SENSORY AND SOMATO-SENSORY SYSTEM

 TRANSDUCERS / RECEPTORS

 convert various forms of energy in the environment into action potentials in neurons

classifications:

1. teleceptors (“distance receivers”),

- are concerned with events at a distance;
2. exteroceptors,
- are concerned with the external environment near at hand;
3. interoceptors,

- are concerned with the internal environment

4. proprioceptors
- provide information about the position of the body in space at any given instant.
-conscious component of proprioception (“body image”) is synthesized from information coming
not only from receptors in and around joints but also from cutaneous touch and pressure
receptors

 mechanoreceptor
- cutaneous receptors for touch and pressure

types:

1. PACINIAN/ lamellar corpuscles

- unmyelinated dendritic endings of a sensory nerve
- cutaneous mechanoreceptor
- Deep pressure, vibration 60–300 Hz
2. JOINT receptors
- found in the synovial junctions between bones
- detect mechanical deformation within the capsule and ligaments
- consists of four types of sensory endings
- free nerve endings
 most numerous and smallest
 activated only by extreme mechanical or chemical irritation
 have a high threshold for activation
 slowly adapting
 innervated by Group III, unmyelinated fibers
- golgi type endings
 only located in the ligaments of the joint.
 axon endings are closely intertwined with the collagen strands
 physically deforming the axon endings and causing the Golgi-type endings to
fire
- ruffini endings
 found mainly in the joint capsule.
 active both at rest and in movement,
  are slowly adapting
 Has low threshold for activation
 innervated by Group II fibers
 signals the position of the joint during movement
- paciniform endings
 located in the periosteum near the articular attachments and the fibrous part
of the joint capsule
 active at onset and termination of movement
 have a low threshold of movement
 rapidly adapting
 signal movement velocity
 "acceleration receptors".
3. STRETCH receptors

- Afferent fibers from the muscle spindles in skeletal muscle project directly to the spinal
motor neurons of the motor units supplying the same muscle

4. HAIR CELLS

- receptors for hearing and equilibrium

- six groups are present in each inner ear:
- in each of the three semicircular canals : rotational, angular acceleration
- in the utricle : horizontal acceleration
- in the saccule : vertical acceleration
- In organ of corti: hearing
- In cochlea: hearing

5. Meisner’s/ tactile corpuscles

- respond to changes in texture and slow vibration

- Tap, flutter 5–40 Hz
- Cutaneous mechanoreceptor

6. MERKEL cells

- expanded dendritic endings

- respond to sustained Touch, pressure

- Cutaneous mechanoreceptor

 PHOTOreceptors
o RODS
- sensitive to light
- receptors for night vision (scotopic vision)
o CONES
- Sensitive to darkness
- greater acuity
- responsible for vision in bright light (photopic vision) and for color vision
  chemoreceptors

- receptors stimulated by a change in the chemical composition of the environment in which

they are located

Types:

o OLFACTORY receptors
- G protein-coupled receptors that dissociate upon binding to the odorant
- The α-subunit of G proteins activates adenylate cyclase to catalyze production
of cAMP.
- cAMP acts as a second messenger to open cation channels. Inward diffusion of
Na+ and Ca2+ produces depolarization.
o GUSTATORY
 Salty : ENaC
 Sour: HCN, ENaC
 Umami : mGluR4
 Bitter : T2R family
 Sweet : T1R3
o OSMOreceptors
- specialized neurons in the hypothalamus that are stimulated by increased osmolalit
y (increased sodium concentration) of the extracellular fluid; their excitation promot
es the release of antidiuretic hormone by the posterior pituitary.
o CAROTID BODY
- detect changes in arterial blood oxygen
o GLUCOSE
 NOCICEPTOR

- mediates Potentially harmful stimuli such as pain, extreme heat, and extreme cold

 THERMOreceptors
o COLD: dendritic endings of Aδ fibers and C fibers.
o WARM/ heat : on C fibers
 RECEPTION
o EXCITATORY
o INHIBITORY

STEPS: RECEPTOR (STIMULUS) - CURRENT

(AP) - DEPO. / HYPER. – RP (GENERATOR

POTENTIAL) – GRADED RESPONSE

 ADAPTATION:
 SLOWLY, TONIC ( MUSCLE

 SPINDLE,PRESSURE, SLOW PAIN )

 - PROLONGED / STEADY

 RAPIDLY, PHASIC ( PACINIAN, LIGHT,

 TOUCH )

 - ONSET / OFFSET OF STIM. ( - )

 PATHWAYS:

 1ST ORDER NEURONS: AFF – DORSAL ROOT

 EFF - VENTRAL ROOT

 ( BELL-MAGENDIE LAW)

 2ND ORDER NEURONS: AFF – CONTRALATERAL

 THALAMUS

 3RD ORDER NEURONS: THALAMUS TO C. CORTEX

 4TH ORDER NEURONS: SENSORY CEREBRAL PERCEPTION

 ( S.A. 3,1,2 )

