Sacred architecture

Sacred architecture (also known as religious architecture) is a religious

architectural practice concerned with the design and construction of places
of worship or sacred or intentional space, such as churches, mosques,
stupas, synagogues, and temples. Many cultures devoted considerable
resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and
sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic
buildings created by humanity. Conversely, sacred architecture as a locale
for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely
private, personal and non-public.
Example of early Islamic sacred architecture :
Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were
the Great Mosque of Kairouan, founded in
the largest buildings in the world, prior to the modern skyscraper. While
670, dates in its present state from the 9th
the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected century;[1] it is the architectural ancestor of all
trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the the mosques in the eastern Islamic world and
contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of represents one of the best preserved and
Abrahamic monotheisms (particularly Christianity and Islam), religious most significant examples of early great
buildings increasingly became centres ofworship, prayer and meditation. mosques.[2] The Great Mosque of Kairouan
(also called the Mosque of Uqba) is located in
The Western scholarly discipline of thehistory of architecture itself closely the UNESCO World Heritage city of Kairouan
in Tunisia.
follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until the
Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of
sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols and religious motifs are
endemic to sacred architecture.

Contents
Spiritual aspects of religious architecture
Ancient architecture
Classical architecture
Larger-than-life structures remain at the
Indian architecture ancient Egyptian Luxor Temple approximately
Buddhism 3400 years after it was built.
Hinduism
Byzantine architecture
Islam
Medieval architecture
Gothic architecture
Renaissance architecture
Baroque architecture
Mormon temples
Modern and post-modern architectures
Shaker communities
See also
Notes
 References
Further reading
External links

Spiritual aspects of religious architecture

Sacred or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space.

An illustrated layout of the traditional
interior of a Christian Orthodox
church.
intimacy and participation in worship.
Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to
make "transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit." In
discussing sacred architecture, Protestant minister Robert Schuller suggested that "to
be psychologically healthy, human beings need to experience their natural setting—
the setting we were designed for, which is the garden." Meanwhile, Richard
Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering
into spiritual relationship. Kieckhefer suggests that sacred space can be analyzed by
three factors affecting spiritual process: longitudinal space emphasizes the
procession and return of sacramental acts, auditorium space is suggestive of
proclamation and response, and new forms of communal space designed for
gathering and return depend to a great degree on minimized scale to enhance

Ancient architecture
Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles including
Neolithic architecture, ancient Egyptian architecture and Sumerian architecture.
Ancient religious buildings, particularly temples, were often viewed as the dwelling
place, the temenos, of the gods and were used as the site of various kinds of
sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are also examples of architectural
structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. The Temple of
Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years and its
numerous temples comprise what may be the largest religious structure ever built.
Ancient Egyptian religious architecture has fascinated archaeologists and captured
The interior of the ancient Egyptian
the public imagination for millennia.
Karnak Temple.

Classical architecture
Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of the Temple of Hera at Olympia were
replaced by stone columns. With the spread of this process to other sanctuary
structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Greek architecture
preceded Hellenistic and Roman periods (Roman architecture heavily copied Greek).
Since temples are the only buildings which survive in numbers, most of our concept
of classical architecture is based on religious structures. The Parthenon which served
as a treasury building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as
the greatest example of classical architecture.

The Parthenon in Athens, Greece.

Indian architecture
Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the
geography and geology of the Indian subcontinent. India was crisscrossed by trading routes of
merchants from as far away as Siraf and China as well as weathering invasions by foreigners,
resulting in multiple influences of foreign elements on native styles. The diversity of Indian
culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and
varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central Asia,
and Europe.

Buddhism
Buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types
of structures are associated with early Buddhism: viharas and stupas. Originally, Viharas were
Vishvakarman, Divine
temporary shelters used by wandering monks during the rainy season, but these structures
Architect of Vedas in a
later developed to accommodate the growing and increasingly formalized Buddhist modern Hindu
monasticism. An existing example is atNalanda (Bihar). representation: note
Chhatra.
The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the
Buddha. The earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh). In
accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (stupa halls). These reached
their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of
Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra).

The pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea,
Nepal and other parts of Asia. Buddhist temples were developed rather later and outside South Asia, where Buddhism gradually
declined from the early centuries CE onwards, though an early example is that of the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar. The
architectural structure of the stupa spread across Asia, taking on many diverse forms as details specific to different regions were
incorporated into the overall design. It was spread to China and the Asian region by Araniko, a Nepali architect in the early 13th
century for Kublai Khan.

Hinduism
Hindu temple architecture is based on Sthapatya Veda
and many other ancient religious texts like the Brihat
Samhita, Vastu Shastra and Shilpa Shastras in
accordance to the design principles and guidelines
believed to have been laid by the divine architect
Vishvakarma. It evolved over a period of more than
2000 years. The Hindu architecture conforms to strict
religious models that incorporate elements of
astronomy and sacred geometry. In Hindu belief, the
temple represents the macrocosm of the universe as
well as the microcosm of inner space. While the
underlying form of Hindu temple architecture follows
The Shikhara of the strict traditions, considerable variation occurs with the
Raghunath Temple at The Brihadeeswarar
often intense decorative embellishments and
Jammu, India is built in the Temple, Tanjavur, built in the
ornamentation.
Nagara style of temple Dravida style
architecture. A basic Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the
garbhagriha or womb-chamber, a congregation hall,
and possibly an antechamber and porch. The sanctum is crowned by a tower-like shikhara.
The Hindu temple represents Mount Meru, the axis of the universe. There are strict rules which describe the themes and sculptures on
the outer walls of the temple buildings.
The two primary styles that have developed are the Nagara style of Northern India and the Dravida style of Southern India. A
prominent difference between the two styles are the elaborate gateways employed in the South. They are also easily distinguishable
by the shape and decoration of their shikharas. The Nagara style is beehive-shaped while the Dravida style is pyramid-shaped.

Byzantine architecture
Byzantine architecture evolved from Roman
architecture. Eventually, a style emerged
incorporating Near East influences and the
Greek cross plan for church design. In
addition, brick replaced stone, classical order
was less strictly observed, mosaics replaced
carved decoration, and complex domes were
erected. One of the great breakthroughs in the
Hagia Sophia, the Church of Holy history of Western architecture occurred
Wisdom
when Justinian's architects invented a
complex system providing for a smooth
transition from a square plan of the church to a circular
dome (or domes) by means of squinches or The 6th-century Kariye
Camii, Istanbul, is now a
pendentives. The prime example of early Byzantine
museum.
religious architecture is theHagia Sophia in Istanbul.

Islam
Byzantine architecture had a great influence on early Islamic architecture with its
characteristic round arches, vaults and domes. Many forms of mosques have evolved in
different regions of the Islamic world. Notable mosque types include the early Abbasid
mosques, T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of Anatolia.

The earliest styles in Islamic architecture

The ruins of Menüçehr produced Arab-plan or hypostyle mosques
Camii near Kars, Turkey, during the Umayyad Dynasty. These
believed to be the oldest
mosques follow a square or rectangular plan
Seljuk mosque in Anatolia
with enclosed courtyard and covered prayer
hall. Most early hypostyle mosques had flat
prayer hall roofs, which required numerous columns and supports.[3] The Mezquita
in Córdoba, Spain was constructed as a hypostyle mosque supported by over 850 Interior of the Mezquita, a hypostyle
columns.[4] Arab-plan mosques continued under theAbbasid dynasty. mosque with columns arranged in
grid pattern, in Córdoba, Spain
The Ottomans introduced central dome mosquesin the 15th century that have a large
dome centered over the prayer hall. In addition to having one large dome at the
center, there are often smaller domes that exist off-center over the prayer hall or throughout the rest of the mosque, in areas where
prayer is not performed.[5] The Dome of the Rock mosque in Jerusalem is perhaps the best known example of a central dome
mosque.

