MODULE 1 – Gross Anatomy
and Edgardo. When they returned, Emilio and
People v. De Leon (2015)
Plaintiff: People of the Philippines
Accussed: Bayani De Leon, Antonio De Leon, Danilo De
Leon and Yoyong De Leon
Note: Focus on the anatomical parts
Facts:
1. The accused-appellants were charged with Robbery
with Homicide.
2. Complaint states that while victim/deceased Emilio
A. Prasmo was walking along A. Bonifacio Street,
Barangay Sta. Lucia, Novaliches, this City, together
with his wife and daughter in-law, accused pursuant
to their conspiracy armed with sumpak, samurai, lead
pipe and .38 cal. revolver rob EMILIO A. PRASMO and
took and carried away P7,000.00.
3. Evidence of the Prosecution:
a. Erlinda A. Prasmo (Erlinda), wife of the victim: they
were walking along Sta. Lucia Street, Novaliches, on
their way to RP Market, the accused-appellants,
who are siblings, blocked their way. Accused
Danilo, armed with a "sumpak", suddenly hit Emilio
with a "bakal" while accused-appellant Antonio,
who was armed with a "samurai", hacked Emilio in
the forehead and struck him with a lead pipe at the
right back portion of his legs and middle back
portion of his torso. Accused Danilo then took
Emilio's money in the amount of P7,000.00 and
thereafter aimed the "sumpak" at the lower portion
of Emilio's chest and fired the same, causing Emilio
to slump on the ground. Accused Yoyong also hit
Emilio with a lead pipe at the back of the neck and
middle portion of his back. Erlinda shouted for help,
but nobody dared to help because accused
Bayani, armed with a gun, was shouting "waking
lalapit". The accused-appellants immediately left
and Emilio was brought to the FEU Fairview Hospital,
where Emilio died.
b. Gina Prasmo, Emilio's daughter: that at the time of
the incident, she was at their house when she was
informed of the news. She immediately went to the
hospital where she learned that her father was
already dead.
c. Dr. Editha Martinez, a medico-legal officer of the
Medico-Legal Division, PNP Crime Laboratory,
Camp Crame, QC, was dispensed with because
she was not the one who performed the autopsy on
the cadaver of Emilio, but nevertheless, she
identified such documents as Medico-Legal Report,
Autopsy Report, Sketch of the head showing
contusion, anatomical sketch showing the gunshot
wound on the right portion of the chest, and the
anatomical sketch of Emilio.
4. Evidence of the Defense
a. Carmelita de Leon (Carmelita), sister of the
accused-appellants: she was at her house when
her brothers, accused Danilo and Antonio arrived.
Upon observing that the heads of Antonio and
Danilo were bleeding, she was informed that Emilio
and his son, Edgardo Prasmo (Edgardo), attacked
and mauled them, which caused their injuries. They
reported the incident to a "tanod" in the barangay
hall, Julio Batingaw, who told them to return in the
afternoon so they could have a meeting with Emilio
Edgardo did not appear. In the evening, at around
7 o'clock, 15 men carrying firearms, who included
Jerry and Edgar, sons of Emilio, stormed her house
looking for accused-appellants and threatened to
kill her if she will not disclose their whereabouts.
Defense offered in evidence the medical
certificates for the injuries sustained by accused-
appellants Antonio and Danilo and the entry in the
barangay blotter book, about the mauling of
accused-appellants Antonio and Danilo.
b. The accused-appellants:
i. Jose de Leon, also known as Yoyong, was at the
house of his brother-in-law, Willie Bandong, in
Bagong Barrio, Caloocan City to discuss the
schedule of the "pabasa". He stayed there
between 8-9 pm. Danilo, at that time, was with his
mother in Pugad Lawin in QC , to accompany his
mother in doing her work as a "manghihilot". They
left Pugad Lawin between 8:00 to 9:00 o'clock in
the evening and went home. Bayani, a police
civilian agent, at the night of the crime, was at the
Police Station No. 5 in Fairview, talking to a police
officer.
ii. Antonio, in the morning of 2 March 2002, went to
the barangay hall with his mother, Carmelita, and
accused-appellant Danilo, to file a complaint
against Emilio and Emilio's son, Edgardo, due to
the mauling incident the previous evening. In the
barangay hall, they were told to return in the
afternoon so they could have a meeting with
Emilio and Edgardo. They returned as told. Emilio
and Edgardo did not.
On the way home, accused-appellant
Antonio met Emilio, Erlinda, and Gina,
Emilio's daughter, walking along A.
Bonifacio Street. Emilio, upon seeing
Antonio, immediately opened his jacket
and tried to pull "something" out. Antonio
then instantly tried to grab that "something"
from Emilio. While grappling for the
possession of that "something", which turned
out to be a "sumpak", it fired.
iii. Bernaly Aguilar, while on her way to the market in
Sta. Lucia, witnessed a fight involving accused-
appellant Antonio and another man, who were
grappling for the possession over a "bakal". After
walking a few meters away from the incident, she
heard a shot.
5. According to the accused-appellants, Erlinda is not a
credible witness and that her testimony is barren of
probative value for having grave and irreconcilable
inconsistencies—i.e. between Erlinda's court
testimony and her Sinumpaang Salaysay. In her
Sinumpaang Salaysay, she identified accused-
appellant Antonio as the one who fired the "sumpak"
at the lower chest of Emilio and took Erlinda's money.
However, during her direct examination, she testified
that it was accused-appellant Danilo who shot Emilio
with a "sumpak" and thereafter, took his wallet.
6. Accused-appellants further argued that Erlinda could
not have mistaken Danilo for Antonio, because she
knew them both as they reside 6 houses away from
the house of the Prasmos and that accused-
 appellant Antonio has a distinctive feature — having
a cleft palate or is "ngongo".
7. RTC: Erlinda's narration of the incident is clear and
convincing. While her testimony has some
inconsistencies, they refer only to collateral and minor
matters, which do not detract from the probative
value of her testimony. The trial court found
established the circumstances of abuse of superior
strength and treachery, abuse of strength absorbed
by the aggravating circumstance of treachery:
a. after Danilo suddenly fired at Emilio's lower portion
of the chest accused Antonio and Yoyong ganged
up on Emilio, with Antonio hitting him with a lead
pipe on the right back portion of his legs and in the
middle back torso and hacking him with a samurai,
and accused Yoyong hitting also (sic) him with a
lead pipe on the right back leg and middle portion
of his back. Said action of the four (4) accused
rendered it difficult for the victim to defend himself.
8. However, RTC ruled that robbery was not duly
established. In order to sustain a conviction for
robbery with homicide, robbery must be proven as
conclusively as the killing itself. RTC found accused-
appellants guilty of Murder by conspiracy.
9. CA: Affirmed the conviction. Contrary to the
accused-appellants' contention that the trial court
committed a reversible error when it gave credence
to Erlinda's testimony, the Court of Appeals
considered Erlinda's recollection of the events as
direct, positive and convincing manner, unshaken by
a tedious and grueling cross-examination. No robbery
with homicide. “accused-appellants had an axe to
grind against Emilio x x x. The means used by the
accused-appellants as well as the nature and
number of wounds - debilitating, fatal and multiple —
inflicted by appellants on the deceased manifestly
revealed their design to kill him. The robbery
committed by appellant Danilo [was on] the spur of
the moment or [was] a mere afterthought."
10. CA: found accused-appellant Danilo guilty of
Robbery for unlawfully divesting Emilio of P7,000.00,
which it considered as an action independent of and
outside the original design to murder Emilio. The
dispositive portion of the Court of Appeals Decision
reads:
Issues:
1. WON the testimony of the alleged eyewitness Erlinda
Prasmo should not have been given credence for
being inconsistent? NO.
2. WON the self-defense interposed by Antonio De Leon
exculpates him? NO.
3. WON the denial and alibi interposed by Bayani,
Danilo, and Yoyong, should have exculpated them?
NO.
4. WON there was double jeopardy? YES.
Ratio:
1. Inconsistencies between the declaration of the affiant
in her sworn statements and those in open court do
not necessarily discredit the witness; it is not fatal to
the prosecution's cause. In fact, contrary to the
