*. It uses only one
variable, the LOS turning rate, σ& , yet is remarkably capable of intercepti ng a wide
variety of maneuvering and non - maneuvering targets. Most missile homing
guidance laws rely on σ& alone or in combinatio n with other variables to intercept
targets with great success * *.
• Dividing by VM , PN can also expressed as γ& M = Nσ& . This is the form used in the
autopilots section to analyze radome effects.
• The change of Z = y + y & t go is found using its derivative , Z& = y& − y& + &y&t go = &y&t go ,
where &y& = aT − a M . Assuming aT = 0 as before, this becomes Z& = − a M t go = − Kt goσ& .
& − Kt goσ&
Z
Hence, = 2 = K , or dZ = K dt , or, assuming constant K , ln Z = − K ln(t f − t ).
Z − t go r&σ& r&t go Z r& t f − t K K r&
− −
Z (t ) ⎛⎜ t f − t ⎞⎟ r& ⎛⎜ t ⎞⎟ r&
• Evaluating this from t=0 to t=tf , = = 1−
Z (0) ⎜⎝ t f ⎟⎠ ⎜ t ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
• Let Λ −
K be a positive, dimensionless constant, then the convergence of ZEM using PN
r& Λ
is controlled by Λ as Z (t ) ⎛⎜ t ⎞⎟
= 1−
Z (0) ⎜⎝ t f ⎟⎠
* Note that K need not be constant here, just positive.
* * In deriving PN it was assumed that r& was constant t o simplify t he math. However, this restrictio n is not necessary, as the
derivation of appendix E shows. In fact, PN works very well with vary ing r& , as long as r& < 0. © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-22
Proportional Navigation (continued)
• Using K = − Λ r& from the last chart in the PN law
a M = K σ& ,
a M = − Λr&σ& .
• This is the usual form of the PN law. The plots of
Λ
Z (t ) ⎛ ⎞
ρ (t ) = = ⎜⎜ 1 − t ⎟⎟ vs τ = t shown at the
Z ( 0) ⎝ t f ⎠ tf
right suggest use of large Λ for rapid convergence,
but missile acceleration must also be considered.
Acceleration is given below as a function of Z 0 .
Z Λ Z ΛZ 0 (1 − t / t f ) Λ
a M = − Λr&σ& = − Λr& = 2 =
− rt go t go
& 2
(t f − t ) 2
Λ −2
(t f − t ) Λ−2 ΛZ 0 ⎛ ⎞
t ⎟
= ΛZ 0 = ⎜ 1 −
t Λf t 2f ⎜⎝ t f ⎟⎠
• A plot of the normalized PN acceleration,
Λ- 2
a M t 2f ⎛ ⎞
= Λ ⎜⎜ 1 − t ⎟⎟ vs τ = t is shown at the right.
Z0 ⎝ tf ⎠ tf
• Both large and small Λ demand high missile
acceleration. To avoid exceeding acceleration
limits, intermediate values are needed. Therefore,
most missiles use
3 ≤ Λ ≤ 10 . © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 Missile Seekers

IR Image of LANCE Target As Seen by SM-2

Block IVA Seeker Several ms Before Impact

© Walter R. Dyer, 2004

 1-24
Missile Seeker Systems
• Missile seekers make the measurements for target detection and homing by sensing the
radio frequency (RF), infrared (IR), and/or visible energy that targets emit or reflect.
• Passive IR seekers (e.g, THAAD, EKV) detect IR energy emitted from targets using a focal
plane array (FPA), scanning detector, or a single detector with a spinning reticle.
– Some IR seekers also include a visible sensor, which measures reflected visible light.
– Anti-radiation missiles (e.g, HARM) use passive RF seekers that home directly on the radar
transmissions from ground- or sea-based anti-aircraft radar.
• Active seekers (e.g, PAC-3, Standard Missile) track targets with on-board radar.
• Semi-active seekers (e.g, Patriot) detect radar energy reflected from targets tracked and
illuminated by ground- or ship-based radar.
• With command guidance, no seeker is used. Both the missile and target are tracked by
ground radar, where guidance commands are computed and uplinked to the missile.

