CMT Report Compilation Ce401

LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY CAVITE
STEEL
Report paper
College of Engineering, Computer Studies and Architecture
Lyceum of the Philippines University, Cavite Campus
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
Landicho, Czarina
Legacion, Wilmark
Lucero, Ruben
Magsino, Jenifer
Pintor, Micoh
Engr. Anjerick Topacio
September 22, 2017
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER STUDIES AND ARCHITECTURE

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Steel
 Steel is the world's most important engineering and construction material. It is
used in every aspect of our lives; in cars and construction products, refrigerators
and washing machines, cargo ships and surgical scalpels. It can be recycled over
and over again without loss of property.
 Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing less than 2% carbon and 1%
manganese and small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and oxygen. Steel
is the world's most important engineering and construction material. It is used in
every aspect of our lives; in cars and construction products, refrigerators and
washing machines, cargo ships and surgical scalpels.
How do we produce steel?
 Globally, steel is produced via two main routes: the blast furnace-basic oxygen
furnace (BF-BOF) route and electric arc furnace (EAF) route. Variations and
combinations of production routes also exist.
 About 75% of steel is produced using the BF-BOF route. First, iron ores
are reduced to iron, also called hot metal or pig iron. Then the iron is
converted to steel in the BOF. After casting and rolling, the steel is
delivered as coil, plate, sections or bars.
 Steel made in an EAF uses electricity to melt recycled steel. Additives,
such as alloys, are used to adjust to the desired chemical composition.

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Electrical energy can be supplemented with oxygen injected into the EAF.
Downstream process stages, such as casting, reheating and rolling, are
similar to those found in the BF-BOF route. About 25% of steel is
produced via the EAF route.
How much steel is produced in a year?
 World crude steel production reached 1,626.6 million tonnes (Mt) for the year
2016.
Types of steel
Carbon Steels
 Carbon steels contain trace amounts of alloying elements and account for 90% of
total steel production. Carbon steels can be further categorized into three groups
depending on their carbon content:
 Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3% carbon
 Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3 – 0.6% carbon

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 High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6% carbon
Stainless Steels
 Stainless steels generally contain between 10-20% chromium as the main alloying
element and are valued for high corrosion resistance. With over 11% chromium,
steel is about 200 times more resistant to corrosion than mild steel. These steels
can be divided into three groups based on their crystalline structure:
 Austenitic: Austenitic steels are non-magnetic and non heat-treatable, and
generally contain 18% chromium, 8% nickel and less than 0.8%
carbon. Austenitic steels form the largest portion of the global stainless steel
market and are often used in food processing equipment, kitchen utensils, and
piping.
 Ferritic: Ferritic steels contain trace amounts of nickel, 12-17% chromium, less
than 0.1% carbon, along with other alloying elements, such as molybdenum,
aluminum or titanium. These magnetic steels cannot be hardened by heat
treatment but can be strengthened by cold working.
 Martensitic: Martensitic steels contain 11-17% chromium, less than 0.4% nickel,
and up to 1.2% carbon. These magnetic and heat-treatable steels are used in
knives, cutting tools, as well as dental and surgical equipment.
Tool Steels

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 Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying
quantities to increase heat resistance and durability, making them ideal for cutting
and drilling equipment. Steel products can also be divided by their shapes and
related applications:
 Long/Tubular Products include bars and rods, rails, wires, angles, pipes, and
shapes and sections. These products are commonly used in the automotive and
construction sectors.
 Flat Products include plates, sheets, coils, and strips. These materials are mainly
used in automotive parts, appliances, packaging, shipbuilding, and construction.
 Other Products include valves, fittings, and flanges and are mainly used as piping
materials.
Alloy Steels
 Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g. manganese,
silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium, and aluminum) in varying
proportions in order to manipulate the steel's properties, such as
its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength, formability, weldability or
ductility.
 Applications for alloys steel include pipelines, auto parts, transformers, power
generators and electric motors.

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History of steel
13th century BC Invention of steel - iron and charcoal come together
• Early blacksmiths discovered that iron became harder and stronger when left in
charcoal furnaces.
3rd century BC Wootz steel: Born in ancient India
• As early as the third century BC, the craftsmen of southern India used crucibles to
smelt wrought iron with charcoal to produce ‘wootz’ steel – a material that is still
admired today.
Roman Era (with war comes progress)
• Imperial armies, including those of China, Greece, Persia and Rome, were eager
for strong, durable weapons and armour. The Romans learned how to temper
work-hardened steel to reduce its brittleness.
Uses of steel
1. Construction
 The majority of steel goes to the construction industry. Sustainable steel
structures can be built quickly at a low price. Steel, in its various forms and

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alloys, can be designed to meet the requirements of unique projects, which
allow it to be incorporated into infrastructure in all environments.
2. Transport
 Engineering steels are wrought steels that are designed to have certain specific
levels of elasticity, strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance.
 They are used in the general engineering and manufacturing sectors, but the
bulk goes to transport vehicles.
3. Energy
 All segments of the energy sector, including nuclear, wind power, electric and
natural gas, demand steel for infrastructure. Steel is also used for resource
extraction, such as in offshore platforms, earth-moving and quarrying
equipment, cranes, and forklifts.
4. Packaging
 Steel packaging protects goods from water, air, and light exposure, and is
fully recyclable. This method of storage has been around for over 200 years.
5. Appliances and Industry
 About 75% of the weight of typical household appliances comes from steel.
Steel is found in appliances like fridges, washing machines, ovens,
microwaves, sinks, cutlery, etc.
Material properties required for design
1. Strength

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 Yield strength - is the most common property that the designer will need as it
is the basis used for most of the rules given in design codes . In European
Standards for structural carbon steels (including weathering steel ), the
primary designation relates to the yield strength, e.g. S355 steel is a structural
steel with a specified minimum yield strength of 355 N/mm².
 Hot rolled steels - For hot rolled carbon steels, the number quoted in the
designation is the value of yield strength for material up to 16 mm thick.
 Cold formed steels - There is a wide range of steel grades for strip
steels suitable for cold forming.
 Stainless steels - Grades of stainless steel are designated by a numerical 'steel
number' (such as 1.4401 for a typical austenitic steel) rather than the 'S'
designation system for carbon steels.
2. Toughness
 It is in the nature of all materials to contain some imperfections. In steel these
imperfections take the form of very small cracks. If the steel is insufficiently
tough, the 'crack' can propagate rapidly, without plastic deformation and result
in a 'brittle fracture'.
 The risk of brittle fracture increases with thickness, tensile stress, stress raisers
and at colder temperatures.
3. Ductility
 a measure of the degree to which a material can strain or elongate between the
onset of yield and eventual fracture under tensile loading

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4. Weldability
 All structural steels are essentially weldable. However, welding involves
locally melting the steel, which subsequently cools. The cooling can be quite
fast because the surrounding material, e.g. the beam, offers a large 'heat sink'
and the weld (and the heat introduced) is usually relatively small.
5. Durability
 A further important property is that of corrosion prevention. Although special
corrosion resistant steels are available these are not normally used in building
construction. The exception to this is weathering steel.
The Importance of Steel
1. Sustainability
Steel is the leading construction material for sustainability, as it can be multicycled
endlessly with no detrimental effect on its properties. When a steel-framed building is
demolished, its components can be reused or returned to the steelmaking process to create
brand new components.
2. Economic Benefits
Steel structures are durable and require little maintenance, extracting maximum value
from the resources invested in the structure and minimizing its whole-life costs.

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3. Quality
Aim Steel International consistently offers high standards, precision products and
guaranteed strength and durability in the most challenging environments.
4. Durability
Steel-framed structures are highly durable and do not age or decay as quickly as other
construction materials, lasting longer before refurbishment is required.
Why does steel rust?
- Many elements and materials go through chemical reactions with other elements. When
steel comes into contact with water and oxygen there is a chemical reaction and the steel
begins to revert to its original form - iron oxide.
Can steel be recycled?
- Yes, very easily. Steel's unique magnetic properties make it an easy material to recover
from the waste stream to be recycled. The properties of steel remain unchanged no matter
how many times the steel is recycled.
Is steel environmentally friendly and sustainable?
-Steel is very friendly to the environment. It is completely recyclable, possesses great
durability, and, compared to other materials, requires relatively low amounts of energy to
produce.

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AGGREGATES
Report paper
Afable, Sir Charle Jhei M.
Amante, Jejomar A.
Janeo, Job C.
Nierva, John Radisson D.
Virtudazo, Aurbs Winston R.
September 22, 2017

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Concrete Mixture
 Paste
-Asphalt
-Portland Cement
-Lime
 Aggregates
-Sand
-Gravel
-Crushed Stone
Aggregates
-It makes up 60%-75% of the total volume of the concrete mixture
-They are inert granular materials such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that
along with water and Portland Cement are an essential ingredient in concrete
Types
1. Natural
-Obtained from natural deposit of sand and gravel or from quarries by cutting
rocks.
-Can be by Series of blasting, crushing, and screening etc.

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-River deposit is the most common deposit and have good quality.
-The second most commonly used source of aggregates is quarried bed rock
material.
2. Artificial
-are made to make special type of concrete to be able to comply with the
requirement of the construction.
Types of Aggregates according to size:
1. Fine Aggregates
2. Coarse Aggregates
FINE AGGREGATES
-Are particles of fine aggregates pass through 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve
*Sand- Little particles of Silica
Types:
-Pit sand
-River sand
-Sea sand
*Crushed Stones -It is used to fill in spaces between gravel.
*Surkhi- It is finely powdered burnt clay and generally made from slightly under burnt
bricks.
*Cinder-It is the slag from a metal furnace.