defense's claim, discrepancies erase suspicion that
the witness was rehearsed or that the testimony was
fabricated.
 Erlinda's narration revealed each and every detail of
the incident, which gave no impression whatsoever
that her testimony is a mere fabrication. As we
already enunciated in previous rulings, "[i]t is a matter
of judicial experience that affidavits or statements
taken ex parte are generally incomplete and
inaccurate. Thus, by nature, they are inferior to
testimony given in court, and whenever there is
inconsistency between the affidavit and the
testimony of a witness in court, the testimony
commands greater weight."
2. Elements for self-defense not proven.
 Before us is a reversed trial. As one of the accused-
appellants, Antonio, pleaded self-defense, he
admitted authorship of the crime. At this juncture, the
burden of proof is upon the accused-appellants to
prove with clear and convincing evidence the
elements of self-defense: (1) unlawful aggression on
the part of the victim; (2) reasonable necessity of the
means employed to prevent or repel the attack; and
(3) lack of sufficient provocation on the part of the
person defending himself, which the defense failed
to discharge.
3. Acts of Emilio does not amount to unlawful
aggression. Quite the contrary, the wounds sustained
by Emilio indubitably reveal that the assault was no
longer an act of self-defense but a homicidal
aggression.
 Unlawful aggression refers to an assault to attack, or
threat in an imminent and immediate manner, which
places the defendant's life in actual peril. There must
be actual physical force or actual use of weapon.
 Emilio's act of pulling "something" out from his jacket
while he was 3-4 meters away from accused-
appellant Antonio cannot amount to unlawful
aggression.
 Neither can the act of pulling "something" out
amount to physical force or actual use of weapon, or
even threat or intimidating attitude.
 Even if accused-appellant Antonio's account of the
incident is truthful, that Emilio had motive to kill
accused-appellant Antonio, giving accused-
appellant reasonable grounds to believe that his life
and limb was in danger, and that the "something"
was indeed a "sumpak", it can hardly be recognized
as unlawful aggression to justify self-defense.
 There is no showing that accused-appellant Antonio's
life was in peril by the act of pulling "something" out.
As correctly observed by the Court of Appeals, "it
must be noted that appellant never said that Emilio
aimed or pointed the "sumpak" at him or at least
made an attempt to shoot him". The threat on
accused-appellant Antonio's life is more imagined
than real. The act of pulling "something" out cannot
constitute unlawful aggression
 Accused-appellant Antonio cannot allege that it was
Emilio who instigated the incident; that Emilio's fate
was brought about by his own actuations. There is no
sufficient provocation, nay, provocation at all in the
act of pulling "something" out.
 *Contrary to accused-appellant Antonio's contention
that he acted in self-defense, the Medico-Legal
Report No. M-685-02 dated 12 March 2002 proved
otherwise. As borne by the records, Emilio sustained
numerous wounds, including the fatal gunshot wound
in the chest, which belie accused-appellants'
defense that Antonio was alone at the scene of the
crime and acted in self-defense. The Medico-Legal
Report No. M-685-02 dated 12 March 2002 revealed
that the victim sustained the following multiple
injuries:
HEAD AND NECK:
o Lacerated wound, right parietal region, measuring
4x3 cm, 7 cm from the mid-sagittal line.
o Contusion, right mandibular region, measuring 11x2
cm, 7 cm from the anterior midline.
o Contusion, nasal region, measuring 3 x 2.5 cm,
along the anterior midline.
o Hematoma, left parietal region, measuring 5x4 cm,
8 cm from the anterior midline.
o Contusion, left cheek, measuring 11x3 cm, 8 cm
from the anterior midline.
o Contusion, left lateral neck region, measuring 6x3
cm, 4 cm from the anterior midline.
o Lacerated wound, occipital region, measuring 5 x
1.8 cm, bisected by the anterior midline.
o There is a scalp hematoma at the right parieto-
occipital region.
o There are subdural, sub arachnoid hemorrhages
at the right celebrum.
o The right parietal bone is fractured.
TRUNK AND ABDOMEN:
o Gunshot wound, right chest, measuring 2.6 cm x 2.3
cm, 4 cm from the anterior midline, 112 cm from the
right heel, directed posteriorwards, downwards,
and slightly lateralwards, fracturing the 6th and 7th
ribs, lacerating the lower lobe of the right lung,
diaphragm, right lobe of the liver with the deformed
plastic wad embedded, right kidney with 2 lead
pellets found embedded and the aorta with 3
pellets embedded thereat and 2 lead pellets found
at the right thoracic cavity.
o Contusion, right shoulder region, measuring 12x3
cm, 8 cm from the posterior midline.
o Abrasion, right shoulder region, measuring 3.5 x 2
cm, 12 cm from the posterior midline.
o Contusion, left shoulder region, measuring 4x2 cm, 6
cm from the posterior midline.
EXTREMITIES:
o Contusion, left elbow, measuring 8x2 cm, 5 cm
medial to its posterior midline.
o Abrasion, dorsal aspect of the left hand, measuring
0.6 x 0.3 cm, 3 cm medial to its posterior midline.20
 As we already held, the nature and location of
wounds are considered important indicators which
disprove a plea of self-defense. A perusal of the
evidence would depict the presence of a deliberate
onslaught against Emilio. The means used by
accused-appellants as shown by the nature, location
and number of wounds sustained by Emilio are so
much more than sufficient to repel or prevent any
alleged attack of Emilio against accused-appellant
Antonio.
 Evidently, the accused-appellants' intent to kill was
clearly established by the nature and number of
wounds sustained by Emilio'.
 The wounds sustained by Emilio indubitably reveal
that the assault was no longer an act of self-defense
but a homicidal aggression on the part of accused-
appellants.
4. All elements of Double Jeopardy appear in this case.
 The appellate court erred for violating the
constitutional right of Danilo against double jeopardy
as enshrined in Section 21, Article III of the 1987
Constitution.
Section 21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy
of punishment for the same offense. If an act is
punished by a law and an ordinance, conviction or
acquittal under either shall constitute a bar to
another prosecution for the same act.
 Double jeopardy attaches if the following elements
are present: (1) a valid complaint or information; (2) a
court of competent jurisdiction; (3) the defendant
had pleaded to the charge; and (4) the defendant
was acquitted, or convicted or the case against him
was dismissed or otherwise terminated without his
express consent.
 In case at bar, it is undisputed the presence of all the
elements of double jeopardy: (1) a valid Information
for robbery with homicide was filed; (2) the
Information was filed in the court of competent
jurisdiction; (3) the accused pleaded not guilty to the
charge; and (4) the RTC acquitted Danilo for the
crime of robbery for lack of sufficient evidence,
which amounted to an acquittal from which no
appeal can be had. Indeed the conviction for
murder was premised on the fact that robbery was
not proven. The RTC Decision which found accused
guilty of the crime of murder and not of robbery with
homicide on the ground of insufficiency of evidence
is a judgment of acquittal as to the crime of robbery
alone.
 As the first jeopardy already attached, the appellate
court is precluded from ruling on the innocence or
guilt of Danilo of the crime of robbery. As it stands,
the acquittal on the crime of robbery based on lack
of sufficient evidence is immediately final and cannot
be appealed on the ground of double jeopardy.
 A judgment of acquittal is final and unappealable. In
fact, the Court cannot, even an appeal based on an
alleged misappreciation of evidence, review the
verdict of acquittal of the trial court due to the
constitutional proscription, the purpose of which is to
afford the defendant, who has been acquitted, final
repose and safeguard from government oppression
through the abuse of criminal processes. The crime of
robbery was not proven during the trial. As we
discussed, the acquittal of the accused-appellant,
including Danilo, is not reversible.
Judgment: Accused-Appellants BAYANI DE LEON,
ANTONIO DE LEON, DANILO DE LEON and YOYONG DE
LEON declared guilty beyond reasonable doubt of the
crime of Murder (only)

