Annotated Bibliography Module 3

#1 Baddeley, A.D. (1992). Working memory. Science, 255, 556-559.

Throughout this article Baddeley discusses a system of the brain that provides for temporary storage of
information needed for language comprehension, learning, and reasoning. This system is called working
memory, once referred as short-term memory. Research has found that individuals demonstrating a
high working memory are better capable of decoding misleading context displaying a more profound
understanding of the information. Working memory has been partitioned into the central executive and
slave systems.

The central executive is responsible for processing information from two or more slave systems. One of
these systems is the phonological loop, which is closely related to short-term memory. Here is where
individuals can achieve storage of speech-based information that can be stored longer than the 1-2
second capacity using repetition.

Working memory is found to correlate memory, attention, and perception. The functions of the
phonological loop are found to overlap that of the visuospatial sketchpad. Processes of the phonological
loop pertain to information that is spoken or hear while the visuospatial sketchpad processes
information that is seen. Leaving the Central Executive to control attention related to behavior and
actions.

#2 Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction (3rd ed.) (pp. 77-91). Boston, MA: Allyn
and Bacon.

Driscoll begins this section with a discussion of sensory memory. Sensory memory does have its
limitations, but according to research the limitations are based on time rather than visual. Research also
proved that auditory sensory perception has fewer limits than visual. Experiments were also referenced
to test the effect that attention has on sensory memory. Attention can be focused on one task or split
across multiple channels as the environment requires. Leading to selective attention, which references
a learner’s ability to assimilate some pieces of information while ignoring others. Selective attention is
influenced by three main factors including how much meaning the stimulation has on the individual, the
amount of commonality between two challenging tasks, and the overall ability of the individual.

Part of selective attention discusses that some tasks require more attention than others. Automaticity
describes this level of attention, this is when an activity or task has been learned repeatedly to the
extent that it no longer requires an elevated level of attention. In the event of this happening more
attention can be paid to other tasks while performing the automatic. Pattern recognition is a process
that allows stimuli to be processed referencing already stored memories.

As the information is processed in sensory memory it then must be further processed into working
memory. Working memory has limits on the amount of information that can be stored, however, this
can be circumvented by methods of chunking. The chunks of information can be stored as one slot
rather than each individual piece of information taking up a slot.
Lastly, encoding relates to a process needed to make stimuli more memorable and helping it remain in
memory longer. Organizing information, using mnemonics and imagery help to create a code that is
more likely to stay in working memory than being discarded.

#3 Engle, R. W. (2002). Working memory capacity as executive attention. Current directions in

psychological science, 11(1), 19-23.

In this article Engle discusses the role that attention plays in working memory. A delineation was
created between working memory and short-term memory by stating that one main task of the working
memory is to maintain speedy recovery of information in the presence of interference. While short
term memory focuses on grouping, chunking, and rehearsal. Proactive interference was discussed
showing the variance of performance between high and low spans of working memory capacity
individuals.

Using the antisaccade task to measure the relationship between attention and working memory
similarities were found amongst both high and low capacity individuals. Once the antisaccade tasks
were introduced a greater disparity was found between the two categories. These results do not
demonstrate a difference in storage capacity rather a difference in maintaining information and recalling
it in the presence of interference.

Using further attention tests, such as the Stroop Task and Dichotic-Listening Task, Engle was able to
confirm the role of interference on attention and working memory. Comparable results were found in
that recall was similar for both high and low capacity individuals when interference was not present, but
in the presence of interference lower capacity learners were less able to focus on the task at hand to
recall information that had been presented accurately.

#4 Kalyuga, S. (2010). Schema acquisition and sources of cognitive load. In J.L. Plass, R. Moreno, & R.
Brünken, Cognitive Load Theory (pp. 48-64). New York: Cambridge.

In this chapter Kalyuga describes Cognitive Load Theory and the principles that encompass it, they are:
direct initial instruction principle, expertise principle and small step-size of change principle. The direct
initial instruction principle ensures that learners with very little to no background knowledge of a topic
receive the suitable level of executive function.

Expertise principle states that learners who have background knowledge on a topic can be provided
further instruction to fill in missing information. Employing the expertise principle would include
activities like problem solving where students must apply information that has previously been stored in
long-term memory. Worked out examples could become less useful at this stage and should be
reserved for novice learners.

One of the overarching themes of this chapter related to the reduction of extraneous cognitive load to
enhance learning. This can be done by removing irrelevant information that does not directly focus on
the desired task.

Lastly, the small step-size principle refers to decreasing the interval between successive steps of a
learning project. The greater the distance between two subtopics leaves students searching looking for
a connection between the two sets of information. This searching pushes the cognitive channel beyond
its recommended level since students are not primarily focus only on the new information.
#5 Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: some limits on our capacity for
processing information. Psychological review, 63(2), 81.

Miller uses this article to describe the processing of information as it relates to cognitive capacity.
Dimension was assigned to the input, output, and transferred information called bits. Experiments were
conducted to quantify the capacity of memory as it pertains to absolute judgements of unidimensional
and multidimensional stimuli. Described here is the limit of the accuracy to which we correctly identify
a unidimensional stimulus variable, which is found to be seven categories. This is labeled as the span of
absolute judgement. Three methods are described that can increase the span of absolute judgement
including making relative rather than absolute judgements, increasing the number of dimensions stimuli
can differ, or arranging tasks so that multiple absolute judgements can be made in a row.

Both the span of absolute judgement and immediate memory have been found to have capacities of
seven producing a correlation to be made between absolute judgement and immediate memory. The
delineation between the two is shown that absolute judgement yields a capacity of 7 bits of information,
whereas, immediate memory’s yield is similar but of chunks of information. Making this process more
efficient by increasing the number of bits that are being processed is viewed as a possibility for
increasing how much information is transferred. This can be achieved by chunking the information.
Each of these chunks are not limited to a certain number of bits, merely a limited number of chunks.