A drilling rig is used to create borehole or wells (also called a wellbore) in the

earth's sub-surface, for example in order to extract natural resources such as gas
or oil. During such drilling, data is acquired from the drilling rig sensors for a
range of purposes such as: decision-support to monitor and manage the smooth
operation of drilling; to make detailed records (or well log) of the geologic
formations penetrated by a borehole; to generate operations statistics and
performance benchmarks such that improvements can be identified, and to provide
well planners with accurate historical operations-performance data with which to
perform statistical risk analysis for future well operations. The terms Measurement
While Drilling (MWD), and Logging While Drilling (LWD) are not used consistently
throughout the industry. Although, these terms are related, within the context of
this section, the term MWD refers to directional-drilling measurements, e.g., for
decision support for the smooth operation of the drilling, while LWD refers to
measurements concerning the geological formation made while drilling.[1]

MWD typically concerns measurement taken of the wellbore (the hole) inclination
from vertical, and also magnetic direction from north. Using basic trigonometry, a
three-dimensional plot of the path of the well can be produced. Essentially, a MWD
Operator measures the trajectory of the hole as it is drilled (for example, data
updates arrive and are processed every few seconds or faster). This information is
then used to drill in a pre-planned direction into the formation which contains the
oil, gas, water or condensate. Additional measurements can also be taken of natural
gamma ray emissions from the rock; this helps broadly to determine what type of
rock formation is being drilled, which in turn helps confirm the real-time location
of the wellbore in relation to the presence of different types of known formations
(by comparison with existing seismic data).

Density and porosity, rock fluid pressures and other measurements are taken, some
using radioactive sources, some using sound, some using electricity, etc.; this can
then be used to calculate how freely oil and other fluids can flow through the
formation, as well as the volume of hydrocarbons present in the rock and, with
other data, the value of the whole reservoir and reservoir reserves.

An MWD downhole tool is also "high-sided" with the bottom hole drilling assembly,
enabling the wellbore to be steered in a chosen direction in 3D space known as
directional drilling. Directional drillers rely on receiving accurate, quality
tested data from the MWD Operator to allow them to keep the well safely on the
planned trajectory.

Directional survey measurements are taken by three orthogonally mounted

accelerometers to measure inclination, and three orthogonally mounted magnetometers
which measure direction (azimuth). Gyroscopic tools may be used to measure Azimuth
where the survey is measured in a location with disruptive external magnetic
influences, inside "casing", for example, where the hole is lined with steel
tubulars (tubes). These sensors, as well as any additional sensors to measure rock
formation density, porosity, pressure or other data, are connected, physically and
digitally, to a logic unit which converts the information into binary digits which
are then transmitted to surface using "mud pulse telemetry" (MPT, a binary coding
transmission system used with fluids, such as, combinatorial, Manchester encoding,
split-phase, among others).

This is done by using a downhole "pulser" unit which varies the drilling fluid
(mud) pressure inside the drillstring according to the chosen MPT: these pressure
fluctuations are decoded and displayed on the surface system computers as wave-
forms; voltage outputs from the sensors (raw data); specific measurements of
gravity or directions from magnetic north, or in other forms, such as sound waves,
nuclear wave-forms, etc.

Surface (mud) pressure transducers measure these pressure fluctuations (pulses) and
pass an analogue voltage signal to surface computers which digitize the signal.
Disruptive frequencies are filtered out and the signal is decoded back into its
original data form. For example, a pressure fluctuation of 20psi (or less) can be
�picked out� of a total mud system pressure of 3,500psi or more.

Downhole electrical and mechanical power is provided by downhole turbine systems,

which use the energy of the �mud� flow, battery units (lithium), or a combination
of both.
Types of information transmitted
Directional information

MWD tools are generally capable of taking directional surveys in real time. The
tool uses accelerometers and magnetometers to measure the inclination and azimuth
of the wellbore at that location, and they then transmit that information to the
surface. With a series of surveys; measurements of inclination, azimuth, and tool
face, at appropriate intervals (anywhere from every 30 ft (i.e., 10m) to every 500
ft), the location of the wellbore can be calculated.

By itself, this information allows operators to prove that their well does not
cross into areas that they are not authorized to drill. However, due to the cost of
MWD systems, they are not generally used on wells intended to be vertical. Instead,
the wells are surveyed after drilling through the use of multi-shot surveying tools
lowered into the drillstring on slickline or wireline.