I. Anatomical Landmarks
A. Head Regions
1. Frontal bone
- A cranial bone that surrounds and protects the
anterior portion of brain.
2. Parietal bone
- A large thin, four-sided cranial bone that makes up
much of the top and the sides of the cranium.
3. Occipital bone
- A large, four-sided (or trapezoidal) bone that forms
the back and base regions of the skull.
4. Temporal bone
A cranial bone that protects the base and side regions of
brain.
5. Mandibular bone
- The facial bone that forms the lower jaw and contains
the lower teeth.
6. Maxillary Bones
- There are two; they form the upper jaw; maxilla
(singular); maxillae (plural)
- Each maxilla has four processes (frontal, zygomatic,
alveolar, and palatine) and helps form the orbit, roof
of the mouth, and the lateral walls of the nasal cavity
- Either of a pair of bones of the human skull fusing in
the midline and forming the upper jaw.
- There are the two maxilla bones forming the upper
jaw and palate of the mouth. The two halves are
fused at the intermaxillary suture to form the upper
jaw. This is similar to the mandible (lower jaw), which is
also a fusion of two halves at the mandibular
symphysis.
7. Zygomatic
- The zygomatic bones are two facila bones that form
the cheeks and the lateral walls of the orbits.
- They are also commonly referred to as the
cheekbones or malar bones
- Each zygomatic bone articulates with the temporal
bone, frontal bone, maxilla and sphenoid bones
- A bone on each side of the face below the eye,
forming the prominence of the cheek; cheekbone.
- The part of the temporal bone of the skull that forms
the prominence of the cheek.
- The zygomatic bone is also known as the zygomatic
arch, the zygoma, the malar bone, the cheek bone
and the yoke bone.
- A bone of the face below the eye that in mammals
forms part of the zygomatic arch and part of the orbit
—called also cheekbone
- In the human skull, the zygomatic bone (cheekbone,
malar bone) is a paired bone which articulates with
the maxilla, the temporal bone, the sphenoid bone
and the frontal bone. It is situated at the upper and
lateral part of the face and forms the prominence of
the cheek, part of the lateral wall and floor of the
orbit, and parts of the temporal and infratemporal
fossa. It presents a malar and a temporal surface; four
processes, the frontosphenoidal, orbital, maxillary, and
temporal; and four borders.
8. Nasal
- An elongated rectangular bone that forms the bridge
of the nose.
- An elongated rectangular bone that, with its fellow,
forms the bridge of the nose; it articulates with the
frontal bone superiorly, the ethmoid and the frontal
process of the maxilla posteriorly, and its fellow
medially.
- Either of two bones of the skull of vertebrates; in
humans are oblong in shape forming by their junction
the bridge of the nose and partly covering the nasal
cavity
-
9. Mental Protuberance
- The bony protuberance at the front of the lower jaw
forming the chin
- The symphysis of the external surface of the mandible
divides below and encloses a triangular eminence,
the mental protuberance, the base of which is
depressed in the center but raised on either side to
form the mental tubercle. The size and shape of the
bones making up this structure are responsible for the
size and shape of a person's chin.
- The prominence of the chin at the anterior part of the
mandible.
- A midline swelling on the base of the mandible on its
anterior surface where the two
B. Brain
1. Cerebrum