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COARSE AGGREGATES
-Are retained on 4.75 mm (No.4) Sieve
-Aggregates the size of whose particle is bigger than 4.75 mm but smaller than 7.5
mm are known as coarse aggregates.
*Stone Ballast- it is produced by mining a suitable rock deposit and breaking the
removed rock down the desired size using crushers.
*Gravel-obtained from river beds, quarries and sea shores. Gravels from sea shores
should be cleaned before usage to remove impurities which may be clay, salts,
silts, etc.
*Brick Ballast - is made of first class well burnt or slightly over-burnt brick-bats to 40
mm gauge for foundations and floor concrete and 25 mm gauge for roof concrete.
*Clinker - A lump or ball of fused material, usually 1/8" to 1" in diameter, formed
by heating cement slurry in a kiln. When cool, the clinker is interground with
gypsum to from cement.
Uses if Aggregates
• To provide a rigid structure
• To reduce the shrinkage and cracking
• Concrete aggregate is used in many structures and substructures e.g. different
elements of a Building, bridges, foundations
• The smaller the aggregate size the greater its surface area and the more binding
material (cement) will be required, resulting in a higher cost

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• The greater the aggregate size the larger will be the voids, resulting in wastage of
binding material(cement)
Tests on Aggregates
1. Crushing Test
One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under
compressive stress. A test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to
determine the crushing strength of aggregates. The aggregate crushing value
provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied
crushing load.
The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to a
compression test under standard load conditions (See Fig-1). Dry aggregates
passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a
cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers. Each
layer is tamped 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is weighed
and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tamped again. The
specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the
rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36
mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the
weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.
Aggregate crushing value = (W1/W2)*100

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A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above
35 would normally be regarded as weak aggregates.
2. Abrasion Test
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to
decide whether they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los
Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for carrying out the hardness property and
has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-IV).
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to
relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive
charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and
length 520 mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Fig-2).
An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and
weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The number
of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample. The quantity
of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-10
kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a total of
500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and
passed fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value
is called Los Angeles abrasion value.

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A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian
conditions. For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 percent is
specified.
3. Impact Test
The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of
aggregates. Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is
filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is
attached to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is filled in 3
layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows (see Fig-3). Metal
hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm by
vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows. The
crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact
value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total
weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = (W1/W2)*100
Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn’t exceed 30
percent. For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35
percent. For Water bound macadam base courses the maximum permissible
value defined by IRC is 40 percent.

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4. Soundness Test
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering
action, by conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates
subjected to freezing and thawing is likely to disintegrate prematurely. To
ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they are subjected to an accelerated
soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V.
Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a
saturated solution of either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 – 18
hours and then dried in oven at 105 to 1100C to a constant weight. After five
cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out all
undersized particles and weighing.
The loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium
sulphateand 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution.
5. Shape Test
The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky
and elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are
detrimental to higher workability and stability of mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles
whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Flakiness gauge

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(see Fig-4) is used for this test. Test procedure had been standardized in India (IS:
2386 part-I).
The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of
particles whose greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension.
This test is applicable to aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. Elongation gauge (see
Fig-5) is used for this test. This test is also specified in (IS: 2386 Part-I).
However there are no recognized limits for the elongation index.
6. Specific Gravity and Water Absorption
The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties
that are required for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific
gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled
water at a specified temperature. Because the aggregates may contain water-
permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of aggregates are used:
1. Apparent specific gravity and
2. Bulk specific gravity.
Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume of
aggregates i.e the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus
Gapp = [(MD/VN)]/W
Where,

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MD is the dry mass of the aggregate,
VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed
matter,
W is the density of water.
Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of
aggregates including water permeable voids. Thus
Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W
Where,
VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed water.
Water Absorption: The difference between the apparent and bulk specific
gravities is nothing but the water permeable voids of the aggregates. We can
measure the volume of such voids by weighing the aggregates dry and in
a saturated surface dry condition, with all permeable voids filled with water.
The difference of the above two is MW.
MW is the weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated surface
dry condition. Thus,
Water Absorption = (MW/MD)*100

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The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges from
about 2.5 to 2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0 percent for
aggregates normally used in road surfacing.
7. Bitumen Adhesion Test
Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry
and free from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion
problem of bituminous construction.
Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can
be dealt with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing
the mixing temperature. Further, the presence of water causes stripping of binder
from the coated aggregates. This problem occurs when bitumen mixture is
permeable to water.
Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of
bitumen binder to an aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is
one specified by IRC and is quite simple. The principle of the test is by immersing
aggregate fully coated with binder in water maintained at 400C temperature for 24
hours.
IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 5%.

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LIST OF IS CODES RELATED TO AGGREGATE TESTING
Tests for Aggregates with IS codes
Property of
Type of Test Test Method
Aggregate
Crushing strength Crushing test IS : 2386 (part 4)
Los Angeles abrasion

Hardness IS : 2386 (Part 5)
test
Toughness Aggregate impact test IS : 2386 (Part 4)
Durability Soundness test IS : 2386 (Part 5)
Shape factors Shape test IS : 2386 (Part 1)
Specific gravity test

Specific gravity and
and water absorption IS : 2386 (Part 3)
porosity
test
Stripping value of
Adhesion to bitumen IS : 6241-1971
aggregate

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Concrete
Report Paper
Kapangyarihan, Erika Joyce
Palejaro, Neil Dave
Salazar, Lirine Paula
Sandoval, Chris Lauren
Tolentino, Derick
September 28, 2017

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Concrete comes from the Latin word “Concretus” which means compact. It is a
composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with fluid cement
which hardens over time. It is an artificial stone made of sand, stone, water and cement.
1. History of Concrete
The history of cementing materials goes to the Prehistoric Era when prehistoric
man prepareS his cave to build shelter. They used mud and clay to fill the gaps between
stones.
Later, the Assyrians and Babylonians used clay as their bonding substance and
straw to make shape.
The Egyptians used limestone, gypsum and crushed stone to create a material that
would harden even better.
Then the Romans made cement and they learn how to use volcanic ash. They built
lots of structure like pantheon, colosseum and Trajan’s column. After the empire
collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the
mid18th century.
2. Components of Concrete
Concrete is made up of three basic components: water, aggregate (rock, sand, or gravel)
and Portland cement.
2.1 Water. The suitability of water for concrete production depends on its origin.

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Water According to European Standard
EN 1008 lists the following types:
Drinking water
Suitable for concrete. Does not need to be tested.
Water recovered from processes in the concrete industry
(e.g. wash water) Generally suitable for concrete but the requirements in Annex A of the
standard must be met
Ground water
May be suitable for concrete but must be checked.
Natural surface water and industrial process water
May be suitable for concrete but must be checked.
Sea water or brackish water
May be used for non-reinforced concrete but is not suitable for reinforced or prestressed
concrete.
Waste water
Not suitable for concrete.
2.2 Cement

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• The hydraulic binder (hydraulic = hardening when combined with water) which is
used to produce concrete.
• Cement paste (cement mixed with water) sets and hardens by hydration, both in
air and under water. The main base materials, e.g. for Portland cement, are
limestone, marl and clay, which are mixed in defined proportions. This raw mix is
burned at about 1'450 °C to form clinker which is later ground to the well-known
fineness of cement.
2.3 Concrete Aggregates
• Consist of sand and gravel; represent the grain skeleton of the concrete.
• Concrete aggregates sum up to approximately 80% of the concrete weight
and 70% of the concrete volume. Optimum use of the aggregate size and
quality improves the concrete quality.
• Aggregates can occur naturally (fluvial or glacial), industrially produced
like lightweight aggregates as well as recycled aggregates.
3. Classification of Modern Concrete
Today, concrete is the most widely used manmade material and it is classified into
different types

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3.1 According to binding material
1. Cement concrete
The concrete consisting of cement, sand, and coarse aggregates mixed in a suitable
proportions in addition to water is called cement concrete. This type of concrete cement
is used as a binding material, sand as fine aggregates and gravel, crushed stones as coarse
aggregates. It is commonly used in buildings and other important engineering works
where strength and durability is of prime importance
2. Lime concrete
In this concrete, hydraulic lime is generally used as a binding material, sand and cinder
are used as fine aggregates and broken bricks, gravel can be used as coarse aggregates.
Placing of concrete shall be completed within 3 hrs. of adding water in case of concrete is
prepared with hydraulic line. Lime concrete is generally used for the sake of economy in
foundation works, under floors, over roof and where cement is not cheaply and easily
available in required quantity
3.2 According to design concrete
1. Plain cement concrete
The cement concrete in which no reinforcement is provided is called plain cement
concrete or mass cement concrete. This type of concrete is strong in taking compressive

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stresses but weak in taking tensile stresses. Plain cement concrete is commonly used in
for foundation work and flooring of buildings.
2. Reinforced cement concrete
The cement concrete in which reinforcement is embedded for taking tensile stress is
called reinforced cement concrete. In this type of concrete the steel reinforcement is to be
used generally in the form of round bars, 6mm to 32mm dia. This concrete is equally
strong in taking tensile, compressive and shear stresses. RCC is commonly used for
construction of slabs, beams, columns, foundation, precast concrete.
3. Pre-stressed cement concrete
The cement concrete in which high compressive stresses are artificially induced before
their actual use is called pre-stresses cement concrete.
In this type of cement concrete, the high compressive stresses are induced by pre-
tensioning the reinforcement before placing the concrete, and the reinforcement is
released when final setting of the concrete take place. This concrete can take up high
tensile and compressive stresses without development of cracks. The quantity of
reinforcement can be considerably reduced by using this concrete.
3.3 According to Purpose
1. Vacuum Concrete
The cement concrete from which entrained air and excess water is removed after placing
it, by suction with the help of vacuum pump is called vacuum concrete.