The primary use of real-time surveys is in directional drilling. For the

directional driller to steer the well towards a target zone, he must know where the
well is going, and what the effects of his steering efforts are.

MWD tools also generally provide toolface measurements to aid in directional

drilling using downhole mud motors with bent subs or bent housings. For more
information on the use of toolface measurements, see Directional drilling.
Drilling mechanics information

MWD tools can also provide information about the conditions at the drill bit. This
may include:

Rotational speed of the drillstring

Smoothness of that rotation
Type and severity of any vibration downhole
Downhole temperature
Torque and weight on bit, measured near the drill bit
Mud flow volume
Use of this information can allow the operator to drill the well more efficiently,
and to ensure that the MWD tool and any other downhole tools, such as a mud motor,
rotary steerable systems, and LWD tools, are operated within their technical
specifications to prevent tool failure. This information is also valuable to
Geologists responsible for the well information about the formation which is being
drilled.
Formation properties

Many MWD tools, either on their own, or in conjunction with separate LWD tools, can
take measurements of formation properties. At the surface, these measurements are
assembled into a log, similar to one obtained by wireline logging.

LWD tools are able to measure a suite of geological characteristics including

density, porosity, resistivity, acoustic-caliper, inclination at the drill bit
(NBI), magnetic resonance and formation pressure.

The MWD tool allows these measurements to be taken and evaluated while the well is
being drilled. This makes it possible to perform geosteering, or directional
drilling based on measured formation properties, rather than simply drilling into a
preset target.

Most MWD tools contain an internal gamma ray sensor to measure natural gamma ray
values. This is because these sensors are compact, inexpensive, reliable, and can
take measurements through unmodified drill collars. Other measurements often
require separate LWD tools, which communicate with the MWD tools downhole through
internal wires.

Measurement while drilling can be cost-effective in exploration wells, particularly

in areas of the Gulf of Mexico where wells are drilled in areas of salt diapirs.
The resistivity log will detect penetration into salt, and early detection prevents
salt damage to bentonite drilling mud.
Data transmission methods
Mud-pulse telemetry

This is the most common method of data transmission used by MWD tools. Downhole, a
valve is operated to restrict the flow of the drilling fluid (Mud) according to the
digital information to be transmitted. This creates pressure fluctuations
representing the information. The pressure fluctuations propagate within the
drilling fluid towards the surface where they are received from pressure sensors.
On the surface, the received pressure signals are processed by computers to
reconstruct the information. The technology is available in three varieties:
positive pulse, negative pulse, and continuous wave.

Positive pulse
Positive-pulse tools briefly close and open the valve to restrict the mud flow
within the drill pipe. This produces an increase in pressure that can be seen at
surface. The digital information can be encoded in the pressure signal using line
codes or pulse-position modulation.

Negative pulse
Negative pulse tools briefly open and close the valve to release mud from
inside the drillpipe out to the annulus. This produces a decrease in pressure that
can be seen at surface. The digital information can be encoded in the pressure
signal using line codes or pulse-position modulation.

Continuous wave
Continuous wave tools gradually close and open the valve to generate sinusoidal
pressure fluctuations within the drilling fluid. Any digital modulation scheme with
a continuous phase can be used to impose the information on a carrier signal. The
most widely used modulation scheme is continuous phase modulation.

When underbalanced drilling is used, mud pulse telemetry can become unusable. This
is usually because, in order to reduce the equivalent density of the drilling mud,
a compressible gas is injected into the mud. This causes high signal attenuation
which drastically reduces the ability of the mud to transmit pulsed data. In this
case, it is necessary to use methods different from mud pulse telemetry, such as
electromagnetic waves propagating through the formation or wired drill pipe
telemetry.

Current mud-pulse telemetry technology offers a bandwidths of up to 40 bit/s.[2]

The data rate drops with increasing length of the wellbore and is typically as low
as 1.5 bit/s[3] � 3.0 bit/s.[2] (bits per second) at a depth of 35,000 ft � 40,000
ft (10668 m � 12192 m).