Iwan mosques are most notable for their domed chambers and iwans, which are vaulted spaces open out on one end. In iwan
mosques, one or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall. The style represents a borrowing from pre-Islamic
Iranian architecture and has been used almost exclusively for mosques in Iran. Many iwan mosques are converted Zoroastrian fire
temples where the courtyard was used to house the sacred fire.[3] Today, iwan mosques are no longer built.[5] The Shah Mosque in
Isfahan, Iran is a classic example of aniwan mosque.
A common feature in mosques is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is
situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is
always the highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the
immediate area. The first mosques had no minarets, and even nowadays the most
conservative Islamic movements, like Wahhabis, avoid building minarets, seeing
them as ostentatious and unnecessary. The first minaret was constructed in 665 in
Basra during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged
the construction of minarets, as they were supposed to bring mosques on par with
View of the square three-tiered
Christian churches with their bell towers. Consequently, mosque architects borrowed
minaret of the Mosque of Uqba
the shape of the bell tower for their minarets, which were used for essentially the
(Great Mosque of Kairouan); this
.[6]
same purpose — calling the faithful to prayer mosque, founded in 670, is one of
the most impressive mosques in
Domes have been a hallmark of Islamic architecture since the 7th century. As time
North Africa, situated inKairouan,
progressed, the sizes of mosque domes grew, from occupying only a small part of Tunisia
the roof near the mihrab to encompassing all of the roof above the prayer hall.
Although domes normally took on the shape of a hemisphere, the Mughals in India
popularized onion-shaped domes inSouth Asia and Persia.[7]

The prayer hall, also known as the musalla,

has no furniture; chairs and pews are absent
from the prayer hall.[8] Prayer halls contain
no images of people, animals, and spiritual
figures although they may be decorated with
Arabic calligraphy and verses from the
Qur'an on the walls.

Usually opposite the entrance to the prayer

hall is the qibla wall, which is the visually People washing before prayer at the
emphasized area inside the prayer hall. The Badshahi mosque in Lahore,
Pakistan
The prayer hall, or musalla, qibla wall is normally set perpendicular to a
in a Turkish mosque, with a line leading to Mecca.[9] Congregants pray in
minbar rows parallel to the qibla wall and thus arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In the qibla
wall, usually at its center, is the mihrab, a niche or depression indicating the qibla wall.
Usually the mihrab is not occupied by furniture either. Sometimes, especially during Friday
prayers, a raised minbar or pulpit is located to the side of the mihrab for a khatib or some other speaker to offer a sermon (khutbah).
The mihrab serves as the location where theimam leads the five daily prayers on a regular basis.[10]

Mosques often have ablution fountains or other facilities for washing in their entryways or courtyards. However
, worshippers at much
smaller mosques often have to use restrooms to perform their ablutions. In traditional mosques, this function is often elaborated into a
freestanding building in the center of a courtyard.[4] Modern mosques may have a variety of amenities available to their congregants
and the community, such as health clinics, libraries and gymnasiums.

Medieval architecture
The religious architecture of Christian churches in the Middle Ages featured the Latin cross plan, which takes the Roman Basilica as
its primary model with subsequent developments. It consists of a nave, transepts, and the altar stands at the east end (see Cathedral
diagram). Also, cathedrals influenced or commissioned by Justinian employed the Byzantine style of domes and a Greek cross
(resembling a plus sign), centering attention on the altar at the center of the church. The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl is an
excellent example of Russian orthodox architecture in the Middle Ages. The Urnes stave church (Urnes stavkyrkje) in Norway is a
superb example of a medieval stave church.
 Gothic architecture
Gothic architecture was particularly
associated with cathedrals and other
churches, which flourished in Europe during
the high and late medieval period. Beginning
in 12th century France, it was known as "the
Norwegian stave church French Style" during the period. The style
originated at the abbey church of Saint-Denis
in Saint-Denis, near Paris.[11] Other notable
gothic religious structures include Notre Dame de Paris, the Cathedral of Our Lady of
Amiens, and the Chartres Cathedral.

