40 Kumar

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Address correspondence to Peter E. Campos, Ph.D., PRN DATA
Health Research Services, 3080 Vine Circle, Decatm; GA 30033-5153;
e-mail: pcampos@prndata.com.
Received: January 10, 2000
Accepted: February 20, 2001

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

An Introduction to Buddhism for the Cognitive-Behavioral Therapist

S a m e e t M. K u m a r , University o f M i a m i

Basic concepts in Buddhism are presented for cognitive-behavioral therapists. Buddhist theoretical causes of suffering are presented
as extensions of cognitive assumptions of selfhood. The essentialist position is contrasted to the Buddhist perspectives of dialectics
and interdependence. The focus on impermanence in Buddhist thought is presented. The synergistic relationship between compassion
and mindfulness is examined. Compassion as both behavioral alternative to essentialism as well as precursor to mindfulness is dis-
cussed. Additionally, mindfulness meditation from the Buddhist perspective is presented.

OTH B u d d h i s m a n d p s y c h o l o g y seek t h e facilitation Definitions of Buddhism

o f growth, insight, a n d m e a n i n g f u l c o n n e c t i o n with
Buddhism is a v e r y b r o a d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a
o t h e r s a n d f r e e d o m f r o m suffering. T h e r e c e n t d i a l o g u e
specific t e r m . In t h e U n i t e d States, t h e p o p u l a r i z a t i o n
b e t w e e n p s y c h o l o g y a n d B u d d h i s m has r e s u l t e d in t h e ac-
o f B u d d h i s m has r e s u l t e d in an a m a l g a m a t i o n o f di-
c e p t a n c e o f B u d d h i s t m e d i t a t i o n a l t e c h n i q u e s a n d prin-
verse B u d d h i s t t r a d i t i o n s f r o m all o v e r Asia. A l t h o u g h
ciples by m a n y clinicians a n d t h e i r clients. A l t h o u g h
all s c h o o l s o f B u d d h i s m s h a r e basic tenets, it is i m p o r -
m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n exists o n specific t e c h n i q u e s a n d prac-
t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d t h a t o n t h e level o f daily p r a c t i c e ,
tices r e l e v a n t to clinical psychology, the o r i g i n a l c o n t e x t
t h e B u d d h i s m p r a c t i c e d in Sri L a n k a differs signifi-
a n d r a t i o n a l e o f these practices r e m a i n s a mystery to
cantly f r o m t h a t p r a c t i c e d in M o n g o l i a . T h e i n f o r m a -
m a n y psychologists, as well as clients. T h e p u r p o s e o f this
t i o n p r e s e n t e d in this p a p e r c a n t h e r e f o r e n o t b e ex-
article will be to p r e s e n t concisely the basic p r e m i s e s o f
h a u s t i v e to all d e f i n i t i o n s o f B u d d h i s m , b u t is basic to
B u d d h i s m for t h e c o g n i t i v e - b e h a v i o r a l therapist.
most of them.
G i v e n t h e i n h e r e n t c o m p l e x i t y in s u m m a r i z i n g a
In a d d i t i o n , A m e r i c a n B u d d h i s m is still in its infancy,
2,500-year-old system, this p r e s e n t a t i o n has n o p r e c o n -
a n d can in itself b e s e e n as a s y n c r e t i s m o f d i f f e r e n t
c e p t i o n s o f b e i n g c o m p r e h e n s i v e , a n d will u n d o u b t e d l y
s t r e a m s o f p r a c t i c e . To be fair to t h e reader, it s h o u l d b e
b e insufficient to those already familiar with the basic te-
n o t e d t h a t t h e a u t h o r is m o r e f a m i l i a r with T i b e t a n
nets o f B u d d h i s m . It s h o u l d also be p o i n t e d o u t that the
B u d d h i s m t h a n o t h e r B u d d h i s t traditions. T h i s e m p h a -
topics that are p r e s e n t e d h e r e d o n o t e n c o m p a s s the to-
sis o n T i b e t a n s o u r c e s is n o t m e a n t to m i n i m i z e t h e
tality o f B u d d h i s m , o r o f all " B u d d h i s m s . "
v a l u e o r c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f o t h e r s c h o o l s s u c h as Zen, b u t
is r a t h e r a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e a u t h o r ' s o w n e n c o u n t e r with
Buddhism.
Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 9, 40-43, 2002
1077-7229/02/40-4351.00/0 It is i m p o r t a n t to n o t e that the classification o f Bud-
Copyright © 2002 by Association for Advancement of Behavior d h i s m r e m a i n s controversial. As a b o d y o f beliefs con-
Therapy. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. t a i n e d in t e m p l e s , rituals, d o c t r i n e , a n d a large b o d y o f
 An Introduction to Buddhism
monks, it certainly bears an outward r e s e m b l a n c e to an
organized religious system. However, B u d d h i s m does n o t
postulate the existence of a creator being, deity, or h i g h e r
power. T h e deified beings p o r t r a y e d in Chinese a n d Ti-
b e t a n i c o n o g r a p h y can be u n d e r s t o o d to be personifica-
tions o f m e d i t a t i o n a l practice, o r even o f certain texts.
Therefore, for some scholars, B u d d h i s m appears to be
m o r e o f a p h i l o s o p h y than a religion.
I n d e p e n d e n t o f its a c a d e m i c classification, B u d d h i s m
shares with clinical psychology the motivation to facilitate
beneficial growth a n d c h a n g e on individual a n d societal
levels. O n e of the f u n d a m e n t a l assumptions o f B u d d h i s m
is the i n h e r e n t evolutionary potential within each indi-
vidual toward c o n t i n u e d growth.
Because o f its emphasis o n growth a n d evolution, Bud-
dhism was e m b r a c e d by many existentialists a n d h u m a n -
ists as it g a i n e d p o p u l a r i t y in the sixties. T h e assumption
o f evolutionary potential is clearly relevant for cognitive-
behavioral therapists as well. In Buddhism, spiritual evo-
lution occurs mainly as a result o f investigating underly-
ing cognitive assumptions a b o u t o u r p e r c e p t i o n o f self
a n d other. In o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d what these cognitive
processes are, it is i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d the basic as-
sumptions o f Buddhism.
Historical Origin
B u d d h i s m was f o u n d e d in the sixth century B.C.E. in
n o r t h I n d i a by a m a n n a m e d Siddharta Gautama. As the
heir o f a local princely state, he was b o r n a n d raised in a
s h e l t e r e d life of luxury a n d ease b e h i n d the walls o f a pal-
ace. However, disgruntled at his lack o f knowledge a b o u t
his subjects, he v e n t u r e d outside the palace walls in a se-
ries o f covert tours. O n these tours, he was c o n f r o n t e d by
the ubiquity o f suffering evident in the forms o f poor,
sick, aged, a n d dying people. T h r o w n into an existential
crisis as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f these e n c o u n t e r s with suffer-
ing, he vowed to r e n o u n c e his worldly life in o r d e r to bet-
ter u n d e r s t a n d the h u m a n condition. After several years
o f p e r f o r m i n g various austerities in the c o m p a n y o f wan-
d e r i n g ascetics, he b e c a m e convinced that the extremes
o f hedonistic gluttony a n d ascetic self-mortification d i d
n o t h o l d the answers he was seeking. Siddharta that day
resolved to m e d i t a t e until he h a d either d i e d o r g a i n e d
full e n l i g h t e n m e n t .
After sitting u n d e r a banyan tree for m a n y nights, a n d
after mindfully e n d u r i n g temptations such as hunger,
thirst, a n d lust, he e x p e r i e n c e d total clarity a n d insight.
After s p e n d i n g nearly 7 weeks digesting this m o m e n t ,
a n d d e b a t i n g his ability to transmit his realization to
others, he t a u g h t the first o f several s e r m o n s in which
he e x p o u n d e d the F o u r N o b l e Truths. F r o m this mo-
m e n t after, he b e c a m e known as the B u d d h a , o r Awak-
e n e d One.
41
The Buddhist Path
T h e F o u r N o b l e Truths simply state that (a) suffering
is ubiquitous; (b) suffering is a c o n s e q u e n c e o f the auto-
matic t e n d e n c y to cling to p h e n o m e n a ; (c) the cessation
o f suffering is possible; a n d (d) this cessation can be
achieved by practicing the Eightfold Noble Path. This
path consists o f fight vision, conception, speech, con-
duct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n
(Thrangu, 1993). Taken together, the Eightfold Path di-
minishes the t e n d e n c y to cling to p h e n o m e n a while en-
riching the full e x p e r i e n c e o f life.