 PATHWAYS:

 DCL SYSTEM: FINE TOUCH, PRESSURE, 2-

 PT. DISCRIMINATION, VIBRATION, POSITION,

 PROPRIO. – MECHANO-RECEPTIVE SENSES

 ( GRP. II FIBERS )

 ASCEND IPSILATERAL (N. GRACILIS,

 CUNEATUS)

 LARGE MYELINATED, HIGH DEGREE, FINE

 GRADATIONS, DISCRETELY-LOCALIZED, RAPID REPETITIVE

 AL SYSTEM: TEMPERATURE, PAIN, CRUDE

 TOUCH, TICKLE-ITCH. SEXUAL - BROAD SENSORY

 ( GRP.III, IV F.)

 ASCENDS CONTRALATERAL THALAMUS

 SMALLER MYELINATED, SMALLER DEGREE, NO INTENSITY,

 LESS LOCALIZED, POOR REPETITIVE, VELOCITY ½ OF DCL

 NERVE FIBERS:

 A-ALPHA (A-MOTO.) FASTEST VELOCITY

 1-a: m. spindle 1-b: golgi-tendon

 A-BETA (TOUCH,PRESSURE) MEDIUM

 II – sec. aff. m. spindle

 A-GAMMA ( y-MOTO.) MEDIUM

 A-DELTA (T, P, TEMP.,FAST PAIN) MEDIUM

 III – T, P, TEMP. “

 B (PRE-GANG.) MEDIUM

 C (SLOW PAIN,POST-GANG.) SLOWEST

 IV – SLOW PAIN, TEMP. (UNMYELIN.)

 MECHANO.:

 PACINIAN VIBRATION R-ADAPTING

 MEISSNER’S VELOCITY “

 RUFFINI’S PRESSURE S-ADAPTING

 MERKEL’S LOCATION “

 THALAMUS: DESTRUCTION - LOSS OF SENSE

 ON CONTRALATERAL SIDE

 SOMOESTHETIC CENTER: 3,1,2 (POST-CENT.)

 SEC. ASSO. AREA : 5,7 (PARIETAL)

 PAIN (NOCICEPTION):

 FREE-NERVE ENDINGS: SKIN, MUSCLE, VISC.

 NEURO.: BK, 5-HT, H, Ach,Pg, K, ACIDS,

 SUBST. P, PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES

 ACUTE: FAST, SHARP, PRICKING, ELECTRIC

 - TYPE A-d GRP. III –

 RAPID,LOCALIZED

 SLOW: BURNING, ACHING, THROBBING,

 NAUSEOUS, CHRONIC

 - TYPE C GRP. IV – POORLY LOCALIZED

 HYPERALGESIA ( + )

 DUAL PATHWAYS: SPINAL CORD – LISSAUER’S T.

 (POST-DORSAL H.) – LSTT

 FP: MEDIAL DORSAL ROOT

 SP: LATERAL DORSAL ROOT

 BRAIN - FP: RET.F.MEDULLA, PONS, THALAMUS

 SP: RET. F. BRAINSTEM, THALAMUS

 BRAIN OPIATE SYSTEM:

 PERIAQUEDUCTAL GRAY AREA

 PARAVENTRICULAR N. (3RD V.)

 RAPHE MAGNUS

 DORSAL HORNS ( SP. CORD )

 mu - ENDORPHINS

 delta - ENKEPHALINS

 kappa - DYNORPHINS

 ACUPUNCTURE: ( - ) PAIN AT CORD LEVEL BY

 TACTILE SIGNALS

 REFERRED PAIN: VISCERAL (ISCHEMIA, SPASM,

 GUARDING)

 - DERMATOMAL RULE

 - PROJECTION / CONVERGENCE / FACILITATION

 - SPECIFIC NERVE ENERGIES (MULLER’S)

 INTERMITTENT CLAUDICATION PAIN: VASCULAR OCCLUSIVE D.

 ADAPTATION: MAINTAINED STIMULI TO

 CONSTANT STRENGTH

 SLOW INC. ADAPTATION –

 MUSCLE STRENGTH (POSTURAL)

 PAIN AND COLD (NOXIOUS)

 CAROTID-AORTIC SINUS ( BP )

 ACCOMMODATION: INACTIVATION OF Na-

 CHANNEL IN NERVE FIBER MEMBRANE

 TICKLE-ITCH: C-FIBERS (ALS)

 LEAST ANNOYING,PLEASURABLE, LOCAL

 H1 / KININ

 SYNTHETIC SENSES: (DCL)

 VIBRATORY – PRESSURE, RHYTHMN, TIME

 2-PT. DISCRIMINATION

 STEREOGNOSIS - TOUCH AND PRESSURE

 TOUCH-PRESSURE: (DCL –VSTT)

 RAPID ADAP., TYPE A

 PROPRIOCEPTION: (DCL)

 JOINTS (GOLGI-TENDON),

 PACINIAN ( SYNOVIAL, LIGAMENTS )

 FLOWER-SPRAY

 TEMPERATURE: (ALS – LSTT)

 MORE SENSITIVE, TYPE A (III) AFF.