Surface to down hole communication is typically done via changes to drilling

parameters, i.e., change of the rotation speed of the drill string or change of the
mud flow rate. Making changes to the drilling parameters in order to send
information can require interruption of the drilling process, which is unfavorable
due to the fact that it causes non-productive time.
Electromagnetic telemetry

These tools incorporate an electrical insulator in the drillstring. To transmit

data, the tool generates an altered voltage difference between the top part (the
main drillstring, above the insulator), and the bottom part (the drill bit, and
other tools located below the insulator of the MWD tool). On surface, a wire is
attached to the wellhead, which makes contact with the drillpipe at the surface. A
second wire is attached to a rod driven into the ground some distance away. The
wellhead and the ground rod form the two electrodes of a dipole antenna. The
voltage difference between the two electrodes is the receive signal that is decoded
by a computer.

The EM tool generates voltage differences between the drillstring sections in the
pattern of very low frequency (2�12 Hz) waves. The data is imposed on the waves
through digital modulation.

This system generally offers data rates of up to 10 bits per second. In addition,
many of these tools are also capable of receiving data from the surface in the same
way, while mud-pulse-based tools rely on changes in the drilling parameters, such
as rotation speed of the drillstring or the mud flow rate, to send information from
the surface to downhole tools. Making changes to the drilling parameters in order
to send information to the tools generally interrupts the drilling process, causing
lost time.

Compared to mud-pulse telemetry, electronic pulse telemetry is more effective in

certain specialized situations, such as underbalanced drilling or when using air as
drilling fluid. It is capable of transmitting data up to ten times faster. However,
it generally falls short when drilling exceptionally deep wells, and the signal can
lose strength rapidly in certain types of formations, becoming undetectable at only
a few thousand feet of depth.
Wired drill pipe

Several oilfield service companies are currently developing wired drill pipe
systems. These systems use electrical wires built into every component of the
drillstring, which carry electrical signals directly to the surface. These systems
promise data transmission rates orders of magnitude greater than anything possible
with mud-pulse or electromagnetic telemetry, both from the downhole tool to the
surface and from the surface to the downhole tool. The IntelliServ[4] wired pipe
network, offering data rates upwards of 1 megabit per second, became commercial in
2006. Representatives from BP America, StatoilHydro, Baker Hughes INTEQ, and
Schlumberger presented three success stories using this system, both onshore and
offshore, at the March 2008 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference in Orlando, Florida.[5]
Retrievable tools

MWD tools may be semi-permanently mounted in a drill collar (only removable at

servicing facilities), or they may be self-contained and wireline retrievable.

Retrievable tools, sometimes known as Slim Tools, can be retrieved and replaced
using wireline through the drill string. This generally allows the tool to be
replaced much faster in case of failure, and it allows the tool to be recovered if
the drillstring becomes stuck. Retrievable tools must be much smaller, usually
about 2 inches or less in diameter, though their length may be 20 ft (6.1 m) or
more. The small size is necessary for the tool to fit through the drillstring;
however, it also limits the tool's capabilities. For example, slim tools are not
capable of sending data at the same rates as collar-mounted tools, and they are
also more limited in their ability to communicate with, and supply electrical power
to, other LWD tools.

Collar-mounted tools, also known as fat tools, cannot generally be removed from
their drill collar at the wellsite. If the tool fails, the entire drillstring must
be pulled out of the hole to replace it. However, without the need to fit through
the drillstring, the tool can be larger and more capable.

The ability to retrieve the tool via wireline is often useful. For example, if the
drillstring becomes stuck in the hole, then retrieving the tool via wireline will
save a substantial amount of money compared to leaving it in the hole with the
stuck portion of the drillstring. However, there are some limitations on the
process.
Limitations

Retrieving a tool using wireline is not necessarily faster than pulling the tool
out of the hole. For example, if the tool fails at 1,500 ft (460 m) while drilling
with a triple rig (able to trip 3 joints of pipe, or about 90 ft (30 m) feet, at a
time), then it would generally be faster to pull the tool out of the hole than it
would be to rig up wireline and retrieve the tool, especially if the wireline unit
must be transported to the rig.