- The cerebrum is a large part of the brain containing
the cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres),
as well as several subcortical structures, including the
hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. In
humans, the cerebrum is the superior-most region of
the central nervous system. [Wiki]
2. Subdural Space
- The subdural space (or subdural cavity) is a potential
space that can be opened by the separation of the
arachnoid mater from the dura mater as the result of
trauma, pathologic process, or the absence of
cerebrospinal fluid as seen in a cadaver. In the
cadaver, due to the absence of cerebrospinal fluid in
the subarachnoid space, the arachnoid mater falls
away from the dura mater. It may also be the site of
trauma, such as a subdural hematoma, causing
abnormal separation of dura and arachnoid mater.
Hence, the subdural space is referred to as "potential"
or "artificial" space.
- The arachnoid mater is one of the three meninges, the
protective membranes that cover the brain and spinal
cord.
- Dura mater, or dura, is a thick membrane that is the
outermost of the three layers of the meninges that
surround the brain and spinal cord. It is derived from
mesoderm.
- The other two meningeal layers are the arachnoid
mater and the pia mater. The dura surrounds the brain
and the spinal cord and is responsible for keeping in
the cerebrospinal fluid.
3. Subarachnoid Space
- In the central nervous system, the subarachnoid
space (subarachnoid cavity) is the anatomic space
between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.
- It is occupied by spongy tissue consisting of
trabeculae (delicate connective tissue filaments that
extend from the arachnoid mater and blend into the
pia mater) and intercommunicating channels in which
the cerebrospinal fluid is contained.
- Pia mater, often referred to as simply the pia, is the
delicate innermost layer of the meninges, the
membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Pia
mater is medieval Latin meaning "tender mother".[1]
The other two meningeal membranes are the dura
mater and the arachnoid mater. Pia mater is a thin
fibrous tissue that is impermeable to fluid. This allows
the pia mater to enclose cerebrospinal fluid. By
containing this fluid the pia mater works with the other
meningeal layers to protect and cushion the brain.
The pia mater allows blood vessels to pass through
and nourish the brain. The perivascular space created
between blood vessels and pia mater functions as a
lymphatic system for the brain. When the pia mater
becomes irritated and inflamed the result is
meningitis.[2]