Semi-active
Seeker

Passive Seeker

Active
Command
Seeker
Guidance

© Walter R. Dyer, 2004

 1-25
Atmospheric Transmission
• Endoatmospheric seeker design must account for atmospheric transmission by including
operation at wavelengths* least attenuated by the atmosphere along with other design criteria.
The diagram below shows atmospheric transmission vs wavelength.
• At RF wavelengths above 2.5 cm (x-band and lower frequencies) atmospheric attenuation can
be ignored in seeker design.
• For higher σ measurement accuracy, Ku-band and W-band (35 GHz and 94 GHz), (8 mm and 2
mm respectively, can be used to take advantage of the relative low attenuation at these
wavelengths.
• In the infrared, MWIR wavelengths of 3-5 µm and LWIR wavelengths of 8-12 µm have
relatively low atmospheric attenuation as does the visible band.
• Exoatmospheric seekers can operate at any wavelength without attenuation. Sometimes they
operate in wavebands most attenuated by the atmosphere to view objects without the
complication of earthshine and avoid terrestrial interference (intentional or inadvertent).

* Wavelength and fre -

quency are related by
c = fλ
where
c = speed of light
= 3(10 8 ) m/sec
f = frequency (Hz)
λ = wavelength (m) SWIR
MWIR
LWIR
VLWIR © Walter R. Dyer, 2004

Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
Discovered electromagnetic induction--
the generation of electricity in a
conductor by an electromagnetic field
produced by current in separate
conductor.
Radar Seekers
James Clark Maxwell (1831-1779)
In one of the most elegant theories of all time,
developed four partial differential equations
that describe and unify electricity, magnetism,
and the propagation of electromagnetic waves
Robert Watson-Watt (1892-1973)
Led the British research that developed and
demonstrated the first radar in 1935.
Watson-Watt designed and deployed a chain
of radars along the British coast in 1939 that
were instrumental in the British winning the
Battle of Britian.
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-27
Radar Seekers--Angle and Range Measurement
• Most missile radars transmit many different waveforms. The
most common is a train of narrow pulses, each containing
many cycles of the transmitted energy as shown at the right.
• The number of cycles a radar transmits each second is called
its frequency, which is measured in Hertz (Hz).

}
– One Hz=one cycle per second, hence Hz has dimension sec-1. 1

– The period of the radar frequency is T=1/f (sec).

– A radar’s wavelength λ (meters) is the distance between
successive peaks of its transmitted energy in space. 1

– Radar waves travel at the speed of light, c=3(108) meters/sec, so frequency f and wavelength λ are
related by λf=c.
– The formulas above apply to all portions of the electromagnetic spectrum (IR, viz, etc), not just radar.
• Radars transmit electromagnetic waves and track the LOS angle σ via the energy reflected
back from targets using a parabolic dish antenna or a phased array. Their angular accuracy is
approximately their beam width θ=λ/D, where D is the diameter of the dish or array. σ& for
homing is then found by filtering (usually Kalman filtering).
• Radar can also measure a target’s range r by the time ∆t it takes a transmitted pulse to reach
the target and return. Since the round trip distance is 2r=c∆t, the range is r=c∆t/2.
– Recall that for proportional navigation, the missile commands an acceleration a c = − Λ r&σ& . The
range measurements can be used to estimate r& or it can be measured directly by doppler radar.
– Optimum homing laws use an estimate of time-to-go, tgo, which, as we saw, is closely approximated
by t go = − r / r&. Hence, both r measurement and r& estimates are needed for optimum homing.
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-28
The Radar Equation
• Consider a radar transmitting power Ptr uniformly in all directions (isotropic radiation). A
sphere of radius r centered at the transmitter has area 4πr2, so the power density J0 through its
surface is J0=Ptr/(4πr2). With an antenna of gain* G, the power density is Jr=GJ0, hence,
with an antenna, the power density through the sphere (where the energy is focused) will be
Ptr G
. Jr =
4π r 2

• A target r meters away will act like a reflector of some area σ m2, called the radar cross
section** (RCS), echoing a fraction of the transmitted power back to the radar receiver. The
power density at the receiver will be σ Ptr G σ
J rec = J r =
4π r 2 ( 4π r 2 ) 2
• If the radar uses a receiving antenna of effective area A1, it will measure power
Prec=A1Jrec=A1PtrGσ/(4πr2)2. Like most radars, missile radar seekers are monostatic (i.e., they
use the same antenna to transmit and receive). It can be shown that the gain of an antenna
with effective area A1 is G=4πA1/λ 2 , so A1=Gλ2/(4π), and the received power is
G 2 λ2σ
Prec = P
( 4π ) r
3 4 tr

• This is the radar equation. Note that the power received by the missile’s seeker is inversely
proportional to the fourth power of the missile-target range r.
* Gain is achieved by focusing the radar energy through only a portion of the sphere. The ratio of a radar’s power with an antenna to its
isotropically radiated power is defined as the antenna’s gain.
** Typical RCS: Missiles 0.5-2 m2, fighter aircraft 2-6 m2, jumbo jet 100 m2, car 100 m2, man 1 m2, insect .00001 m2 © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-29
Radar Bands
• Radar wavelengths and frequencies are shown below. Most missile systems
operate in the C, X, or Ka band. Higher frequencies are preferred because they
allow better angular resolution and the components are smaller, however,
atmospheric attenuation restricts the use of some bands above X. Ka and W are
attractive because of reduced attenuation in portions of these bands.
• Improvements in inexpensive, light weight components is still needed above Ka
band.