Renaissance architecture Chartres Cathedral

The Renaissance brought a return of classical

influence and a new emphasis on rational clarity
. Renaissance architecture represents
a conscious revival of Roman Architecture with its symmetry, mathematical
proportions, and geometric order. Filippo Brunelleschi's plan for the Santa Maria del
Fiore as the dome of the Florence Cathedral in 1418 was one of the first important
religious architectural designs of the Italian renaissance.

Baroque architecture
The Basilica of Saint Peter, Rome
Evolving from the renaissance style, the
baroque style was most notably experienced
in religious art and architecture. Most architectural historians regard Michelangelo's design of
St. Peter's Basilica in Rome as a precursor to the Baroque style. Baroque style can be
recognized by broader interior spaces (replacing long narrow naves), more playful attention to
light and shadow, extensive ornamentation, large frescoes, focus on interior art, and
frequently, a dramatic central exterior projection. The most important early example of the
baroque period was theSanta Susanna by Carlo Maderno. Saint Paul's Cathedral in London by
Christopher Wren is regarded as the prime example of the rather late influence of the Baroque
style in England.

Baroque façade of Santa

Mormon temples Susanna, by Carlo Maderno
Temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints offer a unique look at
design as it has changed from the simple church like structure of the Kirtland
Temple built in the 1830s, to the castellated Gothic styles of the early Utah temples,
to the dozens of modern temples built today. Early temples, and some modern
temples, have a priesthood assembly room with two sets of pulpits at each end of the
room, with chairs or benches that can be altered to face either way. Most, but not all
temples have the recognizable statue of the Angel Moroni atop a spire. The Nauvoo
Temple and the Salt Lake Temple are adorned with symbolic stonework,
Salt Lake Temple
representing various aspects of the faith.

Modern and post-modern architectures

 Modern architecture spans several styles with similar characteristics resulting in simplification
of form and the elimination of ornament. The most influential modernist architects in the early
to mid 20th century include Dominikus Böhm, Rudolf Schwarz, and Auguste Perret.[12]
While secular structures clearly had the greater influence on the development of modern
architecture, several excellent examples of modern architecture can be found in religious
buildings of the 20th century. For example, Unity Temple in Chicago is a Unitarian
Universalist congregation designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. The United States Air Force
Academy Cadet Chapel, started in 1954 and completed in 1962, was designed by Walter
Netsch and is an excellent example of modern religious architecture. It has been described as a
"phalanx of fighters" turned on their tails and pointing heavenward. In 1967, Architect Pietro
Belluschi designed the strikingly modern Cathedral of St. Mary of the Assumption (San
Francisco), the first Catholic cathedral in the United States intended to conform to
Vatican II.

Community of Christ Temple Post-modern architecture may be described by unapologetically diverse aesthetics where
in Independence, Missouri, styles collide, form exists for its own sake, and new ways of viewing familiar styles and space
USA is postmodern in abound. The Temple at Independence, Missouri was conceived by Japanese architect Gyo
design. Obata after the concept of the chambered nautilus. The Catholic Cathedral of Our Lady of the
Angels (Los Angeles) was designed in 1998 by Jose Rafael Moneo in a post-modern style.
The structure evokes the area's Hispanic heritage through the use of adobe coloring while
combining stark modern form with some traditional elements. The Basilica of Our Lady of Licheń on the other hand is a much more
traditional edifice. Designed by Barbara Bielecka and built between 1994 and 2004, its form includes references to a number of
Polish structures. The columns possess a slenderness and delicacy inspired by those of the Renaissance court of Wawel Castle in
Kraków, while the huge 420-foot spire that will be erected next to the basilica bears more than an accidental resemblance to the
Baroque spire that adorns theJasna Gora monastery of Czestochowa, home of the Black Madonna.