 CRUDE TOUCH: ( ALS )

 VISION (EYEBALL):

 VISUAL ACUITY: SNELLEN’S / JAEGER’S /

 ISHIHARA’S

 LENGTH OF TIME
 CONTRASTS

 ILLUMINATION (BRIGHTNESS)

 RETINAL: RODS AND CONES

 IMAGE-FORMING MECH.

 REFRACTION: DIOPTERS

 10 D = 1/ 10 M. = 10 CM.

 SPECIAL SENSORY SYSTEM:

 VISION

 REFRACTIVE ERRORS:

 EMMETROPIA - 20 / 20 (NORMAL)

 HYPEROPIA (FARSIGHTED) - APHAKIA

 MYOPIA (NEARSIGHTED) - PREMATURITY

 PRESBYOPIA – SENILITY

 ASTIGMATISM -KERATITIS (CORNEA,LENS)

 RECEPTOR POTENTIALS: RETINA

 PIGMENT CELLS – CONVERT ALL-TRANS-R

 TO 11-CIS-R.

 RODS AND CONES – HYPERPOLARIZATION

 BIPOLAR CELLS –

 HORIZONTAL CELLS –HYPERPOLARIZATION /

 DEPOLARIZATION

 AMACRINE CELLS –

 GANGLIONCELLS - - SPIKE-POTENTIAL ( DEPOLARIZATION)

 RODS CONES

 SENSITIVITY: GREATER LOW

 (NIGHT) (DAY)

 ACUITY: LOWER HIGH

 ABSENT FOVEA PRESENT

 DARK ADAP.: LATER FIRST

 COLOR VISION: NO YES

 VISUAL PATHWAYS:

 RODS AND CONES

 INNER NUCLEAR LAYER

 GANGLION CELL LAYER

 OPTIC NERVE

 OPTIC CHIASM

 OPTIC TRACT

 SUPERIOR COLLICULI (OPTIC GANGLIA)

 LATERAL GENICULATE BODY (OPTIC

 RADIATION)

 CALCARINE (OCCIPITAL): 17, 18-19, 20-21

 LESIONS IN VISUAL PATHWAYS:

 TOTAL BLINDNESS – OPTIC NERVE

 BITEMPORAL HETERONOMOUS HEMIANOPSIA

 - OPTIC CHIASM

 IPSILATERAL NASAL HEMIANOPSIA –

 - OPTIC CHIASM ( 1-SIDE )

 CONTRALATERAL HOMONYMOUS HEMIANOPSIA

 - OPTIC RADIATION

 CONTRALATERAL LOWER QUADRANTIC

 ANOPSIA - LOWER OPTIC RADIATION

 CONTRALATERAL UPPPER QUADRANTIC ANOPSIA

 - UPPER OPTIC RADIATION

 PHOTORECEPTION:

 11-CIS-RETINAL (LIGHT) ---ALL-TRANS-

  RETINAL – METARHODOPSIN II --

 G-PROTEIN ACTIVATION (TRANSDUCIN)

 -- PDE (PHOSPHODIESTERASE) –

 cGMP DECREASE -- Na-CHANNEL ( - )

 -- HYPERPOLARIZATION

 -- DECREASEED EXCITA./ INHIBI.

 NEUROTRANSMITTERS

 DIRECTIONS OF GAZE

 SUPERIOR RECTUS / INFERIOR RECTUS

 MEDIAL RECTUS / INFERIOR OBLIQUE

 N.S. : 3RD CN

 LATERAL RECTUS N.S. : 6TH CN

 SUPERIOR OBLIQUE N.S. : 4TH CN

 OTHER OCULAR DEFECTS:

 AMETROPIA

 ASTHENOPIA

 ANISOMETROPIA

 ANISEIKONIA

HEARING

 SOUND WAVES: FREQUENCY - HERTZ (Hz)

 INTENSITY - DECIBELS (dB)

 SOUND CONDUCTION (AIR):

 EXTERNAL AUDITORY CANAL

 TYMPANUM

 MALLEUS, INCUS, STAPES (TENSOR T. /

 STAPEDIUS)

 MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH (OVAL W.)

 SCALA VESTIBULI (PERILYMPH) /

 S.TYMPANI (PERILYMPH)

 BASILAR MEMBRANE – APEX (HELICOTREMA) /

 BASE ( ROUND W.)