1000

Wavelength in mm Frequency in GHz

100

10

0.1
mm
UHF L S C X Ku K Ka W © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-30
Semi-active Missile Systems
• In the semi-active system shown, let the radar-target distance be r1 and the
missile-target distance r2, and call the ground radar illuminator and seeker
r2
antenna gains G1 and G2 respectively. G2
P G
• As in the active seeker case, the power density at the target is J r = tr 21 . r1
The power density reflected back the the missile seeker is
1
4 π r1

σ Ptr G 1σ
J rec = J r1 = G1
4π r22 ( 4π r12 )( 4π r22 )
• If the seeker uses a receiving antenna of effective area A, it will measure power
Prec=AJrec=APtrG2σ/(4πr12)(4πr22). From the formula for antenna gain, A=G2λ2/4π, the received power is
G 1G 2 λ 2σ
Prec = Ptr
( 4 π ) r1 r2
3 2 2

• Semi-active missile systems are attractive due to their long acquisition range and because a missile’s mass
and cost are lower without a radar transmitter; also a ground radar can be much larger and more powerful
than a missile-borne radar. For example, if a ground radar antenna’s diameter is 10 times that of a missile
seeker’s antenna, and transmitts100 times the power, the G1Ptr product is 10,000 times larger than the
GPtr product obtainable with an active seeker aboard the missile. Before the advent of semiconductor
electronics, most homing missiles were semi-active.
• But semi-active systems are often less effective than active systems. Three reasons for this are:
– As the missile closes on the target, the power reflected back to its seeker increases faster with an
active missile seeker than with the semiactive (r2−4, vs r2−2, assuming r1 is nearly constant).
– Multiple targets are difficult to handle with semiactive missile systems. Separate frequencies or
codes are needed to control each target. Semi-active ground systems become less effective with each
additional target they must track, until they finally become overwhelmed.
– The powerful illuminator is easy to detect and jam or target. © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
Passive Missile Seekers

THAAD IFT 10 Seeker Image of HERA

Target Several ms Before Intercept

© Walter R. Dyer, 2004

 1-32
Example--Seeker Resolution
• Resolution refers to a seeker’s ability to image targets and to distinguish between
closely spaced objects.
Detector
2.44(λ/D)fl θ=2.44 λ/D D
Target

fl r
• Images of a 1 m x 2 m conical target are shown below for a seeker with 1.4 degree
FOV, a 25 cm aperture, and a 256 x 256 FPA at λ=10 µm.