Shaker communities
Shaker communities were semiotically architectured upon the crux of thecompass rose.

See also
Chapel
Ġgantija
Karnak
Mandir
Hierotopy

Notes
1. Great Mosque of Kairouan (Qantara Mediterranean Heritage)(http://ww The Temple of All Religions in Kazan,
w.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=399&la Russia, combining various forms of
ng=en) religious architecture
2. John Stothoff Badeau and John Richard Hayes, The Genius of Arab
civilization: source of Renaissance. Taylor & Francis. 1983. p. 104(http
s://books.google.com/books?id=IaM9AAAAIAAJ&pg=P A104&dq=oleg+g
rabar+kairouan+mosque&cd=3#v=onepage&q=oleg%20grabar%20kairo
uan%20mosque&f=false)
3. Hillenbrand, R. "Masdjid. I. In the central Islamic lands". In .J.
P
Bearman; Th. Bianquis;C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs.
Encyclopaedia of IslamOnline. Brill Academic Publishers.ISSN 1573-
3912 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912).
 4. "Religious Architecture and Islamic Cultures"(http://web.mit.edu/4.614/w
ww/handout02.html). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved
2006-04-09.
5. "Vocabulary of Islamic Architecture"(https://web.archive.org/web/20051
124083425/http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Architecture/4-614Religious-Arc
hitecture-and-Islamic-CulturesFall2002/LectureNotes/detail/vocab-islam.
htm#islam6). Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the
original (http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Architecture/4-614Religious-Archite
cture-and-Islamic-CulturesFall2002/LectureNotes/detail/vocab-islam.htm
#islam6) on 2005-11-24. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
6. Hillenbrand, R. "Manara, Manar". In P
.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis;C.E.
Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs. Encyclopaedia of Islam
Online. Brill Academic Publishers.
7. Asher, Catherine B. (1992-09-24). "Aurangzeb and the Islamization of
the Mughal style". Architecture of Mughal India. Cambridge University
Press. p. 256.
8. "Mosque FAQ" (https://web.archive.org/web/20041230180348/http://ww
w.utulsa.edu/iss/mosque/MosqueFAQ.html). The University of Tulsa.
Archived from the original (http://www.utulsa.edu/iss/Mosque/MosqueFA
Q.html) on December 30, 2004. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
9. Bierman, Irene A. (1998-12-16).Writing Signs: Fatimid Public Text.
University of California Press. p. 150.
10. "Terms 1: Mosque" (http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~islamarc/WebPage1/ht
m_eng/index/keyword1_e.htm). University of Tokyo Institute of Oriental
Culture. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
11. Andrzej Piotrowski (2011),Architecture of Thought, U of Minnesota
Press, p. 23 (https://books.google.com/books?id=sHrUQclzjlIC&pg=P A2
3&dq=gothic+originated+saint+denis&hl=fr&ei=dD7aTqOVBs2ZhQedte
HPDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFsQ6AEwC
A#v=onepage&q=gothic%20originated%20saint%20denis&f=false)
12. Steven J. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion: Implementing the
Second Vatican Council through Liturgy andArchitecture. (Ignatius
Press: 1998): 23-24 and 234-38.ISBN 0-89870-631-9.