 ORGAN OF CORTI (SCALA MEDIA –ENDOLYMPH)

 :OUTER AND INNER HAIR CELLS (RECEPTORS)

 SPIRAL GANGLION OF CORTI (MODIOLUS)

 COCHLEAR (ACOUSTIC) NERVE - VIII C.N.

 MEDIAL GENICULATE BODY (AUDITORY RADIATION)

 SUP. TEMPORAL GYRUS (INSULA): 1ST – RECEPTION 2ND – INTERPRET.

 RECEPTOR POTENTIAL:

 BACK AND FORTH BENDING OF HAIR CELLS

 BASILAR FIBERS BEND UPWARD (S.V.):

 DEPOLARIZATION

 BASILAR FIBERS MOVE DOWNWARD (S.T.):

 HYPERPOLARIZATION

 ENDOCOCHLEAR POTENTIAL:

 S. MEDIA (ENDOLYMPH) – HIGH K/LOW Na

 RMP = + 80 mv.

 S. VESTIBULI / S. TYMPANI - HIGH Na/LOW K

 POWER LAW: CHANGES IN LOUDNESS ( dB ) BONE CONDUCTION:

 FREQUENCY RANGE: MASTOID, TEMPORAL, FLUIDS

 NORMAL YOUNG = 20 – 20,000 C / SEC.

 OLD AGE = 50 – 8,000 C / SEC. ATTENUATION REFLEX : PROTECTIVE

 1ST AUDITORY CORTEX: RECEPTION

 DISCRIMINATION (PITCH) PLACE PRINCIPLE: HIGH FREQUENCY

 TONE / SEQUENCE RESONANCE /

 2ND INTERPRETATIVE AREA: WERNICKE’S A. – AMPLITUDE OF VIBRATION

 AUDITORY AGNOSIA
  HEARING DEFECTS:

 NERVE DEAFNESS - VIII C.N.

 OLD AGE ( COCHLEAR)

 ROCK BAND /JET AIRPLANE (LOW)

 DRUG TOXICITIES: (HIGH)

 CONDUCTION DEAFNESS – MIDDLE EAR DISEASE

 FIBROSIS (INFECTIONS)

 OTOSCLEROSIS (HEREDITARY)

 BONE CONDUCTION NORMAL

 AUDIOMETRY: DX

OLFACTION

 OLFACTORY MEMBRANE (NOSE)–UPPER /MID.

OLFACTORY HAIR CELLS (BIPOLAR) – R =100 M

SUSTENTACULAR CELLS

GLANDS OF BOWMAN’S - MUCUS

OLFACTORY STIMULANTS:

VOLATILE, LEAST H20-SOLUBLE, FAT=SOLUBLE

RECEPTOR POTENTIAL:

OLF. HAIR CELLS: ODOR STIMULANTS --

ACT. G-PROTEINS -- INC. cAMP -

Na-CHANNEL OPENS --

DEPOLARIZATION

ADAPTATION: SLOW = 50% ONLY

 OLFACTORY STIMULANTS:

 LOW THRESHOLD, LOW GRADATIONS

 AFFECTIVE

 CAMPHORACEOUS, MUSKY, FLORAL,

 PEPPERMINTY, ETHEREAL, PUNGENT, PUTRID.

 CNS PATHWAYS:
  OLFACTORY CELLS -- OLFACTORY BULB

 -- MITRAL CELLS (TUFTED)- – OLF.NERVE

 ( CN I AND CN V ) –OLF. TRACT --

 -- LAT. OLF. AREA ( TEMPORAL ):

 PRE-PYRIFORM CORTEX / AMYGDALA

 (LIMBIC SYSTEM)

 ODOR BLINDNESS:

 ANOSMIA / HYPOSMIA / HYPEROSMIA / DYSOSMIA

GUSTATORY (TASTE)

 4 PRIMARY SENSES:

 SOUR / SALTY / SWEET / BITTER

 TASTE BLINDNESS:

 AGEUSIA / HYPOGEUSIA / DYSGEUSIA

 TASTE BUDS: 40 MOD. NEURO-EPITH.

 SUSTENTACULAR CELLS

 TASTE HAIR CELLS (R)

 RECEPTOR POTENTIAL: DEPOLARIZATION

 (ADSORPTION)

 GENERATOR POTENTIAL: NERVE IMPULSE

 (CHEMO.)

 CNS PATHWAYS:

 ANT. 2/3 TONGUE: CN V, CN VII

 (CHORDA T. / T. SOLITARIUS)

 POST. 1/3 TONGUE: CN IX (T. SOLITARIUS)

 BASE TONGUE / PHARYNX: CN X (T. S.)

 -- THALAMUS (DC – M. LEMNISCUS)

 -- POST-CENTRAL GYRUS (PARIETAL)

 -- OPERCULAR-INSULAR AREA (TEMPORAL)

 : RECEPTION AND INTERPRET.