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In this concrete the excess water which is added to increase workability but not required
for the hydration of cement of concrete is removed by forming vacuum chamber.
2. Air entrained Concrete
The concrete prepared by mixing aluminum in it is called air entrained ,cellular or aerated
concrete. In this concrete bubbles of hydrogen gas are liberated which forms cell and
make the concrete cellular. This concrete is used for lining walls and roofs for heat and
sound insulation purpose.
3. Lightweight Concrete
The concrete prepared by using coke breeze, cinder or slag as coarse aggregate is called
light weight concrete. The concrete is light in weight and posses heat insulating
properties. This concrete is used in making precast structural units for partition and wall
lining.
4. Ratio of Concrete

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5. Water Cement Ratio
For different ratio of concrete the amount of water for 50kg of cement is:
For normal construction the water cement ratio is usually 0.5. Adding to much water will
reduce the strength of concrete and can cause segregation.
6. Workability of Concrete
It is the amount of work required to place concrete and to compact it thoroughly.
• Workability of concrete increases with the addition of water but it reduces the strength
that’s why it is not a desirable way of increasing the workability.
• Use of aggregates which are round and have smooth surfaces increases the workability.

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• Workability could also be improved by adding air entraining agent such as vinsol resin
or Darex.
• Use of Lisapole liquid at 30 cubic centimeter per bag of cement improves not only the
workability but also the water tightness of concrete.
• Workability of concrete is better determined by compaction factor test.
7. Placing of Concrete
After mixing of concrete it should be placed within 30min of adding of water.
• It should be quickly transported to the place of lying by means of iron pans manually, in
wheel barrows, by pumping or by cranes.
• In placing, concrete should be laid in thin layers. Each layer being thoroughly
consolidated before the next one is laid.
Concrete should not be dropped from a height as it would cause segregation of
aggregates.
• In case concrete has more of water or it has been laid in thick layers then on compaction
water and fine particles of cement comes at the top forming a layer of weak substance
known as laitance
8. Compaction of Concrete

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Compaction of concrete is very important in developing qualities like strength, durability,
imperviousness by making the concrete dense and free from voids.
• In case of RCC compaction is done by pinning with an iron rod or even with trowel
blade.
• Excess temping should be avoided as otherwise water, cement and finer particles would
come to the surface and results in non-uniform concreting.
In case of important and big works, compaction of concrete is done with vibrator.
• Use of vibrator is best and the most efficient way of compacting concrete. It gives very
dense concrete.
• Care should be taken not to make excessive use of vibrators otherwise the concrete
becomes non homogeneous
9. Curing of Concrete
The process of keeping concrete wet to enable it to attain full strength is known as curing.
• The objective of curing is to prevent loss of moisture from concrete due to evaporation
or because of any other reasons.
• Curing should be done for a period of three weeks but not less than 10 days.
To do curing, any one of the following method can be used.

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i. The surface of concrete is coated with a layer of bitumen or similar other
waterproofing compound which gets into the pores of concrete and prevent loss of water
from concrete.
ii. Concrete surface is covered with waterproof paper or with a layer of wet sand.
It could also be covered with gunny bags.
10. Qualities of Good Concrete
10.1 Strength
Concrete should be able to withstand the stresses that it is subjected to. It is quite strong
in compression but weak in tension.
10.2 Durability
It should be durable enough to resist the effect of weathering agents.
10.3 Density
The concrete should be well compacted so that there are no voids or hollows left. It
should weigh 3000 kg/cu.m.
10.4 Water Tightness
When used for construction of water retaining structures such as dams, elevated tanks
and water reservoirs then this property of concrete becomes very important. Otherwise

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the moisture inside the RCC would corrode steel and leakage would start resulting in the
ultimate failure of the structure.
10.5 Workability
It should be easily workable.
10.6 Resistance to Wear and Tear
When used in floors and in the construction of roads the concrete should be able to
withstand abrasive forces.
Tests for checking quality of concrete should be done for the following possible
purposes:
 To detect the variation of quality of concrete being supplied for a given
specification.
 To establish whether the concrete has attained a sufficient strength or concrete has
set sufficiently for stripping, stressing, de-propping, and opening to traffic etc.
 To establish whether the concrete has gained sufficient strength for the intended
purpose.
 The most important test for quality check of concrete is to detect the variation of
concrete quality with the given specification and mix design during concrete
mixing and placement. It will ensure that right quality of concrete is being placed

34
at site and with checks for concrete placement in place, the quality of constructed
concrete members will be as desired.
11. Following are the lists of various tests conducted for Concrete Quality:
Tests on hardened concrete:
• Compressive strength
• Tensile strength
• Modulus of rupture
• Permeability Tests on Concrete
• Freeze/thaw resistance
• Resistance to abrasion
11.1 Compressive Strength
• The compressive strength of any material is defined as the resistance to failure
under the action of compressive forces.
• For concrete, compressive strength is an important parameter to determine the
performance of the material during service conditions.
• The compressive strength of concrete is determined in batching plant laboratories
for every batch in order to maintain the desired quality of concrete during casting.
The strength of concrete is required to calculate the strength of the members.

35
Concrete specimens are a cast and tested under the action of compressive loads to
determine the strength of concrete.
• In very simple words, compressive strength is calculated by dividing the failure
load with the area of application of load, usually after 28 days of curing. The
strength of concrete is controlled by the proportioning of cement, coarse and fine
aggregates, water, and various admixtures. The ratio of the water to cement is the
chief factor for determining concrete strength. The lower the water-cement ratio,
the higher is the compressive strength.
• For normal field applications, the concrete strength can vary from 10Mpa to 60
Mpa. For certain applications and structures, concrete mixes can be designed to
obtain very high compressive strength capacity in the range of 500Mpa, usually
referred as Ultra High Strength Concrete or Powder Reactive Concrete.
• “The compressive strength of concrete is given in terms of the characteristic
compressive strength of 150 mm size cubes tested at 28 days
(fck). The characteristic strength is defined as the strength of the concrete below
which not more than 5% of the test results are expected to fall.”
11.2 Tensile Strength

36
11.3 Modulus of Rupture
• Flexural strength is one measure of the tensile strength of concrete. It is a measure
of an unreinforced concrete beam or slab to resist failure in bending.

37
• It is measured by loading 6 x 6 inch (150 x 150-mm) concrete beams with a span
length at least three times the depth.
• The flexural strength is expressed as Modulus of Rupture (MR) in psi (MPa) and
is determined by standard test methods ASTM C 78 (third-point loading) or
ASTM C 293 (center-point loading).
• Flexural Strength of ConcreteFlexural MR is about 10 to 20 percent of
compressive strength depending on the type, size and volume of coarse aggregate
used. However, the best correlation for specific materials is obtained by
laboratory tests for given materials and mix design. The MR determined by third-
point loading is lower than the MR determined by center-point loading,
sometimes by as much as 15%.
WHY Test Flexural Strength?
• Designers of pavements use a theory based on flexural strength. Therefore,
laboratory mix design based on flexural strength tests may be required, or a
cementitious material content may be selected from past experience to obtain the
needed design MR. Some also use MR for field control and acceptance of
pavements. Very few use flexural testing for structural concrete. Agencies not
using flexural strength for field control generally find the use of compressive
strength convenient and reliable to judge the quality of the concrete as delivered.

38
• Designers of pavements use a theory based on flexural strength. Therefore,
laboratory mix design based on flexural strength tests may be required, or a
cementitious material content may be selected from past experience to obtain the
needed design MR. Some also use MR for field control and acceptance of
pavements. Very few use flexural testing for structural concrete. Agencies not
using flexural strength for field control generally find the use of compressive
strength convenient and reliable to judge the quality of the concrete as delivered.
11.4 Permeability Test on Concrete
• The permeability of concrete to liquids, ions and gases is of direct relevance to
both durable concrete and to leak-resistant concrete for containment. A simple
permeability test could form part of the quality assurance (QA) scheme for any
precast concrete element, to check on the variability of standard units.
• To establish values for the permeability of site concrete, measurements can be
made either in situ on site, or in the laboratory on samples removed from site.
Many of the tests described in the Report do not measure permeability directly,
but produce a permeability index which is related closely to the method of
measurement.
• In general the test method used should be selected as appropriate for the
permeation mechanism relevant to the performance requirements of the concrete
being studied. The Report includes a number of case histories where permeability
results are available from site cast concrete.

39
11.5 Freeze / Thaw Resistance
• Concrete is one of the most widely used construction materials for several
structures such as buildings, homes, dams, roads, and bridges.
• Concrete performance is generally based on the mix design, material properties in
the mixture, curing conditions, and environmental conditions during the service
life of the structure.
• The most important durability problem of concrete under cold climate is freeze-
thaw effect. In particular, dams, bridge deck surfaces, and concrete road
pavements with wide open surfaces are under risk of frost at cold climates.
• This condition can cause the freezing of water inside the capillary pore structure
of concrete with 9% of volume expansion. Cracking and spalling of concrete are
the most common damage caused by expansion of the cement paste matrix under
the effect of freeze-thaw cycles.
11.6 Resistance to Abrasion
• Abrasion is the process of scuffing, scratching, wearing down, marring, or
rubbing away. It can be intentionally imposed in a controlled process using an
abrasive.
• Abrasion can be an undesirable effect of exposure to normal use or exposure to
the elements.