References
Jeanne Halgren Kilde,When Church Became Theatre: The Transformation of Evangelical Church Architecture and
Worship in Nineteenth-Century America.(Oxford University Press:2002). ISBN
Michael E. DeSanctis,Building from Belief: Advance, Retreat, and Compromise in the Remaking of Catholic Church
Architecture.. (Liturgical Press:2002). ISBN
Richard Kieckhefer, Theology in Stone: Church Architecture from Byzantium to Berkeley
. (Oxford University Press,
USA: 2004). ISBN
Anne C. Loveland and Otis B. Wheeler, From Meetinghouse to Megachurch: A Material and Cultural History
.
(University of Missouri Press:2003). ISBN
Michael S. Rose, Ugly as Sin: Why They Changed Our Churches from Sacred Places to Meeting Spaces -- and How
We Can Change Them Back Again.(Sophia Institute Press: 2001). ISBN
Steven J. Schloeder, Architecture in Communion: Implementing the Second V
atican Council through Liturgy and
Architecture. (Ignatius Press: 1998).ISBN 0-89870-631-9.
R. Kevin Seasoltz, A Sense Of The Sacred: Theological Foundations Of Christian Architecture And Art.
(Continuum
International Publishing Group: 2005) ISBN

Further reading
 Bain, George. Celtic Art: The Methods of Construction. Dover, 1973. ISBN 0-486-22923-8.
Bamford, Christopher, Homage to Pythagoras: Rediscovering Sacred Science
, Lindisfarne Press, 1994,ISBN 0-
940262-63-0
Critchlow, Keith (1970). Order In Space: A Design Source Book. Viking.
Critchlow, Keith (1976). Islamic Patterns: An Analytical and Cosmological Approach
. Schocken Books. ISBN 0-8052-
3627-9.
Hill, Marsha (2007). Gifts for the gods: images from Egyptian temples
. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
ISBN 9781588392312.
Iamblichus; Waterfield, Robin; Critchlow, Keith; Translated by Robin Waterfield (1988). The Theology of Arithmetic:
On the Mystical, Mathematical and Cosmological Symbolism of the Firsten T Numbers. Phanes Press. ISBN 0-
933999-72-0.
Johnson, Anthony: Solving Stonehenge, the New Key to an Ancient Enigma
. Thames & Hudson 2008ISBN 978-0-
500-05155-9
Lawlor, Robert: Sacred Geometry: Philosophy and practice (Art and Imagination)
. Thames & Hudson, 1989 (1st
edition 1979, 1980, or 1982).ISBN 0-500-81030-3.
Lesser, George (1957–1964).Gothic cathedrals and sacred geometry. London: A. Tiranti.
Lippard, Lucy R.: Overlay: Contemporary Art and the Art of Prehistory
. Pantheon Books New York 1983 ISBN 0-394-
51812-8.
Michell, John. City of Revelation. Abacus, 1972. ISBN 0-349-12320-9.
Schloeder, Steven J., Architecture in Communion: Implementing the Second V
atican Council through Liturgy and
Architecture. (Ignatius Press: 1998).ISBN 0-89870-631-9.
Steiner, Rudolf; Catherine Creeger (2001).The Fourth Dimension : Sacred Geometry
, Alchemy, and Mathematics.
Anthroposophic Press.ISBN 0-88010-472-4.
Schneider, Michael S.: A Beginner's Guide to Constructing the Universe: Mathematical Archetypes of Nature, Art,
and Science. Harper Paperbacks, 1995.ISBN 0-06-092671-6
Pennick, Nigel: Beginnings: Geomancy, Builders' Rites and Electional Astrology in the European Tradition
Pennick, Nigel: Sacred Geometry: Symbolism and Purpose in Religious Structures
Pennick, Nigel: The Ancient Science of Geomancy: Living in Harmony with the Earth
Pennick, Nigel: The Sacred Art of Geometry: Temples of the Phoenix
Pennick, Nigel: The Oracle of Geomancy
Pennick, Nigel: The Ancient Science of Geomancy: Man in Harmony with the Earth
West, John Anthony, Inaugural Lines: Sacred geometry at St. John the Divine
, Parabola magazine, v.8, n.1, Spring
1983

External links
Interfaith Forum on Religion, Art and ArchitectureAmerican Institute of Architects
Architecture, Culture & Spirituality
Sacred Architecture online journal

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