9/8/2013

Atoms, Nucleus and 
Radiation

M. Kawaji
Adopted from slides provided by Dr. Rasha Salama
Suez Canal University

An atom consists of a nucleus and electrons orbiting around the nucleus

1
 9/8/2013

Nucleus
Nucleus consists of smaller particles
referred to as:

– Protons (+ charge)

– Neutrons (no charge)

Different atoms contain different numbers of

Protons and Neutrons

Z = atomic number = number of protons in

the nucleus

N = neutron number = number of neutrons

in the nucleus

A = Z + N = mass number = total number

of protons and neutrons

2
 9/8/2013

Lithium-6: Z = 3, N = 3, A = 3+3 = 6

Chemical element = Lithium

Basic Model of a Neutral Atom.
• Electrons (‐) orbiting a nucleus of protons (+) and 
neutrons. Same number of electrons as protons; 
net charge = 0. 
• Atomic number (Z = number of protons) 
determines a chemical element.
• A nuclide is an atomic species characterized by the 
specific constitution of its nucleus, i.e., by its 
number of protons Z, its number of neutrons N, 
and its nuclear energy state.
• Radionuclide refers to radioactive nuclides that 
emit radiation.

3
 9/8/2013

Periodic Table of Chemical Elements

Atomic number, Z

Element name

Nuclides and Isotopes
• There are naturally occurring stable and unstable 
nuclides, e.g., U‐238 (99.3%) and U‐235 (0.7%).
• Some are man‐made in nuclear reactors such as 
Plutonium, e.g., Pu‐239 from U‐238 absorbing a 
neutron.  
• Isotopes of an element (same Z but different A’s = 
protons + neutrons) can be stable or unstable and 
radioactive.
• Radioactive isotopes are sometimes called 
radioisotopes. Some are produced for and used in 
medical applications.

4
 9/8/2013

Examples of Isotopes

• Hydrogen: H‐1 (Z=1, A=1), H‐2 (Z=1, A=2), H‐3 (Z=1, A=3)
• Carbon (Z = 6): C‐12, C‐13, C‐14
(Stable nuclides,        Radioactive isotopes)

Radioisotopes used in medicine
Radionuclide  Radiation type         Half‐life, T1/2 Energy
• Cesium‐137 (Cs‐137)  γ‐ray  30.17 years  0.662 MeV
• Cobalt‐60 (Co‐60)  γ‐rays  5.26 years  1.17, 1.33 MeV
• Iridium‐192 (Ir‐192)  β‐particles            73.8 days  0.38 MeV (mean)
• Iodine‐125 (I‐125)  γ‐rays  59.6 days  27.4, 31.4 and 35.5 keV
• Palladium‐103 (Pd‐103)  γ‐ray  17.0 days  21 keV (mean)
• Ruthenium‐106 (Ru‐106)  β‐particles            1.02 years  3.54 MeV

Definition of Radiation
• “Radiation is an energy in the form of electro‐
magnetic waves or particles traveling in the 
air.”

Radioactivity
• If a nucleus is unstable for any reason, it will 
emit energy in the form of radiation. There are 
many types of radiation and they are all 
pertinent to everyday life and health as well as 
physical applications.

5
 9/8/2013

Ionization
Ionizing radiation is produced by unstable
atoms. Unstable atoms differ from stable
atoms because they have an excess of
energy or mass or both.
Unstable atoms are said to be radioactive. In
order to reach stability, these atoms give off,
or emit, the excess energy or mass. These
emissions are called radiation.

6
 9/8/2013

Ionizing Radiation

alpha particle
X-ray Radioactive Atom

beta particle
Neutron

gamma ray

Ionizing Versus Non-ionizing

Radiation
Ionizing Radiation
– Higher energy electromagnetic waves (X-ray and
gamma-ray) or light and heavy particles (beta and
alpha).
– High enough energy to pull electron from orbit.

Non-ionizing Radiation
– Lower energy electromagnetic waves.
– Not enough energy to pull electron from orbit, but
can excite the electron.

7
 9/8/2013

• The electro‐magnetic waves vary in their wavelength and 
frequency along a very wide spectrum.

Wavelength

Frequency

Ionizing Radiation
• Definition: 
“ It is a type of radiation that is able to disrupt 
atoms and molecules on which they pass 
through, giving rise to ions and free radicals”.