C. Chest Region
1. Axilla
- The axilla (or underarm, or oxter) is the area on the
human body directly under the joint where the arm
connects to the shoulder.
- The overall 3D shape of the axilla looks slightly like a
pyramid. The borders consist of four sides and a base
with an opening at the apex.
2. Pectorals
- There are three muscles that lie in the pectoral region
and exert a force on the upper limb. They are the
pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, and the serratus
anterior. In this article, we shall learn about the
anatomy of the muscles of the anterior chest.
Pectoralis Major
This a large, fan shaped muscle, and is the most
superficial muscle in the pectoral region. It also
makes up most of the anterior wall of the axilla
Pectoralis Minor
The pectoralis minor muscle is much smaller than
the pectoralis major, and lies posterior
(underneath) to it. With the pectoralis major, it
forms part of the anterior wall of the axilla.
Serratus Anterior
The serratus anterior is found more laterally in the
chest and, forms the medial wall of the axilla.
3. Thoracic cavity
- The Thoracic Cavity (or chest cavity) is the chamber of
the body of vertebrates that is protected by the
thoracic wall (rib cage and associated skin, muscle,
and fascia). The central compartment of the thoracic
cavity is the mediastinum. There are two openings of
the thoracic cavity, a superior thoracic aperture
known as the thoracic inlet and a lower inferior
thoracic aperture known as the thoracic outlet.
- The thoracic cavity includes the tendons as well as the
cardiovascular system which could be damaged from
injury to the back, spine or the neck.
- If the pleural cavity (in human anatomy, the pleural
cavity is the thin fluid-filled space between the two
pulmonary pleurae (visceral and parietal) of each
lung), is breached from the outside, as by a bullet
wound or knife wound, a pneumothorax, or air in the
cavity, may result. If the volume of air is significant,
one or both lungs may collapse, which requires
immediate medical attention.
4. Lungs
- The lungs are the major organs of respiration. They are
located in the chest, either side of the mediastinum.
- The function of the lungs is to oxygenate blood. They
achieve this by bringing inspired air into close contact
with oxygen-poor blood in the pulmonary capillaries.
Anatomical Position and Relations
The lungs lie either side of the mediastinum, within the
thoracic cavity. Each lung is surrounded by a pleural
cavity, which is formed by the visceral and parietal
pleura.
Lung Structure
The lungs are roughly cone shaped, with an apex, base,
three surfaces and three borders. The left lung is slightly
smaller than the right – this is due to the presence of the
heart.
Each lung consists of:
 Apex – The blunt superior end of the lung. It projects
upwards, above the level of the 1st rib and into
the floor of the neck.
Base – The inferior surface of the lung, which sits on the
diaphragm.
Lobes (two or three) – These are separated by fissures
within the lung.
Surfaces (three) – These correspond to the area of the
thorax that they face. They are named costal,
mediastinal and diaphragmatic.
Borders (three) – The edges of the lungs, named the
anterior, inferior and posterior borders.