Wireline retrievals also introduce additional risk. If the tool becomes detached
from the wireline, then it will fall back down the drillstring. This will generally
cause severe damage to the tool and the drillstring components in which it seats,
and will require the drillstring to be pulled out of the hole to replace the failed
components; this results in a greater total cost than pulling out of the hole in
the first place. The wireline gear might also fail to latch onto the tool, or, in
the case of a severe failure, might bring only a portion of the tool to the
surface. This would require the drillstring to be pulled out of the hole to replace
the failed components, thus making the wireline operation a waste of time.
Directional Information
MWD tools are generally capable of taking directional surveys in real time. The
tool uses accelerometers and magnetometers to measure the inclination and azimuth
of the wellbore at that location, and they then transmit that information to the
surface. With a series of surveys at appropriate intervals (anywhere from every 30
feet to every 500 feet), the location of the wellbore can be calculated.

By itself, this information allows operators to prove that their well does not
cross into areas that they are not authorized to drill. However, due to the cost of
MWD systems, they are not generally used on wells intended to be vertical. Instead,
the wells are surveyed after drilling through the use of Multishot Surveying Tools
lowered into the drillstring on slickline or wireline.

The primary use of real-time surveys in in Directional Drilling. For the

Directional Driller to steer the well towards a target zone, he must know where the
well is going, and what the effects of his steering efforts are.

MWD tools also generally provide toolface measurements to aid in directional

drilling using downhole mud motors with bent subs or bent housings. For more
information on the use of toolface measurements, see Directional Drilling.

[edit]
Drilling Mechanics Information
MWD tools can also provide information about the conditions at the drill bit. This
may include:

Rotational speed of the drillstring

Smoothness of that rotation
Type and severity of any vibration downhole
Downhole temperature
Torque and Weight on Bit, measured near the drill bit
Mud flow volume
Use of this information can allow the operator to drill the well more efficiently,
and to ensure that the MWD tool and any other downhole tools, such as Mud Motors,
Rotary Steerable Systems, and Logging While Drilling tools, do not fail. This
information can also give Geologists responsible for the well information about the
formation which is being drilled.

[edit]
Formation Properties
Many MWD tools, either on their own, or in conjunction with separate Logging While
Drilling tools, can take measurements of formation properties. At the surface,
these measurements are assembled into a log, similar to one obtained by wireline.

The MWD tool allows these measurements to be taken and evaluated while the well is
being drilled. This makes it possible to perform Geosteering, or Directional
Drilling based on measured formation properties, rather then simply drilling into a
preset target.

Most MWD tools contain an internal Gamma Ray sensor to measure natural Gamma Ray
values. This is because these sensors are compact, inexpensive, reliable, and can
take measurements through unmodified drill collars. Other measurements often
require separate Logging While Drilling tools, which communicate with the MWD tools
downhole through internal wires.

[edit]
Data Transmission Methods
[edit]
Mud Pulse Telemetry
This is the most common method of data transmission used by MWD tools. It can be
divided into two general categories - positive and negative pulse.

Positive Pulse
Positive Pulse tools operate by briefly interfering with the mud flow within the
drill pipe. This produces an increase in pressure that can be seen at the surface.
Negative Pulse
Negative pulse tools operate by briefly venting mud from inside the drillpipe out
to the annulus. This produces a decrease in pressure that can be seen at the
surface.
These pulses are generated by the tool in specific patterns, which are detected and
decoded by computers on the surface.

[edit]
Electronic Pulse Telemetry
These tools insert an electrical insulator into the drillstring, and then generate
a voltage difference between the top part (the main drillstring), and the bottom
part (the drill bit, and other tools located below the MWD tool). On the surface,
one wire is attached to the wellhead, which makes contact with the drillpipe at the
surface, and another is attached to a rod driven into the ground some distance
away. The voltage difference that the tool generates can then be detected between
these two wires on the surface.

[edit]
Retrievable Tools
MWD tools may be semi-permanently mounted in a drill collar (only removable at
servicing facilities), or they may be self-contained and wireline retrievable.

Retrievable tools, sometimes known as Slim Tools, can be retrieved and replaced
using wireline though the drill string. This allows the tool to be replaced much
faster in case of failure, and it allows the tool to be recovered if the
drillstring becomes stuck. Retrievable tools must be much smaller, usually about 2
inches or less in diameter, though their length may be 20 feet or more. The small
sizes is necessary for the tool to fit through the drillstring, however, it also
limits the tool's capabilities. For example, slim tools are not capable of sending
data at the same rates at collar mounted tools, and they are also more limited in
their ability to communicate with and power other LWD tools.