40
• The resistance of materials and structures to abrasion can be measured by a
variety of test methods. These often use a specified abrasive or other controlled
means of abrasion. Under the conditions of the test, the results can be reported or
can be compared items subjected to similar tests.
12. Tests on fresh concrete
12.1 Unit Weight
Unit weight measures the weight of a known volume of the fresh concrete.
13. Slump
Slump is a measure of consistency, or relative ability of the concrete to flow. If the
concrete can’t flow because the consistency or slump is too low, there are potential
problems with proper consolidation. If the concrete won’t stop flowing because the slump
is too high, there are potential problems with mortar loss through the formwork,
excessive formwork pressure, finishing delays and segregation.
14. Air content
Air content measure the total air content in a sample of fresh concrete, but does not
indicate what the final in-place air content will be, because a certain amount of air is lost
in transportation Consolidating, placement and finishing. Three field tests are widely

41
specified: the pressure meter and volumetric method are ASTM standards and the Chace
Indicator is an AASHTO procedure.
Of these many tests for concrete quality, in practice well over 90% of all routine tests on
concrete are concentrated on compression tests and slump tests. It is also desirable to
conduct fresh concrete temperature and hardened concrete density determination tests.
The reasons for the selection of compressive strength test and slump test in practice for
quality control testing of concrete are:
1. All or most other properties of concrete are related to its compressive strength.
2. Compressive strength test is the easiest, most economical or most accurately
determinable test.
3. Compressive strength testing is the best means available to determine the
variability of concrete.
4. Slump tests also checks for variation of construction materials in mix, mainly
water-cement ratio.
5. Slump test is easy and fast to determine quality of concrete before placement based
on recommended slump values for the type of construction.
6. Slump test is most economical because it is done at site and does not require any
laboratory or expensive testing machine.

42
7. Slump tests is done before the placement of concrete, so the quality of control is
high as rejected mix can be discarded before pouring into the structural member. So,
dismantling or repair of defective concrete members can be avoided.

43
Test in Concrete
Report Paper
Lyceum of the Philippines University – Cavite
Callasan, Laurence
Gonzales, Wally
Magnayi, Jhubelle Vernadette
Miranda, Joana Ericka
Pili, Nicole Alexis
Rebollos, Justine Daphne
September 29, 2017

44
Concrete Test
Concrete testing is very important factor to consider in knowing whether the used
concrete in a structure meets the standards. It is used to know the capability of the
concrete to resist load and it helps to know the concrete’s durability, strength, workability
and hardness. Cracks and voids play a very important warning for a structure especially
when natural phenomena occur in the same spot of a building or infrastructure that has
indication of potential problem. For preparing concrete test of specimen, quality and
properties of each materials or ingredients must be considered. The perfect temperature,
place, and proportioning of exact aggregates that is appropriate to its grade and additives
is significant to produce a good concrete mixture.
Fresh concrete is described as the phase from time of mixing to end of time concrete
surfaced finish. For the process of concrete operation, here are the things involved in this
cycle: Batching, which is the process of measuring the ingredients, and then mixing it. It
is appropriate to cover all the aggregates by concrete paste. Transporting is the transfer
the concrete from mixing plant to construction site. Placing and compacting are the most
important things for this operation because it helps to ensure the requirement of strength,
impermeability and durability of hardened concrete in an actual structure.
There are two tests for fresh concrete: the slump test and the air-content test. The slump
test that determines the consistency of the mixture. Performing this type of test, it is

45
expected to either get a collapse, shear or true slump. The true slump is the only one that
can be used in slump testing. The air-content test, the most common method used for this
is by using pressure. This implies the Boyle’s law for the pressure-volume. To carry the
voids or air inside the equipment, compacting the concrete mix by rod or striking it with a
mallet will help. Under the air-content test is the gravimetric method that uses balance
and the Volumetric method.
For hardened concrete, permeability and durability, shrinkage and creep deformation, and
response to temperature variations are considered as properties for testing. There are
three testing involved in hard concrete. First is the compression test, as the compressive
strength is the most important thing to consider.
For this test, there are two types of concrete specimen: the cube which has a cubical mold
of 15cm x 15cm x 15cm and the cylinder, which has a 150mm diameter and 300mm
height.
To obtain the measure of the tensile strength, split-cylindrical test is done. Flexural test
on the other hand, is used to determine the flexural modulus of the concrete. These three
tests provide different properties but is tested in one machine --- the universal testing
machine.
To determine the properties of concrete used in an actual structure, two types of tests are
done on the acquired specimens:

46
The first is core boring. Cores are cut using a drill with a hollow barrel tipped with
industrial diamonds. In this manner, a cylindrical specimen is obtained usually with its
ends being uneven, parallel and square and sometimes with embedded pieces of
reinforcement. The cylinder specimen is capped to make the ends even and provide the
cylinder a smooth surface. This is done before the actual testing in a compression
machine. The core samples are used for the strength and density determination, depth of
carbonation of concrete, chemical analysis, water and gas permeability, petrographic
analysis (essential tool for evaluating every kind of concrete issue, such as durability, low
strength, freeze-thaw, surface distress, cracking, alkali-aggregate reactions, chemical
attack, and fire damage).
Guidelines must be followed in taking a core sample from an already built structure. In
testing, virgin samples must be used so that there will be no influence from prior tests. In
determining the strength, the core must have a minimum diameter of greater of three
times the maximum nominal size of the coarse aggregate. In strength tests, the cores must
have a length of at least twice their diameter. It is a necessary factor that the reinforcing
steel should not be included in a core sample. And lastly, at least three cores must be
taken at each location for a more reliable data.
The other test is the Rebound Hammer test. It starts with calibration of the rebound
hammer. For this, the rebound hammer is tested against the test anvil made of steel
having Brinell hardness number of about 5000 N/mm2.

47
References:
Civil Engineering Training, n. d. Retrieved from:
http://www.aboutcivil.org/concrete-slump-test.html
Integrated Publishing, n. d. Retrieved from:
http://engineeringtraining.tpub.com/14069/css/Preparation-Of-Concrete-Specimens-
551.htm (preparation)
http://engineeringtraining.tpub.com/14069/css/Preparation-Of-Concrete-Specimens-
551.htm (preparation)
The Constructor, n. d. Retrieved from:
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/compressive-strength-concrete-cube-test/1561/
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/compressive-strength-test-on-concrete-
cylinders/2234/ (compression test for cylinder)
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/splitting-tensile-strength-test-on-concrete-
cylenders/2116/ (split cylinder test)
https://theconstructor.org/concrete/procedure-for-rebound-hammer-test-on-
concrete/9106/ (rebound hammer test)

48
SOIL
Report paper
Culanding, Ryan Christian G.
Fello, Mark Jeremie R.
Insigne, James Chester S.
Legaspi, Mark Gerald P.
Pasicolan, Rigil Kenn B.
October 05, 2017

49
Soil
 The upper layer of the earth’s surface is called soil. It is important for the growth
of plants
 Soil is formed by breaking up of rocks into tiny pieces.
 Different places have a different size of soil.
 Soil differs in the size of the grains and different constituent present.
 Most of the soil contain; sand particles, clay, moisture, humus
“Soil is an accumulation of loose material from mechanical and chemical weathering of
rocks (also relocated) and containing a large admixture of various organic substances on
the Earth's surface.“
What percent of earth is soil?
 This small bit of peeling (3% of the apple) represents the percentage of our planet
earth that is soil of which humans depend upon for food production and other
uses. So, like water and air, soil is a very important and limited natural resource.
Soil Functions
 Natural – ecosystem
- Living space – production
- Circulation of substances
- Exchange of thermal energy of the earth system – air
- Infiltration, accumulation, retention and transport of water

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 Utility
- Means of production
- Economic and building utilization
- Source of raw materials
Layers of Soil
• O ( Humus or Organic ) – Partially decomposed organic matter
• A ( Top soil/humus horizon ) – Humus, living creature
• E ( eluviated horizon ) – Zone of leaching, materials move downward
• B ( Sub Soil/Mineral horizon ) – Iron, Aluminum, Humus compounds are
accumulated and clay leached down
• C ( Parent Material/pegogenic substrate ) – Partially break down of organic
materials
• R ( Bedrock )
Texture:
Texture refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes such as sand, silt
and clay in the soil. The proportions of the separates in classes commonly used in
describing soils
Structure:
The term texture is used in reference to the size of individual soil particles but when the
arrangement of the particles is considered the term structure is used. Structure refers to
the aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into compound particles or

51
cluster of primary particles which are seperated by the adjoining aggregates by surfaces
of weakness. Structure modifies the effect of texture in regard to moisture and air
relationships, availability of nutrients, action of microorganisms and root growth.
Consistence:
is the resistance of a soil to deformation or rupture and is determined by the cohesive and
adhesive properties of the soil mass. This is a term used to designate the manifestation of
the cohesive and adhesive properties of soil at various moisture contents. A knowledge of
the consistence of the soil is important in tillage operations, traffic and pond
constructions. Consistence gives also an indication of the soil texture.
Partiole density
of soil is the mass per unit volume of soil particles (soil solid phase) - expressed in g/c.c.
Most soils have particle density of about 2.6 g/cc. Presence of organic matter decrease the
density and iron compounds increase the density.
Bulk density
of soil is the mass of soil per unit volume of soil (volume includes both soil and pores) -
expressed in g/c.c.
Atterberg limits:
From the previous section it could be noted that consistence of soils changes with the
amount of moisture in the soil. Atterberg limits correspond to the moisture content at
which a soil sample changes it's consistence from one state to the other. Liquid limit (LL)
and plastic limit (PL) are two important states of consistence. Liquid limit is the
percentage moisture content at which a soil changes with decreasing wetness from the
liquid to the plastic consistence or with increasing wetness from the plastic to the liquid
consistence, whereas the plastic limit is the percentage moisture content at which a soil
changes with decreasing wetness from the plastic to the semi-solid consistence or from
the semi-solid to the plastic consistence.
Soil colour:
Soil colour gives an indication of the various processes going-on in the soil as well as the
type of minerals in the soil. For example the red colour in the soil is due to the abundance
of iron oxide under oxidised conditions (well-drainage) in the soil; dark colour is
generally due to the accumulation of highly decayed organic matter; yellow colour is due
to hydrated iron oxides and hydroxide; black nodules are due to manganese oxides;
mottling and gleying are associated with poor drainage and/or high water table.