Lobes
The right and left lungs do not have an identical lobular
structure. The right lung has three lobes; superior, middle
and inferior. The lobes are divided from each other by
two fissures:
Oblique fissure – Runs from the inferior border of the lung
in a superoposterior direction, until it meets the posterior
lung border.
Horizontal fissure– Runs horizontally from the sternum, at
the level of the 4th rib, to meet the oblique fissure.
The left lung contains superior and inferior lobes, which
- The aorta (/eɪˈɔːrtə/) is the main artery in the human
are separated by an similar oblique fissure.
body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart
and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits
into two smaller arteries (the common iliac arteries).
The aorta distributes oxygenated blood to all parts of
the body through the systemic circulation.

5. Heart
Chambers
The heart has four chambers, two upper atria, the
receiving chambers, and two lower ventricles, the
discharging chambers. The right atrium and the right
ventricle together are sometimes referred to as the right
heart and this sometimes includes the pulmonary artery.
Similarly, the left atrium and the left ventricle together are
sometimes referred to as the left heart. The ventricles are
separated by the anterior longitudinal sulcus and the
posterior interventricular sulcus.
The right atrium receives oxygen-poor blood from the
body and pumps it to the right ventricle.
The right ventricle pumps the oxygen-poor blood to the
lungs.
The left atrium receives oxygen-rich blood from the lungs
and pumps it to the left ventricle.
The left ventricle pumps the oxygen-rich blood to the
body.
6. Aorta
7. Ribs
- The rib cage is an arrangement of bones in the thorax
of all vertebrates except the lamprey. It is formed by
the vertebral column, ribs, and sternum and encloses
the heart and lungs. In humans, the rib cage, also
known as the thoracic cage, is a bony and
cartilaginous structure which surrounds the thoracic
cavity and supports the pectoral girdle (shoulder
girdle), forming a core portion of the human skeleton.
A typical human rib cage consists of 24 ribs, the
sternum (with xiphoid process), costal cartilages, and
the 12 thoracic vertebrae. Together with the skin and
associated fascia and muscles, the rib cage makes up
the thoracic wall and provides attachments for the
muscles of the neck, thorax, upper abdomen, and
back.
8. Intercostals
- The intercostal space (ICS) is the anatomic space
between two ribs (Lat. costa). Since there are 12 ribs
on each side, there are 11 intercostal spaces, each
numbered for the rib superior to it.
9. Diaphragm
- In human anatomy, the thoracic diaphragm, or simply
the diaphragm (Ancient Greek: διάφραγμα diáphragma
"partition"), is a sheet of internal skeletal muscle[2] that
extends across the bottom of the thoracic cavity. The
diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity containing
the heart and lungs, from the abdominal cavity and
performs an important function in respiration: as the
diaphragm contracts, the volume of the thoracic
cavity increases and air is drawn into the lungs.
 - The term "diaphragm" in anatomy can refer to other
flat structures such as the urogenital diaphragm or
pelvic diaphragm, but "the diaphragm" generally
refers to the thoracic diaphragm. In humans, the
diaphragm is slightly asymmetric -- its right half is higher
up (superior) to the left half, since the large liver rests
beneath the right half of the diaphragm.
- Other mammals have diaphragms, and other
vertebrates such as amphibians and reptiles have
diaphragm-like structures, but important details of the
anatomy vary, such as the position of lungs in the
abdominal cavity.
D. Abdomen
1. Umbilicus
- The navel (clinically known as the umbilicus,
colloquially known as the belly button, or tummy
button) is a scar on the abdomen at the attachment
site of the umbilical cord. All placental mammals have
a navel, and it is quite conspicuous in humans. Other
animals' navels tend to be smoother and flatter, often
nothing more than a thin line, and are often obscured
by fur.
- The umbilicus is used to visually separate the
abdomen into quadrants.
- The umbilicus typically lies at a vertical level
corresponding to the junction between the L3 and L4
vertebrae, with a normal variation among people
between the L3 and L5 vertebrae.
2. Liver (Lobes)
- The liver is a vital organ of vertebrates and some
other animals. In the human it is located in the right
upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity, it rests just
below the diaphragm, to the right of the stomach
and overlies the gallbladder.
- The liver has a wide range of functions, including
detoxification of various metabolites, protein synthesis,
and the production of biochemicals necessary for
digestion.
- The liver is a gland and plays a major role in
metabolism with numerous functions in the human
body, including regulation of glycogen storage,
decomposition of red blood cells, plasma protein
synthesis, hormone production, and detoxification. It is
an accessory digestive gland and produces bile, an
alkaline compound which aids in digestion via the
emulsification of lipids. The gallbladder, a small pouch
that sits just under the liver, stores bile produced by the
liver. The liver's highly specialized tissue consisting of
mostly hepatocytes regulates a wide variety of high-
volume biochemical reactions, including the synthesis
and breakdown of small and complex molecules,
many of which are necessary for normal vital
functions. Estimates regarding the organ's total
number of functions vary, but textbooks generally cite
it being around 500.
- The liver is a reddish brown wedge-shaped organ
with four lobes of unequal size and shape. A human
liver normally weighs 1.44–1.66 kg (3.2–3.7 lb). It is both
the heaviest internal organ and the largest gland in
the human body.
- Gross anatomy traditionally divided the liver into two
portions– a right and a left lobe, as viewed from the
 front (diaphragmatic) surface; but the underside (the
visceral surface) shows it to be divided into four lobes
and includes the caudate and quadrate lobes.
- The falciform ligament, visible on the front of the liver,
divides the liver into a left and a much larger right
lobe.
3. Kidneys
- The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that serve
several essential regulatory roles in vertebrates. They
remove excess organic molecules from the blood,
and it is by this action that their best-known function is
performed: the removal of waste products of
metabolism. Kidneys are essential to the urinary system
and also serve homeostatic functions such as the
regulation of electrolytes, maintenance of acid–base
balance, and regulation of blood pressure (via
maintaining the salt and water balance). They serve
the body as a natural filter of the blood, and remove
water-soluble wastes which are diverted to the
bladder. In producing urine, the kidneys excrete
wastes such as urea and ammonium. They are also
responsible for the reabsorption of water, glucose,
and amino acids. The kidneys also produce hormones
including calcitriol and erythropoietin. An important
enzyme renin is also produced in the kidneys which
acts in negative feedback.
- Located at the rear of the abdominal cavity in the
retroperitoneal space, the kidneys receive blood from
the paired renal arteries, and drain into the paired
renal veins. Each kidney excretes urine into a ureter
which empties into the bladder.
- The asymmetry within the abdominal cavity, caused
by the position of the liver, typically results in the right
kidney being slightly lower and smaller than the left,
and being placed slightly more to the middle than
the left kidney.
- The left kidney is approximately at the vertebral level
T12 to L3, and the right is slightly lower.
- The right kidney sits just below the diaphragm and
posterior to the liver. The left sits below the diaphragm
and posterior to the spleen.
- The superior pole of the right kidney is adjacent to the
liver. For the left kidney, it's next to the spleen. Both,
therefore, move down upon inhalation.
4. Aorta (see above)
E. Extremities
An extremity is a limb or appendage of the body,
particularly the hands and feet.
1. Humerus
- Derived from the Latin word humerus, umerus
meaning upper arm, shoulder. It is a long bone in the
arm or forelimb that runs from the shoulder to the
elbow. It connects the scapula and the two bones of
the lower arm, the radius and ulna.
2. Radius
- Also known as the radial bone; it is one of the two
large bones of the forearm, the other being the ulna. It
extends from thelateral side of the elbow to the thumb
side of the wrist and runs parallel to the ulna, which
exceeds it in length and size. It is a long bone, prism-
shaped and slightly curved longitudinally. The radius is
part of two joints: the elbow and the wrist. At the
elbow, it joins with the capitulum of the humerus, and
in separate region, the ulna at the radial notch. At the
wrist, the radius forms a joint with the ulna bone.
3. Ulna
- It is one of the two long bones in the forearm (the
other is the radius). It is on the side opposite the
thumb, extends from the elbow to the wrist, and runs
parallel to the radius, which it exceeds in length and
size. Inanatomical position, when the arms are down
at the sides of the body and the palms of the hands
face forward, the ulna is located at the side of the
forearm closest to the body (the medial side).
4. Cubital Fossa
- Also known as the elbow pit; it is a triangular hollow
area that lies in front of the elbow joint (Figure 1). It is
bounded: superiorly by an imaginary line connecting
the medial and lateral epicondyles. medially by the
pronator teres muscle. laterally by the brachioradialis
muscle
5. Olecranon
- From the Greek olene meaning elbow and kranon
meaning head. It is a large, thick, curved bony
eminence of the forearm that projects behind the
elbow. It is opposite to the cubital fossa. It situated at
the upper (proximal) end of the ulna, one of the two
 bones in the forearm. When the hand faces forward
(supination) the olecranon faces towards the back
(posteriorly).
II. Positional Terms
2. Anterior Median Line
- The anterior median line is a sagittal line on the
anterior of the head and torso running at midline.
- It is the line drawn vertically from the center of the
nipples. It divides the body from left and right.