In the Buddhist context, suffering is an inalienable
p a r t o f existence inflamed by any a t t e m p t to contain it.
Suffering is g e n e r a t e d by the m e n t a l t e n d e n c y toward es-
sentialism, whose repercussions are o f primary impor-
tance in Buddhism. Essentialism refers to the assumption
o f a discrete, fixed self a n d identity, i n d e p e n d e n t o f ex-
ternal e n v i r o n m e n t a l influences o r internal physical pro-
cesses. This n o t i o n results from the m e n t a l t e n d e n c y to
perceive continuity while e x p e r i e n c i n g the passage o f
time. A l t h o u g h simple a n d efficient, essentialism is
viewed as an e r r o n e o u s t e m p l a t e because in postulating a
fixed self, it simultaneously assumes a fixed other, result-
ing in a d i c h o t o m y o f self versus other. This dualism also
results in the polarization of thoughts, emotions, a n d ex-
periences as attractive o r aversive in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n a
pleasant sense o f well-being to the assumed, discrete self
(Gyatso, 1997). T h e result is r e f e r r e d to as self-cherish-
ing. Ultimately, it is from self-cherishing as a conse-
q u e n c e o f essentialism that we reinforce a t e n d e n c y to
cling to p h e n o m e n a . This is in contrast to the B u d d h i s t
c o n c e p t o f selflessness, o r emptiness.
F r o m the p o i n t o f view o f emptiness, p h e n o m e n a arise
from a dialectical c o n f l u e n c e o f their c o m p o n e n t s . Dia-
lectical e m e r g e n c e , unlike essentialism, does n o t rely on
a c o n c e p t o f discrete, i n d e p e n d e n t self. Instead, the dia-
lectical perspective postulates an infinitely c o m p l e x a n d
i n t e r c o n n e c t e d web o f causes a n d effects simultaneously
shaping each o t h e r across multiple levels o f analyses.
F r o m the perspective o f Buddhist dialectics, all p h e n o m -
ena, ranging from feelings to physical structures, are
t e m p o r a r y confluences o f multiple influences. If the sim-
pler essentialist perspective can be visualized as a tennis
m a t c h between the two players o f self a n d other, c o m p l e x
dialectical e m e r g e n c e can be visualized as a gradually un-
folding, fluid latticework.
Self-cherishing should n o t be confused with m o d e r n
psychological constructs such as self-esteem. It refers in-
stead to the cognitive assumption that identity is a stable
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t entity. Because o f the automatic ten-
dency toward self-cherishing, we e x p e r i e n c e the inevita-
ble changes to ourselves, a n d others, as suffering. In try-
ing to h o l d on to the stability o f a passing m o m e n t ,
4Z
feeling, or relationship, we struggle against the natural
i m p e r m a n e n c e of all p h e n o m e n a . A l t h o u g h self-cherish-
ing can be beneficial to a limited extent, it ahnost always,
in this context, leads to the e x p e r i e n c e o f suffering; we
e x p e r i e n c e suffering as the natural o r d e r o f i n t e r d e p e n -
d e n c e a n d i m p e r m a n e n c e constantly manifests itself. In
seeking c o n t e n t m e n t within the confines of a fixed self,
we sow the seeds of o u r suffering as identity is constantly
challenged, c h a n g e d , a n d m o l d e d by the very factors in-
volved in its construction. F o r this reason, the F o u r Noble
Truths address the origins a n d causes of suffering, as well
as its antidotes.
T h e i m p e r m a n e n c e of all p h e n o m e n a can be contex-
tualized in the i m p e r m a n e n c e of life itself. In Buddhism,
fear of i m p e r m a n e n c e a n d d e a t h is seen as a m a j o r con-
tributory factor to self-cherishing. By e m b r a c i n g these
fears as well as the principle o f i m p e r m a n e n c e , we also
c o m b a t self-cherishing. Buddhist practice can involve
daily reflections on the certainty a n d unpredictability of
death. Like suffering, existential tensions c o n c e r n i n g
mortality also grow when attempts are m a d e to deny or
contain them. By reflecting on death, the motivation of
the p r a c t i t i o n e r b e c o m e s s t r o n g e r to engage in p r o p e r
practice a n d resultant behaviors lest d e a t h be close by
( G a m p o p a , 1998). Reflecting on death, like reflecting
on the causes of suffering, can weaken the t e n d e n c y of
self-cherishing.