52
Why does soil erode?
- Water erosion
- Rainfall and runoff
- Slope gradient and length
- Wind erosion
- Earthquake
Soil erosion prevention (four most common used)
• Vegetation
• Geotextiles
• Mulch
• Retaining walls
Types of soil
 Silt soil - fine sand, clay, or other material carried by running water and deposited
as a sediment, especially in a channel or harbor.
 Gravel - rock and sand contaminated with organic material
 Sandy soil - drain quickly after rain or watering, and are easy to cultivate and
work. They warm up more quickly in spring than clay soils.

53
 Clayey soil – very sticky. It contains fine grains which stick together. There is no
space and no air between particles. Used for making pots
 Loamy soil – contains both sand,clay and silt. It can hold air and water.
 Chalky soil - lime-rich soils may be light or heavy but are largely made up of
calcium carbonate and are very alkaline (they have a pH of 7.1-8.0)
 Organic soil - mainly composed of decomposing organic matters such as leaves,
plants and vegetable matter.
SOIL SOURCE
 The soil is collected after depths of 60cm only as the top layer is full of organic
matter. Soils to be used should be devoid of organic matter.
SOIL FIELD TEST
1. Color test
- Deep yellow, orange and red, ranging to deep browns indicate iron
content which is good as building mud
- Greyish or dull brown, ranging to dirty white indicates more clay
- Dull brown with slightly greenish color indicates organic soil.
2. Touch and smell
- Procedure: Rub small quantity of dry soil on palm to feel its texture.
- Soil that feels course when dry but sticky when wet contains lumps of
clay.
- Soil that feels course when dry but gritty when wet contains sand.

54
- Soil that feels course when dry but little gritty when wet contains silt.
3. Biscuit test
Procudure
- Make a smooth paste from the soil removing all gravels
- Mold it into a biscuit of 3cm diameter and 1cm height
- Leave it to dry and observe for shrinkages or cracks
- Break the biscuit to note how hard it is
Interpretation
- If biscuit cracks or leaves gap from the mold then it contains more
clay.
- If it is very hard to break then soil contains more clay.
- If it breaks easily and can be crumpled between finger then it has good
sand-clay proportion.
- If it breaks and reduce to powder then the soil has more sand or silt.
4. Hand wash test
Procedure
- Play with wet soil till your hands get thoroughly dirty.
- Wash your hands to see how difficult it is to clean.
Interpretaion
- If hands get cleaned quickly, then soil contains more sand.

55
- If it takes little time to clean and feels like flour then soil contains
more silt.
- If it feels soapy or slippery and takes time to clean then soil has more
clay.
5. Adhesion test
Procedure
- Make ball out of wet soil.
- Pierce a knife into it and remove.
- Observe the knife after removing.
Interpretation
- If little soil sticks on the knife then it has more silt.
- If lot of soil sticks on the knife then it has more clay.
- If the knife is clean after removal then the soil has more sand.
6. Sieve test
Procedure
- Pass soil from series of standard sieves set on top of on another with
finest sieve at bottom.
- Observe the soil collected in each sieve.
Interpretation
- Silt will be collected in lowermost sieve.
- Gravels will be collected on top.

56
- Sand and lumps of clay will be collected in intermediate sieves.
7. Sedimentation test
Procedure
- Take a transparent cylindrical bottle or jar of 1Liter
- Fill it with ¼ soil and ¾ water.
- Shake well and allow it to settle for 30mins.
Interpretation
- Coarse gravels will be settled at bottom, followed by sand, silt and
clay on top.
- Measuring the layers will give us the approximate proportions of each
content.
SOIL-WALL BUILDING TECHNIQUES
 Cob - building material consisting of clay, sand, straw, water and earth. Cob is
fireproof resistant to seismic activity and inexpensive. Is good for curved or round
walls.
 Pise or Rammed Earth - Consists of earth, chalk, lime, and gravel. Are simple to
construct, incombustible, thermally massive, strong, strong, and durable.
Ramming is an attempt to increase the strength of the wall.
 Adobe - Made from sand, clay, water, and some kind of fibrous or organic
material such as straw or dung(Straw is useful in binding the bring together to
allow them to dry evenly) which is then shaped into bricks using frames.

57
 Compressed Earth Block ( CEB ) - Formed in mechanical press that forms an
appropriate mix of dirt, non-expansive clay, and an aggregate into a compressed
block.
 Wattle and daub - An old and common method of building mud structures.
Bamboo and cane frame the structure that supports the roof.
SOURCES
https://is.mendelu.cz/eknihovna/opory/zobraz_cast.pl?cast=56597
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/geopedia/Soil
https://soilsmatter.wordpress.com/2015/05/01/what-type-of-soil-is-good-for-a-
foundation-for-buildings-or-houses/
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/engineer/facts/12-053.htm#6

58
GLASS & RUBBER
Report Paper
AYES, GLYDELINE
DELA CRUZ, CHARMAINE ERICKA
MADDATU, NEIL DOMINIC
PIÑON, JADE CLIFFRICH
REYES, ARCHIE
ENGR. ANJERICK TOPACIO
October 12, 2017

59
“GLASS”
WHAT IS GLASS?
A non-crystalline amorphous solid that is often transparent and has widespread
practical, technological, and decorative usage in, for example, window panes, tableware,
and optoelectronics.
HISTORY OF GLASS
People had used naturally occurring glass, especially Obsidian (the volcanic
glass) before they learned how to make glass. Obsidian was used for production of
knives, arrowheads, jewelry and money.
The ancient Roman historian Pliny suggested that Phoenician merchants had
made the first glass in the region of Syria around 5000 BC.
But according to the archaeological evidence, the first man made glass was in
Eastern Mesopotamia and Egypt around 3500BC.
The term glass was developed in the late Roman Empire. It originated as Late-
Latin term 'Glesum' which means lustrous and transparent material.

60
CONSTITUENTS OF GLASS
Typical glass contains Formers, Fluxes, and Stabilizers.
 Formers form the base material of any glass. It forms the major percentage in any
glass-forming mixture. Silica (Silicon Dioxide) in the form of sand is the most
commonly used former in the glass industry.
 Fluxes lower the temperature at which the formers will melt. Soda (Sodium
Carbonate) and Potash (Potassium Carbonate), both alkalis, are common fluxes.
 Stabilizers make the glass strong and water resistant. Limestone (Calcium
Carbonate) is a stabilizer. Without a stabilizer, water and humidity attack and
dissolve glass.
 Others; Lead Oxide - It gives color to the glass.
Cullet - Waste glass that is added as a raw material.
PROPERTIES OF GLASS
The properties of glass vary with composition, here are some general statements that can
be made about glass:
- Glasses have low ductility; they are very brittle.
- Glasses have a tensile strength in the range of 4 to 10 ksi.
- Theoretical compressive strength of glass, based on atomic bond strength
calculations is approximately 3,000 ksi.
- Glasses have low thermal conductivity compared to metals.
- Glass has a density of 158 PCF, slightly less that of aluminum.

61
CLASSIFICATION OF GLASS (According to Composition)
1. Soda Lime Glass
- It is obtained from the fusion of silica, lime, soda and alumina.
- It is the most prevalent type of glass.
- It accounts for 90% of manufactured glass.
- It is used for glazing doors, windows and making ordinary glass wares.
2. Lead Glass
- It is obtained from the fusion of silica, lead and potash.
- This glass is also termed as Flint glass.
- Lead glass has highly shining appearance.
- Cut glass work, electric bulbs and optical glass are made from it.
3. Boro-Silicate Glass
- It is obtained from the fusion of silica, borax, lime, and feldspar.
- This glass withstands high temperature.
- Laboratory equipment and kitchen utensils are made out of it.

62
FORMS OF GLASS
1. Float Glass - is the most common type of glass. This is produced by annealing the
molten glass and is clear and flat. Its modulus of rupture is 5000-6000 psi.
2. Sheet Glass - is most extensively used in engineering works. It is commonly used
for windows in thicknesses of 3/32″ (single strength, or “SS”) and 1/8″ (double
strength, or “DS”).
3. Plate Glass
- It is made in thickness varying from 3mm to 32 mm and sizes up to 275cm x
90cmm.
- It is stronger and more transparent than the sheet glass.
- It has been heat-treated during forming, producing a brilliant surface that is
ground and polished when cooled.
4. Bent Glass - is produced by heating annealed glass to the point where it softens so it
can be pressed over a form.
5. Safety Glass - it was developed to overcome the hazards of sheet glass in large,
exposed, or public areas. Three types of safety glass are available;

63
Tempered Glass
- Glass plate is heated and then suddenly cooled to tamper it.
- Tempered glass is much stronger than ordinary sheet glass.
- Used for glazing entrance doors, table tops, shelves, counters etc.
Laminated Glass / Shatterproof Glass
- Two or more glass plates with intervening layers of transparent plastics are
bound under effect of heat and pressure.
- This type of glass is not broken into pieces when it breaks.
- Ensures safety at places where glass is liable to shatter.
Wired Glass
- It is a rough cast translucent (semi transparent) glass with special steel wire mesh
of 0.46 to 0.56 mm dia.
- Wire mesh completely embedded between the layers of glass during manufacture
process.
- Fire resistant and safe during breakage.
6. Insulating Glass / Double Glazed Units - are two layers of glass separated by 6mm
to 12mm of air space are sealed to provide heat insulation.

64
7. Glass Block - hollow glass wall blocks are manufactured as two separate halves and,
while the glass is still molten, the two pieces are pressed together and annealed. The
resulting glass blocks will have a partial vacuum at the hollow center. Glass bricks
provide visual obscuration while admitting light.
8. Stained Glass
- By adding oxides of metals to metal glass the finish product gets colored.
- Used for decoration works in building construction.
9. Glass Wool - a thermal insulation that consists of intertwined and flexible glass
fibers, which causes it to "package" air. Can be used as filler or insulators in
buildings, also for soundproofing.
GLASS MANUFACTURING PROCESS
The glass – float glass as we know - is manufactured by the PPG process. This
process was invented by Sir Alistair Pilkington in 1952 and is the most popular and
widely used process in manufacturing architectural glass in the world today.