A. Body Planes 3. Posterior Median Line

- The line of intersection of the midsagittal plane with
the posterior surface of the body.
- It is the line drawn vertically on the back of the body
which divides the body from left and right.

4. Mid-Clavicular Line
- Clavicle – Collar bone
- An imaginary vertical division on the anterior surface
of the body, passing through the midpoint of the
clavicle.
- It is the line that is drawn vertically from the middle of
the collar bone.

5. Mid-Scapular Line
- Scapula – Shoulder blade
- Is a vertical line passing through the inferior angle of
the scapula.
- It is the line that is drawn vertically from the middle of
the shoulder blade.

1. Coronal
- A coronal plane (also known as the frontal plane) is
any vertical plane that divides the body into ventral
and dorsal (belly and back) sections.
- It is one of the three main planes of the body used to
describe the location of body parts in relation to each
other.

2. Sagittal
- A sagittal plane is an anatomical plane which divides
the body into right and left halves.
- The term sagittal is derived from the Latin word
Sagitta, meaning "arrow". An image of an arrow
piercing a body and passing from front (anterior) to
back (posterior) on a parabolic trajectory would be
one way to demonstrate the derivation of the term.
Another explanation would be the notching of the
sagittal suture posteriorly by the lambdoidal suture —
similar to feathers on an arrow.