Collar-mounted tools, also known as Fat Tools, cannot generally be removed from
their drill collar at the wellsite. If the tool fails, the entire drillstring must
be pulled out of the hole to replace it. However, without the need to fit through
the drillstring, the tool can be larger and more capable.

[edit]
Companies with MWD Tools
Weatherford
Schlumberger
Halliburton
Pathfinder
Drill-Tek MWD Services Ltd

--------------------------------------...

Logging While Drilling

Logging While Drilling (LWD), along with "Measurement While Drilling" (MWD) systems
provide wellbore directional surveys, petrophysical well logs, and drilling
information in real-time while drilling. MWD refers to measurements acquired down
hole while drilling that specifically describe directional surveying and drilling-
related measurements. LWD refers to petrophysical measurements, similar to open
hole wireline logs, acquired while drilling. These systems are based on mud
telemetry (mud pulse), where variations in pressure exercised by the tool can be
sensed on the surface via a computer, and thus communication is established.

[edit]
Measured parameters
A suite of tools record different parameters of the drilled rocks:

Natural Gamma Ray (GR)

Average Gamma Ray
Gamma Ray Spectrometry (Potassium, Thorium, Uranium)
Focused Gamma Ray + 360� images
Electric
Spontaneous Potential (old)
Resistivity (Phase Shift & Attenuation)
Focusing electrode logs (Laterolog devices) + 360� images
Induction logs
Density & Porosity
Bulk density logs + 360� images
Neutron Porosity
Neutron Gamma Spectroscopy
Thermal Neutron Decay time
PhotoElectric Factor
Ultra Sonic Caliper + 360� images
...
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
Porosity
Permeability
Free and Bound Fluids
...
Acoustic (Sonic) response
Compressional Slowness (?tc)
Shear Slowness (?ts)
Estimated Porosity
...
Seismic While Drilling (SWD)
Drillbit-SWD
VSP-WD (Vertical Seismic Profile While Drilling)
Formation Pressure
Fluid type
Permeability

La evaluaci�n de las propiedades f�sicas, generalmente la presi�n, la temperatura y