65
“RUBBER”
WHAT IS RUBBER?
The engineering definition of a rubber material is “any material that can stretch to
at least 100% of its original length, and return to its original shape without permanent
deformation”. Although the term “rubber” originated from true natural rubber derived
from trees, today the term is used to refer to a host of different engineering materials,
most of which are synthetic, and all of which exhibit the hallmark flexibility of natural
rubber.
HISTORY OF RUBBER
The first use of rubber was by the indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica. The
earliest archeological evidence of the use of natural latex from the Hevea tree comes the
Olmec culture, in which rubber was first used for making balls for the Mesoamerican
ballgame.

66
Rubber was later used by the Maya and Aztec cultures - in addition to making
balls Aztecs used rubber for other purposes such as making containers and to make
textiles waterproof by impregnating them with the latex sap.
USES OF RUBBER
- About 70% of the total world production of rubber is consumed by automobile tire
industry
- Rubber is used as a flooring material.
- Synthetic rubber is used for packing oil-working machinery, hose pipes for carrying
petrol.
- Rubber bearing pads are used under girders for bridges
- Rubber is also used for expansion joints
- Rubber roofing typically refers to a specific type of roofing materials that are made
of ethylene propylene diene monomers (EPDM rubber).
2 KINDS OF RUBBER
Rubber is essentially an elastic material and is either
- Natural Rubber
- Synthetic Rubber

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NATURAL RUBBER
It is present as an emulsion in the latex of rubber trees that mostly grow in hot,
moist climate like Malaysia, Venezuela, and Mexico. Latex is milky fluid oozing
(dropping) from vertical grooves having an upward inclination cut around the trunk of the
rubber tree. Pots are tied to the trunk of the trees for collecting latex. Crude rubber is
obtained by coagulation of latex with alcohol, alum or lime.
Crude rubber becomes hard and brittle in winter and soft in summer, therefore
some compounds are added to modify its properties.
1. 1. Compounding Rubber
Crude rubber is mixed with filler. There are number of fillers in common
use each imparting specific properties. Some of which are lamp black, oxides of
iron, slaked lime, sulphur. Sulphur is the most common, with which rubber forms
a mass which is hard, tough and resistant to water and ordinary changes of
temperature. The process of mixing rubber with sulphur is called as Vulcanizing.
1. 2. Reclaiming Rubber
Rubber from old, worn out articles can be reclaimed either by mechanical
or chemical process. Mechanical, the grinding of the articles into fine particles,
removing any trace of iron with the help of electromagnets. Chemical, Ground
articles are dissolved either in an acid or alkali to loosen and remove other
materials and the rest of the process is same as above.
SYNTHETIC RUBBER

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Recently rubber is produced on a large scale artificially from acetylene gas under trade
names of:
Neoprene - is used as a load bearing base, usually between two prefabricated reinforced
concrete elements or steel plates as well to evenly guide force from one element to
another
Chloroprene - his colorless liquid is the monomer for the production of the polymer
polychloroprene, a type of synthetic rubber. Polychloroprene is better known as
Neoprene
Butyl - is used for damp proofing, rubber roof repair and for maintenance of roof
membranes (especially around the edges).
Artificial rubbers possess certain properties that are hard to be achieved with
natural rubber such as resistance to acids particularly to grease, kerosene and petroleum.
NATURAL RUBBER OUTPUT & CONSUMPTION

69

70
PLASTIC, GEOSYNTHETIC AND FIBER
A Research Paper
BASCO, EMMELIE JOY
DEL ROSARIO, ALYSSA YASMIN
DESCA, JODIE ANNE
GRAVILLO, KENT NOEL
MOJICA, RODALYN SHAIRA
SABANGAN, JEZIEL
UGALDE, RICHARD
ENGR. ANJERICK TOPACIO
October 12, 2017

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PLASTIC
A synthetic material made from a wide range of organic polymers such as
polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc., that can be molded into shape while soft and then set into
a rigid or slightly elastic form.
The word plastic derives from the Greek word plastikos meaning "capable of
being shaped or molded".
HISTORY
The world's first fully synthetic plastic was bakelite, invented in New York in
1907 by Leo Baekeland, who coined the term 'plastics'. Many chemists have contributed
to the materials science of plastics, including Nobel Laureate Hermann Staudinger
who has been called "the father of polymer chemistry" and Herman Mark, known as
"the father of polymer physics".
Plastic first appeared by the hands of English inventor Alexander Parks in 1850.
His work with rubber enabled him to identify basic building blocks of modern plastic,
which were combined into compound he named Parkesine.

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COMPOSITION OF PLASTIC
Organic Polymer = may include: chalk, starch, ivory dust, wood floor, zinc oxide
Carbon
Dioxide
Nitrogen
Sulfur
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PLASTIC
There are many ways classifying plastic. They can be classified considering various
aspects, as according to their:
STRUCTURE
 Homogeneous Plastics
This variety of plastic contains carbon chain, the plastic of this group are composed
only of carbon atoms and they exhibit homogeneous structure.
 Heterogeneous Plastics
This variety of plastic is composed of the chain containing carbon and oxygen, the
nitrogen and other elements and they exhibit heterogeneous structure.

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PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTY
 Rigid Plastic
These plastics have a high modulus of elasticity and they retain their shape under
exterior stresses applied at normal or moderately increased temperatures.
 Semi-rigid Plastic
These plastics have a medium modulus of elasticity and the elongation under
pressure completely disappears, when pressure is removed.
 Soft Plastic
These plastics have a low modulus of elasticity and the elongation under pressure
disappears slowly, when pressure is removed. Available in a large range of colors, sizes
and particularly shapes.
 Elastomers
These plastics are soft and elastic materials with a low modulus of elasticity. They
deform considerably under load at room temperature and return to their original shape,
when the load is released. The extensions can range up to ten times their original
dimensions.

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BEHAVIOUR WITH RESPECT TO HEATING
 Thermoplastics
Thermo-plastic or non-convertible group is the general term applied to the plastics
which becomes soft when heated and hard when cooled. It is a polymer that turns into a
liquid when heated and freezes into a very glassy state when cooled sufficiently. Then
heated and freezes into a very glassy state when cooled sufficiently. It can be heated
several times as required and moulded into any shapes and can be recycle.
Applications
 High-density Polyethylene - HDPE is used for Buckets, Basins, Bottles,
Containers and is extensively used in both Blow molding & Injection molding
process.
• Low-density Polyethylene - Most LDPE application is film based. Industry uses
also include wire & cables’ coating, injection & Blow molding is used for plastic
bags molding is used for plastic bags, Bottles.
• Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC) - PVC is used for Gutters, Drain Pipes, Window/Door
Frames & Shutters, Plumbing Fixtures, Furniture, etc. It is often used in the
Extrusion Process (larger length possible).
• Polystyrene - It is used extensively in the Packaging Industry. It is also widely use
in Insulate Buildings, in Refrigerators, etc.

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• Polypropylene - It is used extensively in the Packaging Industry. It is also widely
use in Insulate Buildings, in Refrigerators, etc,
• Acrylo-nitrile (Nylon) – a tough, lightweight, elastic synthetic polymer with a
protein like chemical structure, able to be produced as filaments, sheets or molded
objects.
• ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene) - an opaque thermoplastic polymer
material made from the monomers Acrylonitrile, Butadiene and Styrene. Strong
and durable even at low temperatures, it offers good resistance to heat and
chemicals and is easy to process.
• Poly Vinyl Acetate (PVA) - commonly referred to as wood glue, white
glue, carpenter's glue, school glue) is an aliphatic rubbery synthetic polymer.
• Acrylic (Perspex) - Acrylic is used for Bath’s Fixtures & Sanitary wares,
Lighting, Display Stands.
• Elastomers - Elastomers are plastics with elastic properties, most are capable of
considerable deformation and will return to their original shape. Uses range from
waterproof seals to foam padding.
 Thermosetting Plastics
Thermo-setting or heat convertible group is the general term applied to the
plastics which become rigid when moulded at suitable pressure and temperature.

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Thermoset materials are usually liquid or malleable prior to curing and designed to be
molded in their final form. It is mainly used in engineering applications because it is
durable, strong and hard.
Applications
• Epoxy Resin - It is generally used as a waterproof adhesive as a liquid for casting.
• Polyester Resin - Wall panels fabricated from polyester resins reinforced with
fiberglass called fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP) typically used in restaurants,
kitchens, restrooms and other areas that require washable low-maintenance walls.
• Glass Reinforced Plastic - It is a composite material made from Resin and Glass
Fiber Sheet. This combination produces a lightweight yet extremely strong
material and used everywhere from Speed boat hulls to Aircrafts, Roofing sheets,
etc.
• Carbon Fibre Plastic - a very strong, light and expensive composite material
or fiber-reinforced plastic. Similar to glass-reinforced plastic.
• Melamine Formaldehyde - It is commonly known as Formica is a composite
material made from resin and layers of paper, commonly used for worktops.