Within the c o n t e x t of i n t e r d e p e n d e n t existence, all
actions have resultant consequences. T h e law of cause
a n d effect, or karma, plays a central role in the rationale
b e h i n d ethical behavioral principles p r e s e n t e d in the
F o u r Noble Truths. Karma literally m e a n s "action," or
"behavior" (Brazier, 1995). Stated simply, k a r m a theory
states that the c o n s e q u e n c e s of o u r behaviors are evident
at multiple levels o f analyses, n o t limited to o u r perceived
individuality. However, like a b o o m e r a n g , these conse-
quences, wholesome a n d harmful, t e n d to be r e d i r e c t e d
back to the behavioral agents that originate their exis-
tence. Since B u d d h i s m is c o n c e r n e d with the alleviation
of suffering, b e c o m i n g aware o f h a r m f u l c o n s e q u e n c e s
is essential for g e n e r a t i n g positive behaviors that will
limit them.
Compassion and Mindfulness
Loving-kindness is a Buddhist practice of primary im-
p o r t a n c e that integrates the theory of k a r m a with the
principle of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e in o r d e r to limit self-
cherishing. An acceptance o f the ubiquity of suffering is
necessary for compassion to arise. Loving-kindness, often
translated as compassion, involves cultivating an attitude
o f universal, u n c o n d i t i o n a l acceptance. With this atti-
tude, essentialist b o u n d a r i e s that define self a n d o t h e r
t e n d to dissipate as one develops compassionate equa-
nimity toward all living beings. Compassion is d e f i n e d as
Kumar
active caring, in contrast to the m o r e passive connota-
tions of pity or sympathy (Gyatso, 1994).
We b e c o m e aware of the limitations o f o u r compassion
in a t t e m p t i n g to apply it in everyday life. G e n e r a t i n g
awareness o f these limitations is an essential f o u n d a t i o n
for the d e v e l o p m e n t o f mindfulness. In the cognizance
o f o u r limitations, a compassionate, accepting attitude
t o w a r d ourselves f o r m s t h e f o u n d a t i o n for m i n d f u l -
ness while s t r e n g t h e n i n g a compassionate stance toward
others. Mindfulness is therefore an extension o f a com-
passionate attitude, while at the same time compassion is
necessary for mindfulness. I n d e e d , mindfulness a n d
compassion are frequently discussed as two intertwined
aspects of practice in Buddhist literature.
Mindfulness is a primary practice used in Buddhist
m e d i t a t i o n techniques. O n a basic level, it involves follow-
ing the rhythmic m o t i o n o f the b r e a t h with an a t t i t u d e
of n o n j u d g m e n t a l , present-centered awareness (Kabat-
Zinn, 1990). This awareness is directed toward all thoughts,
feelings, a n d sensations that occur d u r i n g practice. Fre-
quently r e f e r r e d to as distractions, they form the basis for
developing equanimity a n d acceptance. The practice of
mindfulness does n o t seek to "empty the mind"; instead,
it is a m u c h greater feat to observe, with acceptance, how
full the m i n d actually is. W h e n a p p l i e d sporadically,
mindfulness can be extremely relaxing. However, when
a p p l i e d regularly, mindfldness can be a revolutionary
a n d transformative cognitive, e m o t i o n a l , a n d spiritual
experience.
It is paradoxical that in o r d e r to facilitate mindfulness
of o u r own thoughts, feelings, a n d sensations, we must
first e n a b l e ourselves to be m o r e compassionate toward
others. However, this p a r a d o x lies at the h e a r t o f the Bud-
dhist path that seeks f r e e d o m from suffering for all be-
ings, a n d does n o t distinguish between self a n d other. Ad-
ditionally, the fact that compassion for others p r e c e d e s
mindfulness of o n e ' s own behaviors is further verification
of the interconnectedness o f all beings (Rinpoche, 1991).