la trayectoria del pozo en el espacio tridimensional, durante la extensi�n de un
pozo. La adquisici�n de mediciones durante la perforaci�n (MWD) es ahora una
pr�ctica est�ndar en los pozos direccionales marinos, en los que el costo de las
herramientas es compensado por el tiempo de equipo de perforaci�n y las
consideraciones asociadas con la estabilidad del pozo si se utilizan otras
herramientas. Las mediciones se adquieren en el fondo del pozo, se almacenan un
cierto tiempo en una memoria de estado s�lido y posteriormente se transmiten a la
superficie. Los m�todos de transmisi�n de datos var�an entre una compa��a y otra,
pero generalmente consisten en la codificaci�n digital de los datos y su
transmisi�n a la superficie como pulsos de presi�n en el sistema de lodo. Estas
presiones pueden ser ondas senoidales positivas, negativas o continuas. Algunas
herramientas MWD poseen la capacidad para almacenar las mediciones para su
recuperaci�n posterior con cable o cuando la herramienta se extrae del pozo si el
enlace de transmisi�n de datos falla. Las herramientas MWD que miden los par�metros
de una formaci�n (resistividad, porosidad, velocidad s�nica, rayos gamma) se
conocen como herramientas de adquisici�n de registros durante la perforaci�n (LWD).
Las herramientas LWD utilizan sistemas similares de almacenamiento y transmisi�n de
datos, y algunas poseen m�s memoria de estado s�lido para proporcionar registros de
mayor resoluci�n despu�s de extraer la herramienta, que la que es posible con el
sistema de transmisi�n de pulsos a trav�s del lodo con un ancho de banda
relativamente bajo.
Importancia de los Perfiles de Pozo A trav�s de los perfiles de pozos medimos un
n�mero de par�metros f�sicos relacionados a las propiedades geol�gicas y
petrof�sicas de los estratos que han penetrado. Adem�s, los registros nos dan
informaci�n acerca de los fluidos presentes en los poros de las rocas (agua,
petr�leo o gas). Por lo tanto, los datos de los perfiles constituyen una
descripci�n de la roca. La interpretaci�n de los perfiles puede ser dirigida a los
mismos objetivos que llevan los an�lisis de n�cleos convencionales. Obviamente,
esto solo es posible si existe una relaci�n definida entre lo que se mide en los
registros y los par�metros de roca de inter�s para el Ingeniero Ge�logo, el
Petrof�sico o el Ingeniero de Yacimientos. La principal funci�n del perfilaje de
pozos es la localizaci�n y evaluaci�n de los yacimientos de hidrocarburos.
Validaci�n de los Perfiles Se realiza para verificar la calidad de los datos y la
velocidad de perfilaje. Cada herramienta posee una velocidad de perfilaje �ptima, a
la cual la calidad de los datos obtenidos es la mejor. Normalizaci�n de las Curvas
La normalizaci�n de los perfiles es realizada por un petrof�sico. El perfil que
necesita ser normalizado con mayor frecuencia es la curva SP. Digitalizaci�n de los
Perfiles Existen perfiles de pozos antiguos que no se encuentran en formato
digital. Estos pueden vectorizarse mediante el programa Log DB
Tipos de registro de pozos. Registro de di�metros. Proporcionan informaci�n acerca
de las condiciones del hoyo. Registro de Di�metro de la Mecha (Bit Size = BS) Esta
curva indica el di�metro de las mechas que se utilizaron durante toda la
perforaci�n. Registro de Calibraci�n (Caliper = CALI) El Caliper es una herramienta
que mide el di�metro del pozo, el cual puede ser de mucha utilidad a la hora de
diferenciar litolog�as resistentes de las poco resistentes. Su principal funci�n es
determinar el estado del hoyo (derrumbado o no derrumbado). Mientras mayor sea el
di�metro del hoyo (CALI) en comparaci�n con el di�metro de la mecha (BS), menor es
la competencia de la roca perforada (hoyo derrumbado). Si el di�metro del hoyo es
similar al di�metro de la mecha, indica que
la roca es competente (hoyo no derrumbado). Si el di�metro del hoyo es menor que el
di�metro de la mecha, puede indicar que se tratan de lutitas expansivas o que se
form� un revoque muy grueso. Registros el�ctricos Proporcionan informaci�n acerca
de las propiedades el�ctricas de las rocas. Es una t�cnica geof�sica que mide la
resistividad de cada uno de los estratos, es decir, la resistencia que realiza un
material al paso de la corriente el�ctrica a lo largo de toda la formaci�n. Los
registros el�ctricos son de mucha utilidad porque permiten identificar el tipo de
material en funci�n de su resistividad o caracter�stica. Para poder diferenciar
entre agua y petr�leo, el interpretador de las lecturas debe tener en cuenta que el
agua tiene muy baja resistividad, mientras el petr�leo es altamente resistivo.
Registro de Potencial Espont�neo (SP) Es un registro no inducido. El SP de los