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PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC
Plastics are nothing but synthetic organic high polymers. It is important to know
the general outstanding properties of plastics to make best use of this an engineering
material. It should also be noted that each plastic material has its own peculiar properties
to suit the various uses. Hence the success of plastic as an engineering material for a
particular purpose will depend upon the correct choice of the variety.
 STRENGTH
The plastics are sufficiently strong and can be used for load bearing structural
members. The strength of plastics can further be increased by reinforcing them with
various fibrous materials.
Plastic as structural material has not gained much popularity because of the
following resins.
• High cost of construction
• High temperature susceptibility
• Poor stiffness
• Being subjected to creep under constant load

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 WEATHER RESISTANCE
The plastics, prepared from phenolic resins, are only good in resisting weather
effects. Certain plastics are seriously affected by ultraviolet light.
 FIRE RESISTANCE
Plastics, being organic in nature, are combustible. But the resistance to fire
temperature depends upon the plastic structure.
• Cellulose acetate plastics burn slowly.
• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics are non-inflammable.
• Phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde plastics are used as fire proofing
materials.
 DURABILITY
Plastics generally possess sufficient durability, provided they offer sufficient
surface hardness. Thermoplastic varieties are found to be attacked by termites and
rodents.
 DIMENSIONAL STABILITY
Plastics easily maintain its shape and do not go under plastic deformations.

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 CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
Plastics offer great resistance to moisture, chemicals and solvents. Many plastics
are found to possess excellent corrosion resistance. Plastics are used to convey chemicals.
 THERMAL RESISTANCE
The plastics have low thermal conductivity and therefore foamed or expanded
varieties of plastics are used as thermal insulators.
 WORKING CONDITIONS
All operations like drilling, sawing, punching, clamping, etc. are carried out easily
on plastics, just like wood.
 MOISTURE RESISTANCE
This property depends upon variety of plastics used, for example, cellulose
plastics are considerably affected by the presence of moisture, whereas polyvinyl chloride
plastics offer high resistance to moisture.
 DUCTILITY
Plastics, generally, have low ductility and hence plastic structural members may
fail without prior warning.

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USES OF PLASTIC IN DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY
 FLOORING
Plastic materials like polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene are used to make
flooring less prone to wear and tear. It also decreases the sound pollution level and can be
cleaned easily.
 ROOFING
To protect the outer surface of the roof from damage, two layers of different
plastic materials are required. The upper part is made of colored thermoplastic olefin or
vinyl while the lower part consists of polyurethane foam which consumes less energy and
keeps the interior of a house cooler.
 INSULATION
Polyurethane spray is frequently used for insulation when constructing green or
low energy buildings. Rigid polyurethane foam is known for its high thermal resistance
which promotes temperature consistency. Polyurethane foam is also popular because it is
lightweight, chemical resistant, and flame retardant. Due to its closed cell nature,
polyurethane insulation performs as an air barrier, resulting in significant energy savings.

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 WALL
A structural insulated panel (SIP) is a sandwich of expanded polystyrene amidst
two slim layers of oriented strand board. This type of pre-fab, composite wall board can
be transferred to the work place easily for a particular task and provide good support to
columns and other associated essentials during renovation.
 PIPES
Commonly made up of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), CPVC, acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene (ABS) or polyethylene, plastic pipes are flexible and very light in weight, making
them easy to install. All of these plastic materials are also highly chemical and water
resistant, making them suitable for many extreme environments.
 WINDOWS
Polycarbonate is used to manufacture building windows. This plastic material is
strong, clear and very light in weight. Polycarbonate windows are considered more
burglar-proof than regular glass windows. Two plastics materials, vinyl and fiberglass,
are used commonly in the production of window frames. Fiberglass is extremely strong
while vinyl is quite durable and also inexpensive.

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 DOORS
Some construction projects use doors made from a stiff polyurethane foam core
with a fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) coating. The sandwich structure of these doors
makes them incredibly strong.
ADVANTAGES OF PLASTIC
1. Durability
Many plastic materials are as strong as if not stronger than certain metals. Plastic
hardware is also frequently corrosion resistant, allowing it to survive outside in inclement
weather indefinitely.
2. Cost Effectiveness
As is the case in most industries these days, cost is an important factor in any
construction project. Many plastic materials are very economical.
3. Recycling
Unlike metals, some plastics can be recycled without losing any chemical
properties and hence can be used over and over again.
4. Energy Saving
Plastic consumes less heat than metal. The insulating effects of some plastics can
also decrease sound pollution level.

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5. Safety
Plastic materials are typically much lighter than metals. The lightness of the
material makes it easier to carry and lift into place.
6. Easy to install
A while back we posted about an FRP bridge that was installed in just a few days.
The lightweight of plastic materials allows for quick and easy installation.
DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTIC
1. Thermoplastics (melt, deform, vaporize – burns very fast
2. Thermosets (decomposes loose strength under heat but will not melt, only burns
with extreme temps)
Fires involving plastics:
• Burn fast
• Very intense heat
• Dense black smoke
• Extremely toxic

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• UV light will weaken certain plastics and produce a chalky faded appearance on
the exposed surface. One disadvantage of plastics materials is their tendency to
• One disadvantage of plastics materials is their tendency to soften at elevated
temperatures. This has restricted their use as main structural elements and also in
hot water systems.
• Cold can cause some plastics to become brittle and fracture under pressure.
Plastics are said to be the most versatile materials on earth. Almost all of the
products we use in our daily lives contain almost all of the products we use in our daily
lives contain plastics. This display chronicles some of the key discoveries, inventions,
and people that have helped make the plastics. The use of plastics materials in buildings
are both for industry what it is today. construction and decoration, continues to increase,
particularly as architects, designers and builders appreciate their advantages in
construction terms and in the provision of their advantages in construction terms and in
the provision of so called ‘maintenance free’ structures. Today, plastics materials are so
widely used in the building industry that it materials are so widely used in the building
industry that it would be difficult to envisage the construction of any building without
them. Many products are available which meet the various building and fire regulations.

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GEOSYNTHETICS
Geosynthetics are human-made materials made from various types of polymers
used to enhance, augment and make possible cost effective environmental, transportation
and geotechnical engineering construction projects.
Geosynthetics are man-made materials used to improve soil conditions. The word
is derived from: Geo = earth or soil + Synthetics = man-made
Geosynthetics are available in wide range of forms and materials, each to suit a
slightly different use. These products have a wide range of applications and are currently
used in many geotechnical, transportation, hydraulic and private development
applications including roads, airfields, embankments, retaining structures, reservoirs,
canals, dams, erosion control, sediment control, landfill, mining and agriculture.
CATEGORIES OF GEOSYNTHETICS
GEOTEXTILES - flexible, textile-like fabrics of controlled permeability used to
provide filtration, separation or reinforcement in soil, rock and waste materials.

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Characteristics:
 Porous and allow flow of water through it
 Most used geosynthetics
 Available in rolls of 5.6m wide and 50 – 150m long
Forms:
 Woven – uniform and regular interweaving of threads or yarns in
two directions and has regular visible construction pattern. It has
high tensile strength and relatively low strain.
 Non-Woven – formed by heat bonding or needle punching and has
no visible thread pattern. It has high strain and stretch considerably
under load.
GEOMEMBRANES - essentially impermeable polymeric sheets used as barriers
for liquid or solid waste containment. It has a thickness is 0.5mm to 3mm
approximately.
Applications:
 Land Filling Lining
 Canal Lining
 Tunnel Lining
GEOGRIDS - stiff or flexible polymer grid-like sheets with large apertures used
primarily as reinforcement of unstable soil and waste masses.

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Characteristics:
 Have low strain and stretch about 2% under load.
 Strength is more than other common geotextiles.
GEONETS - stiff polymer net-like sheets with in-plane openings used primarily
as a drainage material within landfills or in soil and rock masses. Also known as
geospacers.
 Two layers of strands are called bi-planar.
 Three layers of strands are called tri-planar.
Applications:
 Erosion Control – ribs acts as small check dams to slow down the
surface runoffs which decrease erosion potential of water.
 Drainage Layers – water flows along the geonets because of large
thickness
GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERS – woven fabric-like material incorporated
between geotextiles and geomembranes used as a barrier for liquid or solid waste
containment.
Characteristics:
 Applied below and above geomembrane layers in landfills.
 Self-repair mechanism and provide sub-base support.

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GEOFOAM – product created by a polymeric expansion process resulting in
“foam” consisting of many closed, but gas-filled cells.
Characteristics:
 Quick to install and can be installed during any type of weather.
 If geofoam comes in contact with a petroleum solvent, it will
immediately turn into a glue-type substance, making it unable to
support any load.
 Untreated geofoam is a fire hazard.
GEOCELLS – (also known as Cellular Confinement Systems) are three-
dimensional honeycombed cellular structures that form a confinement system
when infilled with compacted soil.
Characteristics:
 Similar to geotextiles or geogrids but have depth and allows water
to pass through it.
 Used in slopes with soft sub-grade.
 Used to control erosion in channels.
GEOCOMPOSITES - hybrid systems of any, or all, of the above geosynthetic
types which can function as specifically designed for use in soil, rock, waste and
liquid related problems

89
FUNCTIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS
SEPARARTION – is the placement of a flexible geosynthetic material, like a
porous geotextile between dissimilar materials so that the integrity and
functioning of both materials can remain intact or even be improved. Paved roads,
unpaved roads and railroad bases are common applications. In addition, for most
application of geofoam, separation is the major function.
REINFORCEMENT – is the synergistic improvement of a total system’s
strength created by the introduction of a geotextile, geogrid or geocell into a soil
or other disjointed and separated material. Applications of this function are in
mechanically stabilized or retained earth walls and steep soil slopes; they can be
combined with masonry facings to create vertical retaining walls.
FILTRATION – is the equilibrium soil-to-geotextile interaction that allows for
adequate liquid flow without soil loss, across the plane of the geotextile over a
service lifetime compatible with the application under consideration. Filtration
applications are highway underdrain systems, retaining wall drainage, landfill
leachate collection systems, as silt fences and curtains, and as flexible forms of
tubes and containers.