Alpha particles
Beta particles
Gamma rays (or photons)
X-Rays (or photons)
Neutrons

8
 9/8/2013

Types and Characteristics of

Ionizing Radiation

Alpha Particles
Alpha Particles: 2 neutrons and 2 protons
• They have large mass and travel short distances
• Only a hazard when inhaled (e.g., radon gas)

• Alpha Particles (or Alpha Radiation)

• Helium nucleus (2 neutrons and 2 protons) with +2 charge; 

• Typical Energy = 4 ~ 8 MeV; 
– Note: 1 Joule = 6.242 x 1012 MeV

• Limited range of travel (< 10cm in air; 60 µm in tissue);

• High energy transfer (QF=20) causing heavy damage (4K‐9K ion 
pairs/µm in tissue); 

• Easily shielded (e.g., paper, skin) so an internal radiation hazard. 

9
 9/8/2013

Beta Particles
Beta Particles: Electrons or positrons having small mass and
variable energy.
Beta particles are emitted when a neutron transforms into a
proton in the nucleus.

• Beta Particles: High speed electrons ejected from

nucleus;
• -1 charge, light mass 0.00055 AMU;
• Typical Energy = several keV to 5 MeV;
• Range approx. 12 feet/MeV in air, a few mm in tissue;
• Low energy transfer (QF=1) causing light damage
(6-8 ion pairs/µm in tissue).
• Primarily an internal hazard, but high beta can be an
external hazard to skin.
• In addition, the high speed electrons may lose energy
in the form of X-rays when they quickly decelerate
upon striking a heavy material. This is called
Bremsstralung (or Breaking) Radiation.
• Aluminum and other light materials are used for
shielding.

10
 9/8/2013

A photon or an X-ray is emitted when an electron or beta particle is

decelerated by a charged nucleus

e.g., X-ray tube – high speed electrons are directed to hit a metal target.

Beta particles from a radioactive nuclide hitting another material

Gamma Rays
Gamma Rays are photons emitted from the
nucleus, often as part of radioactive decay.

Gamma rays typically have higher energy

(MeV's) than X-rays (keV's) and penetrate
through materials much further.

Dysprosium-152

11
 9/8/2013

Neutrons

- Have the same mass as protons but are uncharged.

- Play a key role in nuclear reactors by causing fission
reactions in uranium fuel.
- Can penetrate through heavy elements such as steel and
lead but can be stopped by light materials such as water
and paraffin.

Fission Reaction
- A nucleus of U-235 can fission when hit
by a slow neutron
- Each fission reaction produces 2
fission products (f.p.’s), 2~3 neutrons
and fission energy.
- Fission products have intermediate
mass numbers, a half with A = 90 ~
100 and other half with A = 130 ~
140.

12
 9/8/2013

Chain Reaction and Nuclear Reactors

- Nuclear reactors utilize chain fission
reactions in a sustained manner.
- Each fission reaction produces ~200
MeV of energy.
- In contrast, most chemical reactions
(such as burning coal or TNT) release
at most a few eV per reaction.
- So, nuclear fuel contains at least ten
million times more usable energy per
unit mass than does chemical fuel.
- In nuclear reactors, 1 gram of U-235
fuel can produce 7,583 kW-hours of
electricity.

Quantifying Radioactive Decay
Measurement of Activity in disintegrations per 
second (dps); 
• 1 Becquerel (Bq) = 1 dps; 
• 1 Curie (Ci) = 3.7 x 1010 dps; 
• Activity of substances are expressed as activity 
per weight or volume (e.g., Bq/gm or Ci/l). 

13
 9/8/2013

Radioactive Decay and Half Life

Examples:
Carbon-14: T1/2 = 5,730 years Strontium-90: 28.5 years
Cesium-132: 9.7 days Cesium-137: 30.1 years
Iodine-131: 8.04 days
Xenon-133: 5.27 days
Uranium-235: 7.13 x 108 years
Uranium-238: 4.51 x 109 years
Plutonium-239: 24,390 years

Penetration of Radiation

14
 9/8/2013

B. Monitoring 
• Personal Dosimeters: Normally they do not 
prevent exposures (no alarm), just record it. 
• They can provide a record of accumulated 
exposure for an individual worker over 
extended periods of time (hours, days or 
weeks), and are small enough for measuring 
localized exposures 
• Common types: Film badges; 
Thermoluminescence detectors (TLD); and 
pocket dosimeters. 

Survey meter

Personal dosimeter

Foot monitor

15