materiales del subsuelo se origina en las c�lulas electroqu�micas formadas por el
contacto entre las arcillas, las arenas y el lodo de perforaci�n, y como
consecuencia del efecto electro cin�tico de los fluidos que se mueven a trav�s de
la zona permeable. El SP se mide introduciendo un electrodo en el sondeo sin
entubar, mientras que el otro electrodo se sumerge en un pozuelo excavado en la
superficie y lleno de lodo de perforaci�n. Se toman a hoyo desnudo. No funciona en
lodo base aceite. Debido a su baja resoluci�n, actualmente han sido desplazados por
el registro de GR .El se considera nulo (0) frente a las capas gruesas de arcilla.
La uni�n de todos los puntos con SP nulo permite trazar una l�nea llamada
com�nmente L�nea Base de las Arcillas por convenio, los registros se realizan de
tal manera que las desviaciones hacia la izquierda de la l�nea base se consideran
negativas; y las desviaciones hacia la derecha le la l�nea base se consideran
positivas. Cuando la salinidad del lodo de perforaci�n es mayor que la salinidad
del agua de formaci�n, entonces se produce un intercambio i�nico del pozo hacia la
formaci�n y el SP es positivo. Cuando la salinidad del lodo de perforaci�n es menor
que la salinidad del agua deformaci�n se produce un intercambio i�nico de la
formaci�n al pozo y el SP es negativo. Las arenas poco consolidadas que contienen
agua dulce poseen registros SP positivos y las arenas que contienen agua salada dan
registros SP negativos. Cuando la salinidad del lodo de perforaci�n es similar a la
salinidad del agua de formaci�n, entonces no se produce ning�n intercambio i�nico y
el SP es neutro. En estos casos, el SP no sirve de mucho. Frente
a las capas de lutitas no se produce intercambio i�nico evidente y por lo tanto el
SP es neutro. Se mide en mili voltios (mV).El SP se utiliza para identificar capas
porosas, para calcular la salinidad del agua deformaci�n y la resistividad del agua
de formaci�n (Rw). Registro de corriente inducida. Tambi�n se puede inducir
corriente a partir de electrodos, que se ubican tanto en la superficie como en el
interior del pozo, y el n�mero de electrodos depende de la herramienta espec�fica
que se utiliza. Estas son varias: Microlog (de poca penetraci�n), laterolog (de
mayor penetraci�n) y otros. En el caso de las corrientes inducidas (laterolog) se
colocan electrodos tanto en la superficie como dentro del pozo, y se induce un
potencial el�ctrico entre ellos, generando as� un campo el�ctrico el cual penetrara
en la formaci�n, para luego ser detectados en el interior de pozo a trav�s de cada
uno de los estratos que componen la formaci�n. Registro de Resistividad. Es un
registro inducido. La resistividad es la capacidad que tienen las rocas de oponerse
al paso de corriente el�ctrica inducida y es el inverso de la conductividad. La
resistividad depende de la sal disuelta en los fluidos presentes en los poros delas
rocas. Proporciona evidencias del contenido de fluidos en las rocas. Si los poros
de una formaci�n contienen agua salada presentar� alta conductividad y por lo tanto
la resistividad ser� baja, pero si est�n llenos de petr�leo o gas presentar� baja
conductividad y por lo tanto la resistividad ser� alta. Las rocas compactas poco
porosas como las calizas masivas poseen resistividades altas.
Tipos de Perfiles de Resistividad Existen dos tipos principales de perfiles
resistivos: el Perfil Lateral (Laterolog) y el Perfil de Inducci�n (Induction Log).
El perfil lateral se utiliza en lodos conductivos (lodo salado) y el perfil de
inducci�n se utiliza en lodos resistivos (lodo fresco o base aceite). Dentro de los
Perfiles de Inducci�n tenemos: a)SFL= Spherical Induction Log. Para profundidades
someras (0.5 � 1.5�). Mide la resistividad de la zona lavada (Rxo). MIL=LIM= Medium
Induction Log. Para distancias medias (1.5 � 3.0�) DIL=ILD= Deep Induction Log.
Para profundidades de m�s de 3.0�. Miden la resistividad de la formaci�n (Rt).
Dentro de los Perfiles Laterales tenemos: a) MSFL= Microspheric Laterolog. Para las
proximidades (1.0 y 6.0��). Lee la resistividad de la zona lavada (Rxo). b) MLL =
LLM =Micro Laterolog. Para las proximidades (1.0 y 6.0��) c) SLL=LLS= Someric
Laterolog. Para profundidades someras (0.5 y 1.5�) d) DLL=LLD= Deep Laterolog. Para
profundidades de m�s de 3.0�. Miden la resistividad de la formaci�n (Rt).
Se lee de izquierda a derecha, en escala logar�tmica. La unidad de medida es el
ohm-m, con un rango de valores que va desde 0.2 hasta 2000 omh-m. El registro de
resistividad, tambi�n se utiliza para estimar contactos agua� petr�leo, para