90
DRAINAGE – is the equilibrium soil-to-geosynthetic system that allows for
adequate liquid flow without soil loss, within the plane of the geosynthetic over a
service lifetime compatible with the application under consideration. Drainage
applications for these different geosynthetics are retaining walls, sport fields,
dams, canals, reservoirs, and capillary breaks.
CONTAINMENT – involves geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners or some
geocomposites which function as liquid or gas barriers.
ADVANTAGES OF GEOSYNTHETICS
• Cheaper in product cost, transport and installation
• Can be designed (predictability)
• Can be installed quickly with flexibility to construct during short period.
• Consistent over a wide range of soils
• Space saving
• Material quality control (more homogeneous than soil and aggregates)
• Better construction quality control at site
• Easy material deployment
• Less environmentally sensitive

91
• Improved performance and extended life
• Increased safety factor
• Compatible with field conditions
DISADVANTAGES OF GEOSYNTHETICS
• Long-term performance of the particular formulated resin being used to make the
geosynthetic must be assured by using proper additives including antioxidants,
ultraviolet screeners, and fillers.
• Clogging of geotextiles, geonets, geopipe and/or geocomposites is a challenging
design for certain soil types or unusual situations. For example, loess soils, fine
cohesionless silts, highly turbid liquids, and microorganism laden liquids (farm
runoff) are troublesome and generally require specialized testing evaluations.
• Handling, storage, and installation must be assured by careful quality control and
quality assurance about which much has been written.
• When comparing geosynthetic designs to alternative natural soil designs there are
usually cost advantages and invariably sustainability (lower CO2 footprint)
advantages.

92
FIBER
Fiber or fibre is a natural or synthetic substance that is significantly longer than it
is wide.Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest
engineering materials often incorporate fibers, for example carbon fiber and ultra-high-
molecular-weight polyethylene.
in textile production, basic unit of raw material having suitable length, pliability,
and strength for conversion into yarns and fabrics.Fibers can occur naturally or can be
produced artificially.
Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts
compared to natural fibers, but for clothing natural fibers can give some benefits, such as
comfort, over their synthetic counterparts.
NATURAL FIBER
any hair-like raw material directly obtainable from an animal, vegetable, or
mineral source and convertible into non-woven fabrics such as felt or paper or, after
spinning into yarns, into woven cloth. Although nature abounds in fibrous materials,
especially cellulosic types such as cotton, wood, grains, and straw, only a small number
can be used for textile products or other industrial purposes. Apart from economic

93
considerations, the usefulness of a fibre for commercial purposes is determined by such
properties as length, strength, pliability, elasticity, abrasion resistance, absorbency, and
various surface properties. Most textile fibers are slender, flexible, and relatively strong.
They are elastic in that they stretch when put under tension and then partially or
completely return to their original length when the tension is removed.
Classification according to their origin:
 VEGETABLE FIBER
- generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin: examples
include cotton, hemp, jute, flax, ramie, sisal, bagasse, and banana.
- Plant fibers are employed in the manufacture of paper and textile (cloth),
and dietary fiber is an important component of human nutrition.
 WOOD FIBER
- From tree sources.
- Forms include groundwood, lacebark, thermomechanical pulp (TMP), and
bleached or unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps. Kraft and sulfite (also called
sulphite) refer to the type of pulping process used to remove the lignin bonding
the original wood structure, thus freeing the fibers for use in paper
and engineered wood products such as fiberboard.

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 ANIMAL FIBER
- Consist largely of particular proteins.
- Instances are silkworm silk, spider silk, sinew, catgut, wool, sea silk and hair
such as cashmere wool, mohair and angora, fur such as sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox,
beaver, etc.
 MINERAL FIBER
- These include the asbestos group.Asbestos is the only naturally occurring
long mineral fiber.
- Six minerals have been classified as "asbestos" including chrysotile of
the serpentine class and those belonging
tothe amphibole class: amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, anthophyllite and actinolite.
Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite and palygorskite.
 BIOLOGICAL FIBER
- also known as fibrous proteins or protein filaments consist largely of
biologically relevant and biologically very important proteins, mutations or other
genetic defects can lead to severe diseases. Instances are collagenfamily of
proteins, tendon, muscle proteins like actin, cell proteins like microtubules and many
others, spider silk, sinew and hair etc.

95
MAN-MADE FIBER
Fibre whose chemical composition, structure, and properties are significantly
modified during the manufacturing process. Many of the polymers that constitute man-
made fibers are the same as or similar to compounds that make up plastics, rubbers,
adhesives, and surface coatings.
Man-made fibers are to be distinguished from natural fibers such as silk, cotton,
and wool.Natural fibers also consist of polymers (in this case, biologically produced
compounds such as cellulose and protein), but they emerge from
the textile manufacturing process in a relatively unaltered state.
Man-made fibers consists of:
 SYNTHETIC FIBER
- Synthetic come entirely from synthetic materials such as petrochemicals,
unlike those man-made fibers derived from such natural substances as cellulose or
protein.
 METALLIC FIBER
- Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or
silver and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel,
aluminum or iron.

96
 CARBON FIBER
- Carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonized
polymers like PAN, but the end product is almost pure carbon.
 SILICON CARBIDE FIBER
-Silicon carbide fibers, where the basic polymers are not hydrocarbons but
polymers, where about 50% of the carbon atoms are replaced by silicon
atoms, so-called poly-carbo-silanes. The pyrolysis yields an amorphous
silicon carbide, including mostly other elements like oxygen, titanium, or
aluminium, but with mechanical properties very similar to those of carbon
fibers.
 FIBERGLASS
- Fiberglass, made from specific glass, and optical fiber, made from purified
natural quartz, are also man-made fibers that come from natural raw
materials, silica fiber, made from sodium silicate (water glass) and basalt
fiber made from melted basalt.
 MINERAL FIBER
-Mineral fibers can be particularly strong because they are formed with a
low number of surface defects, asbestos is a common one.

97
 POLYMER FIBER
- Polymer fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on
synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than arising
from natural materials by a purely physical process.
 MICROFIBER
- Microfibers in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber. Microfibers in technical
fibers refer to ultra fine fibers (glass or meltblown thermoplastics) often used in
filtration.
Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls into two classes:
SHORT FIBER
also known as discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio (defined as the
ratio of fiber length to diameter) between 20 and 60.
LONG FIBER
also known as continuous fibers, the general aspect ratio is between 200 and 500.

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 REGENERATED FIBER
 SEMI-SYNTHETIC FIBER
- Made from raw materials with naturally long-chain polymer structure and
are only modified and partially degraded by chemical processes, in
contrast to completely synthetic fibers such as nylon (polyamide)
or dacron (polyester), which the chemist synthesizes from low-molecular
weight compounds by polymerization (chain-building) reactions. The
earliest semi-synthetic fiber is the cellulose regenerated fiber, rayon.Most
semi-synthetic fibers are cellulose regenerated fibers.
 CELLULOSE REGENERATED FIBER
- Subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from natural cellulose. The
cellulose comes from various sources: rayon from tree wood
fiber, Modalfrom beech trees, bamboo fiber, seacell from seaweed, etc. In
the production of these fibers, the cellulose is reduced to a fairly pure
form as a viscous mass and formed into fibers by extrusion through
spinnerets. Therefore, the manufacturing process leaves few
characteristics distinctive of the natural source material in the finished
products.

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LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY CAVITE

College of Engineering, Computer Studies and Architecture

Lyceum of the Philippines University, Cavite Campus

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Engr. Anjerick Topacio

September 22, 2017

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER STUDIES AND ARCHITECTURE

 Steel is the world's most important engineering and construction material. It is

and over again without loss of property.

is the world's most important engineering and construction material. It is used in

washing machines, cargo ships and surgical scalpels.

How do we produce steel?

combinations of production routes also exist.

delivered as coil, plate, sections or bars.

 Steel made in an EAF uses electricity to melt recycled steel. Additives,

such as alloys, are used to adjust to the desired chemical composition.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER STUDIES AND ARCHITECTURE

Downstream process stages, such as casting, reheating and rolling, are

similar to those found in the BF-BOF route. About 25% of steel is

produced via the EAF route.

How much steel is produced in a year?

depending on their carbon content:

 Low Carbon Steels/Mild Steels contain up to 0.3% carbon

 Medium Carbon Steels contain 0.3 – 0.6% carbon

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 High Carbon Steels contain more than 0.6% carbon

can be divided into three groups based on their crystalline structure:

 Austenitic: Austenitic steels are non-magnetic and non heat-treatable, and

generally contain 18% chromium, 8% nickel and less than 0.8%

aluminum or titanium. These magnetic steels cannot be hardened by heat

treatment but can be strengthened by cold working.

knives, cutting tools, as well as dental and surgical equipment.

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 Tool steels contain tungsten, molybdenum, cobalt and vanadium in varying

used in automotive parts, appliances, packaging, shipbuilding, and construction.

 Alloy steels contain alloying elements (e.g. manganese,

silicon, nickel, titanium, copper, chromium, and aluminum) in varying

proportions in order to manipulate the steel's properties, such as

its hardenability, corrosion resistance, strength, formability, weldability or

generators and electric motors.

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13th century BC Invention of steel - iron and charcoal come together

3rd century BC Wootz steel: Born in ancient India

Roman Era (with war comes progress)

work-hardened steel to reduce its brittleness.

 The majority of steel goes to the construction industry. Sustainable steel

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alloys, can be designed to meet the requirements of unique projects, which

allow it to be incorporated into infrastructure in all environments.

levels of elasticity, strength, ductility, and corrosion resistance.

bulk goes to transport vehicles.

extraction, such as in offshore platforms, earth-moving and quarrying

equipment, cranes, and forklifts.

5. Appliances and Industry

Steel is found in appliances like fridges, washing machines, ovens,

microwaves, sinks, cutlery, etc.

Material properties required for design

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Standards for structural carbon steels (including weathering steel ), the

steel with a specified minimum yield strength of 355 N/mm².

designation is the value of yield strength for material up to 16 mm thick.

steels suitable for cold forming.

 Stainless steels - Grades of stainless steel are designated by a numerical 'steel