One Pixel
r > 20 km

2-3 Pixels
r = 10-20 km

8 Pixels
r = 5 km
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-33
Radar vs IR Seeker Detectors
• An x-band radar seeker with λ=3 cm, a 25 cm aperture, and fl=15 cm produces a
resolution limited spot 2.44(λ/D)fl=4.4 cm in diameter, while a 10 µm LWIR seeker
with the same parameters produces a 15 µm spot.
• With such a small spot, the sensor for an IR seeker usually consists of an array
(called a focal plane array(FPA)) of many (up to several million) small detectors,
called pixels (picture elements), which can form a two-dimensional image of a target
if it is close enough.
• Radar seekers usually have only one detecting element, and do not image targets in
this way.
• A seeker’s field of view is the angular width it can see. The field of view of a radar
or passive seeker is FOV=1.22 λ/D. Note that a radar seeker’s FOV is the same as
its beam width.
• The FOV of a single pixel of a FPA is called the instantaneous field of view (IFOV).
The FOV of a passive seeker is its instantaneous field of view multiplied by the
number of pixels in a row or column of the FPA. Thus for a 265x256 FPA
operating at λ=9 µm with a 20 cm aperture, IFOV=1.22(9)(10-6)/0.2=5.5µr, and the
field of view is 256(5.5)(10-6)=14 mr=0.81°.
© Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-34
Focal Plane Arrays And Read Out Electronics
• A focal plane array (FPA) is an array of 4 to 1,000,000 detectors, called pixels, which are sensitive to a
portion of the IR spectrum. Each pixel is 20-30 µm in size in missile seekers.
• FPAs consist of two parts: a pixel array (UV, Visible, or IR) and a read out electronics (ROE) chip,
bonded to the pixel array by indium bumps, which also provide electrical contact.
• The ROE converts the large number of individual pixel outputs into a pulse train, reducing the number of
output wires from tens of thousands to under 100.
• Frame rate is the number of times the entire array is read out each second. Frame rates of 10-100 Hz are
typical in missile seekers. The frame rate must be short enough to avoid smearing the target image and
long enough to allow adequate energy collection before readout. Readout A/D speed also limits the frame
rate (e.g, a 512 x 512 FPA operating at 50 Hz with 16 bit words must transfer over 200 Mb/sec)
• All the pixels of a seeker’s FPA observe the FOV for some fraction of each frame, called the integration
time. During the integration time, the photoelectrons are collected in small capacitors behind each pixel in
the ROE, called wells. The storage capacity of the wells limits the dynamic range of FPAs to about
10,000-100,000 and also limits the S/N.
• An array of microlenses can be bonded to the FPA to increase its sensitivity when the fill factor is small. It
also improves nuclear hardness because the microlenses do not refract high energy radiation. However,
microlenses increase cost.
Readout Integration time
Detector Integrated
Array Circuit

IR L
Frame time
t
Input/Output
Pads

Readout Indium Bump

Preamplifier Interconnect
Unit Cell Microlens Array © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 1-35
Passive Seekers
• Passive missile seekers usually operate in the infrared (IR) spectrum, which is
subdivided into short wave IR (SWIR) (1 µm to 3 µm), medium wave IR (MWIR),
(3 µm to 5 µm), long wave IR (LWIR) (8 µm to 12 µm), and very long wave IR
(beyond 12 µm)*.
• In addition to a FPA (usually in dewar for cooling), passive seekers include optical
components (lenses, mirrors, stops, and baffles).
• Many different optical configurations are possible for IR seekers. Their purpose is
to magnify incoming IR energy, and direct it onto the detector by mirrors and/or
lenses. One common configuration, called a Cassigrain system, is shown below.
Secondary Primary FPA
Mirror Mirror
Stop
Photons
FPA Pixel
r
Dewar
Baffle Lenses

* 5-8 µm is missing from these definitions because the

atmosphere is nearly opaque in this band. However, it can be
used for exoatmospheric missiles. SWIR
MWIR
LWIR
VLWIR © Walter R. Dyer, 2004
 Boost Your Skills
with On-Site Courses
Tailored to Your Needs
The Applied Technology Institute specializes in training programs for technical
professionals. Our courses keep you current in the state-of-the-art technology that is
essential to keep your company on the cutting edge in today’s highly competitive
marketplace. For 20 years, we have earned the trust of training departments nationwide,
and have presented on-site training at the major Navy, Air Force and NASA centers, and for a
large number of contractors. Our training increases effectiveness and productivity. Learn
from the proven best.
ATI’s on-site courses offer these cost-effective advantages:
• You design, control, and schedule the course.
• Since the program involves only your personnel, confidentiality is maintained. You can
freely discuss company issues and programs. Classified programs can also be arranged.
• Your employees may attend all or only the most relevant part of the course.
• Our instructors are the best in the business, averaging 25 to 35 years of practical, real-
world experience. Carefully selected for both technical expertise and teaching ability, they
provide information that is practical and ready to use immediately.
• Our on-site programs can save your facility 30% to 50%, plus additional savings by
eliminating employee travel time and expenses.
• The ATI Satisfaction Guarantee: You must be completely satisfied with our program.
We suggest you look at ATI course descriptions in this catalog and on the ATI website.
Visit and bookmark ATI’s website at http://www.ATIcourses.com for descriptions of all
of our courses in these areas:
• Communications & Computer Programming
• Radar/EW/Combat Systems
• Signal Processing & Information Technology
• Sonar & Acoustic Engineering
• Spacecraft & Satellite Engineering
I suggest that you read through these course descriptions and then call me personally, Jim
Jenkins, at (410) 531-6034, and I’ll explain what we can do for you, what it will cost, and what
you can expect in results and future capabilities.
Our training helps you and your organization
remain competitive in this changing world.

Register online at www.aticourses.com or call ATI at 888.501.2100 or 410.531.6034