calcular la resistividad del agua de formaci�n (Rw) y la resistividad verdadera de
la formaci�n (Rt). Se lee de izquierda a derecha. Registros radiactivos.
Proporcionan informaci�n acerca de las propiedades radiactivas de las rocas.
Registro de Rayos Gamma (Gamma Ray = GR) Se basa en la medici�n de las emisiones
naturales de rayos gamma que poseen las rocas. Durante la meteorizaci�n de las
rocas, los elementos radiactivos que estas contienen se desintegran en part�culas
de tama�o arcilla, por lo tanto las lutitas tienen emisiones de rayos gamma mayores
que las arenas. Mientras mayor es el contenido de arcilla de las rocas mayor es la
emisi�n de GR de las mismas. Los minerales radiactivos principales son: el potasio
(K), el torio (Th) y el uranio (U). Se lee de izquierda a derecha. Si el GR es bajo
indica bajo contenido de arcilla y si es alto indica alto contenido de arcilla. La
unidad de medida es en grados API, con un rango de valores que generalmente va de 0
a 150 API. Sirve para calcular el contenido de arcilla de las capas (Vsh), para
estimar el tama�o de grano y diferenciar litolog�as porosas de no porosas. Puede
utilizarse en pozos entubados. Registro de Espectrometr�a (NGS) El registro de
espectrometr�a o GR espectral sirve para determinar el tipo de arcillas que
contiene una formaci�n. Se basa en la relaci�n de proporciones de los tres
minerales radiactivos principales: potasio (K), torio (Th) y uranio (U). Las
concentraciones K/Th ayudan a identificar el tipo de arcilla presentes en la
formaci�n, mientras que la concentraci�n de U indican la presencia de materia
org�nica dentro de las arcillas. Si se parte del principio que cada formaci�n posee
un tipo de arcilla caracter�stica, al registrarse un cambio en el tipo de arcilla
por la relaci�n (K / Th) se puede inducir que se produjo un cambio formacional. Por
lo tanto el NGS puede utilizarse para estimar contactos formacionales. REGISTROS DE
POROSIDAD Proporcionan informaci�n acerca de la porosidad del yacimiento. Son los
mejores perfiles para detectar y delimitar los yacimientos de gas. La porosidad de
las rocas puede obtenerse a partir del registro s�nico, el registro de densidad o
el registro neutr�nico. Registro Neutr�nico (CNL) Se basa en la medici�n de
concentraciones de hidr�genos, lo que indica la presencia de agua o petr�leo en la
roca. Posee una fuente de neutrones, los cuales colisionan con los hidr�genos
presentes en los poros de la roca. La herramienta tambi�n posee un receptor que
mide los neutrones dispersos liberados en las colisiones. La herramienta se llama
CNL. Sirve para estimar la porosidad neutr�nica de las rocas (NPHI). Si el registro
neutr�nico es alto indica alta �ndice de neutrones, y si es bajo indica bajo
�ndice de neutrones. Se lee de derecha a izquierda. La unidad de medida es en
fracci�n o en %, con un rango de valores que va desde � 0.15 a 0.45 (�15 a 45 %).
Registros de Densidad (FDC) Se basa en la medici�n de la densidad de la formaci�n,
por medio de la atenuaci�n de rayos gamma entre una fuente y un receptor. Posee una
fuente de rayos gamma, los cuales colisionan con los �tomos presentes en la roca.
La herramienta tambi�n posee un receptor que mide los rayos gamma dispersos
liberados en las colisiones. La herramienta se llama FDC. Sirve para estimar la
densidad del sistema roca � fluido (RHOB) que posteriormente servir� para calcular
la porosidad por densidad (DPHI). Si el registro de densidad es bajo indica alta
porosidad y si es alto indica baja porosidad. Se lee de izquierda a derecha .La
unidad de medida es gr/cm3, con un rango de valores que va desde 1.96 a 2.96
gr/cm3.
Registros S�nicos (BHC) Utiliza el mismo principio del m�todo s�smico: mide la
velocidad del sonido en las ondas penetradas por el pozo. Posee un emisor de ondas
y un receptor. Se mide el tiempo de tr�nsito de dichas ondas. La herramienta se
llama BHC. El objetivo principal del perfil s�nico es la determinaci�n de la
porosidad de las rocas penetradas por el pozo (SPHI) a partir del tiempo de
tr�nsito de las ondas. Mientras mayor es el tiempo de tr�nsito, menor es la
velocidad, y por lo tanto, mayores la porosidad de la roca. Se lee de derecha a
izquierda. La unidad de medida es el useg/m (100 � 500) � el useg/pie (40 � 240)
Registro RFT Esta herramienta mide el gradiente de presi�n de los fluidos que se
encuentran dentro de las formaciones, esto es de mucha utilidad a la hora de ubicar
CAP (contactos agua�petr�leo) y CPG (contactos petr�leo�gas), ya que los fluidos
(gas, petr�leo y agua) poseen diferentes gradientes de presi�n. La herramienta RFT
tambi�n sirve para combinarse con perfiles de pozos para calibrar contactos m�s
precisos