Cyclic Existence
G r e a t e r mental clarity, achieved by sustained mindful-
ness practice, is a necessary f o u n d a t i o n for the develop-
m e n t o f wisdom and insight. Meditation is therefore con-
sidered to be a p r i m a r y vehicle for facilitating clarity, a n d
is therefore essential for spiritual development. Accord-
ing to Buddhism, the spiritual progress of one lifetime
lays the f o u n d a t i o n for spiritual progress in the next life-
time. Each lifetime is an effect caused by actions in the
previous existence. Beings r e i n c a r n a t e d u e to karmic res-
idue a n d countless i n t e r c o n n e c t e d links that have accu-
m u l a t e d over m a n y lifetimes. This cycle of existence, s a m -
s a r a , c o m p l e t e with endless repetitions of birth, old age,
a n d death, is wrought with suffering, yet is the only op-
portunity for spiritual d e v e l o p m e n t . I n d e e d , it is only
 An Introduction to Buddhism
t h r o u g h spiritual practice that liberation from cyclic ex-
istence can occur. Spiritual growth, o c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h
the practices o f m e d i t a t i o n a n d compassion, gradually re-
duces self-cherishing tendencies that result in aggression
a n d greed, clearing the way for further progress a n d
growth in s u b s e q u e n t lifetimes (Rinpoche, 1991).
E n l i g h t e n m e n t is synonymous with f r e e d o m from suf-
fering, as well as total clarity a n d insight into the nature
o f all p h e n o m e n a . In o r d e r to attain this goal, the anti-
dote to essentialism needs to be applied, like medicine,
with p r o p e r dosage, administration, a n d compliance.
Buddhist practice is ultimately built a r o u n d f r e e d o m
from suffering, a n d e n l i g h t e n m e n t is the furthest evolu-
tionary extension o f this f r e e d o m .
Conclusions
T h e i n f o r m a t i o n s u m m a r i z e d in this p a p e r should n o t
be confused with a c o m p r e h e n s i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f Bud-
dhism. I n d e e d , the B u d d h i s m p r e s e n t e d h e r e may itself
be an e m p t y p h e n o m e n o n constructed to suit the needs
o f 21st-century psychotherapy. It should be n o t e d that
this particular construction has o c c u r r e d by the author's
own e x p e r i e n c e with Tibetan Buddhism, a n d so should
n o t be confused as a universal guide to Buddhist practice
for the clinical psychologist. Instead, only an a t t e m p t was
m a d e at p r e s e n t i n g some of the relevant f o u n d a t i o n
stones in the Buddhist context.
T h e r e may be d i s a g r e e m e n t by some readers as to the
value of certain terms a n d the exclusion o f others. Addi-
tionally, this p r e s e n t a t i o n lacks many o f the lengthy lists
c o m m o n to presentations o f Buddhism. This was a delib-
erate choice by the a u t h o r to p r e s e n t a focused snapshot
o f a c o m p l e x d e v e l o p m e n t a l j o u r n e y without excessive
j a r g o n . This also emphasizes the relative diversity of Bud-
43
dhist traditions, a n d the construction o f a newer, emerg-
ing A m e r i c a n Buddhism.
T h e r e is n e i t h e r sufficient space for a discussion o f dif-
f e r e n t Buddhisms, n o r is this the a p p r o p r i a t e f o r u m for
such a discussion. Instead, the concepts p r e s e n t e d in this
p a p e r can be used to guide the clinical psychologist in
further explorations in the s u b s e q u e n t articles. As Bud-
dhist concepts a n d practices gain g r e a t e r a c c e p t a n c e in
c u r r e n t therapy practice, it is i m p o r t a n t to gain an under-
standing of the original context o f this knowledge. Such
an u n d e r s t a n d i n g will u n d o u b t e d l y be e n r i c h i n g for b o t h
B u d d h i s m a n d psychology, as b o t h strive to improve the
h u m a n condition.
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Shambhala Publishing.
Address correspondence to Sameet Kumar, Ph.D., Mt. Sinai Compre-
hensive Cancer Center, Psychosocial Services, Miami Beach, FL 33140;
e-mail: sameetkumar@yahoo.com.
Received: January 10, 2000
Accepted: February 20, 2001