3. Transverse
- The transverse plane (also called the horizontal plane,
axial plane, or transaxial plane) is an imaginary plane
that divides the body into superior and inferior parts. It
is perpendicular to the coronal and sagittal planes.

B. Reference Lines

1. Anterior
- Anterior refers to what is in front (from Latin ante, 6. Posterior Axillary Line
meaning "before") and posterior, what is to the back - The posterior axillary line is a coronal line on the
of the subject (from Latin post, meaning "after") posterior torso marked by the posterior axillary fold.

7. Middle Axillary Line
- The midaxillary line is a coronal line on the torso
between the anterior and posterior axillary lines.
- It is a landmark used in thoracentesis, and the V6
electrode of the 10 electrode ECG.
C. Directional Terms
1. Anterior and Posterior
- Anterior refers to what is in front (from Latin ante,
meaning "before") and posterior, what is to the back
of the subject (from Latin post, meaning "after").
- For example, in a dog the nose is anterior to the eyes
and the tail is considered the most posterior part; in
many fish the gill openings are posterior to the eyes,
but anterior to the tail.
2. Ventral and Dorsal
- These two terms refer to front/belly (ventral) and back
(dorsal) of an organism.
- The dorsal (from Latin dorsum, meaning "back")
surface of an organism refers to the back.
- The ventral (from Latin venter, meaning "belly") surface
refers to the front, or lower side, of an organism.
- For example, in a fish. the pectoral fins are dorsal to
the anal fin, but ventral to the dorsal fin.
3. Rostral and Caudal
- Specific terms exist to describe how close or far
something is to the head or tail of an animals. To
describe how close to the head of an animal
something is, three distinct terms are used:
o Rostral (from Latin rostrum, meaning "beak, nose"):
situated toward the oral or nasal region, or in the
case of the brain, toward the tip of the frontal
lobe.
o Cranial (from Greek κρανίον (kranion), meaning
"skull") or cephalic (from Greek κεφάλι (kephalē),
meaning "head"
- To describe how close something is to the end of an
organism, the term caudal is used (from Latin cauda,
meaning "tail"). In the horse, for example, the eyes are
caudal to the nose and rostral to the back of the
head.
- These terms are generally preferred in veterinary
medicine and not used as often in human medicine.
In humans, "cranial" and "cephalic" are used to refer
to the skull, with "cranial" being used more commonly.
The term "rostral" is rarely used in human anatomy,
apart from embryology, and refers more to the front of
the face than the superior aspect of the organism.
Similarly, the term "caudal" is only occasionally used in
human anatomy. This is because the brain is situated
at the superior part of the head whereas the nose is
situated in the anterior part.
4. Medial and Lateral
- Lateral (from Latin lateralis, meaning "to the side")
refers to the sides of an animal, as in "left lateral" and
"right lateral". The term medial (from Latin medius,
meaning "middle") is used to refer to structures close to
the centre of an organism, called the "median
plane". [2] For example, in a fish the gills are medial to
the operculum, but lateral to the heart.
- Derived terms include:
o Contralateral (from Latin contra, meaning
"against"): on the side opposite to another
structure. For example, the left arm is contralateral
to the right arm, or the right leg.
o Ipsilateral (from Latin ipse, meaning "same"): on the
same side as another structure. For example, the
left arm is ipsilateral to the left leg.
5. Proximal and Distal
- The terms proximal (from Latin proximus, meaning
"nearest") and distal (from Latin distare, meaning "to
stand away from") are used to describe parts of a
feature that are close to or distant from the main mass
of the body Thus the upper arm in humans is proximal
and the hand is distal.
- These terms are particularly useful when
describing appendages such
as fins, tentacles, limbs or indeed any structure that
extends that can potentially move separately from
the main body. Although the direction indicated by
"proximal" and "distal" is always respectively towards or
away from the point of attachment, a given structure
can be either proximal or distal in relation to another
point of reference. Thus the elbow is distal to a wound
on the upper arm, but proximal to a wound on the
lower arm.
6. Superior and Inferior
- In anatomical terminology superior (from Latin,
meaning "above") is used to refer to what is above
something, and inferior (from Latin, meaning "below")
to what is below it. For example, in the anatomical
position the most superior part of the human body is
the head, and the most inferior is the feet. As a
second example, in humans the neck is superior to
the chest but inferior to the head.
7. Cephalad and Caudad
- Cephalad means a direction toward the head.
- Caudad is a direction toward the tail or distal end.
D. Other Positional Terms
1. Costal Margin
 - It is the lower edge of the chest (thorax) formed by
the bottom edge of the rib cage.
- Sometimes referred to as the costal arch, it is the
medial margin formed by the false ribs and one true
rib—specifically, from the seventh rib to the tenth rib.

2. Costal Angle
- The external surface of the body of a rib is convex,
smooth, and marked, a little in front of the tubercle, by
a prominent line, directed downward and
lateralward; this gives attachment to a tendon of the
Iliocostalis, and is called the costal angle.